Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400

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Automation in Construction

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/autcon

An exploratory model on the usability of a prototyping-process for

designing of Smart Building Envelopes
Do-Young Kim, Sung-Ah Kim
Sungkyunkwan University, Republic of Korea

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Smart Building Envelope (SBE) is an interactive system which is adaptive to environmental conditions by
Received 22 February 2016 transforming its shape and functions. The success of the SBE depends on elaborate interactions among the various
Received in revised form 26 December 2016 building components. The acutely challenging issue is to design the SBE not only to satisfy multidisciplinary re-
Accepted 15 March 2017
quirements but also to orchestrate the technical functions of components. The research objective is to propose an
Available online 28 March 2017
exploratory model on the usability of a prototyping process for SBE design. So the research is related to the con-
Keywords:
ceptualization of the prototyping process model based on complementary use of the Virtual Model (VM) and
Virtual Model (VM) Smart Physical Model (SPM). The conceptual prototyping process model is appropriate for consideration of the
Smart Physical Model (SPM) characteristics of the architectural design, the resources of the educational environment and the limitations of
Smart Building Envelope (SBE) the novice designer. Furthermore, the prototyping process model in this research will help in the formulation
Prototyping of guidelines for the educational process, which in turn will help not merely to make intricate engineering prod-
Sketch ucts but also to introduce observed results into the architectural design process.
2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in general building projects [16,18,20,31]. Technological advances in

A building system largely consists of 4 sub-systems including the
load-bearing structure, technical service (heating, ventilation, air-con-
ditioning), the spatial sequence (interior walls) and the building enve-
lope. The building envelope is inuenced by both interior and exterior
environments and is directly linked to the performances of the other
sub-systems [1]. The building envelope is required as an up-and-coming
architectural strategy that minimizes the effects of surrounding envi-
ronments and responds to emerging issues such as energy depletion
and climate change [5,25]. The building envelope, via the integration
of smart technologies, is becoming a nearly automated system for
responding to environmental alterations, whose function is balanced
with those of the other sub-systems.
In this context, the Smart Building Envelope (SBE) is dened as a sys-
tem for adaptation of shapes and components to environmental chang-
es and user behaviors. The SBE, also known as responsive facade or
intelligent facade, is an interactive building envelope that adapts to en-
vironmental conditions by transforming its shape and functions. It is a
kind of machine operating based on multiple interactions between
sub-components, the optimum motions or shapes of which are not
easy to explore by means of the conventional design process applied
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: doyoungkim@skku.edu (D.-Y. Kim), sakim@skku.edu (S.-A. Kim).
URL: (D.-Y. Kim), http://desinfo.skku.edu (S.-A. Kim).
computational intelligence have enhanced SBE performance [27]. The
SBE is typically adopted in facilities integrated with networks of sensor
and actuators to predict requirements between buildings and users
(Fig. 1). The SBE, compared with general building envelopes, is some-
times considered overkill due to its high-investment cost, but can be
rather benecial in its contribution to energy saving or the control of oc-
cupants' comfort, thus reducing life-cycle or social cost.
The tolerance of architectural design tends to be relatively high as
the margin of error in building design used to be accepted through
changing user activities and controlling system capabilities [13]. The
success of the SBE, however, depends on elaborate interactions among
the various building components. In designing the SBE, heterogeneous
technology such as robotics, smart materials, IoT (Internet of Things)
and architectural design needs to be incorporated so that design reli-
ability, geometric constraints, robustness of structure and safety of
movements are all actively considered and accounted for [15]. This is
why the SBE is a low-tolerance design. The acutely challenging issue is
to design the SBE not only to satisfy multidisciplinary requirements
but also to orchestrate the technical functions of components. Designing
an SBE is nding the optimum interactions among numerous building
components corresponding to the given design requirements. More
specically, it is the orchestration of the functions of building compo-
nents by consideration of their integrated engineering [12]. Therefore,
when applying smart building technologies for buildings, design errors
that would have counterproductive effects on overall building perfor-
mance need to be detected in the initial design phase.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2017.03.012
0926-5805/ 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
390 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
Fig. 1. Roles of VM and SPM in designing SBE.
Currently, smart technologies are generally introduced in the nal
phase of the contemporary architectural design process [29]. Smart fa-
cilities are not orchestrated based on the overall performance of build-
ings, but are adopted regardless of the spatial design. Indeed, focusing
only on the specic technological establishment quickly runs up against
the problem of obsolescence. For proper design, the SBE needs to iden-
tify whether or not the applied technology will have negative effects on
the surrounding environment and user behaviors from the early stage of
design. Prototyping is considered a reasonable method to deal with the
SBE design in this context.
Prototyping is the process of building a model that represents design
ideas (principles) for end-users and explores possible design errors. It
has been generally used in the manufacturing industry, for example air-
craft or automobile design. Contemporary prototyping is classied into
two methodologies: digital prototyping and physical prototyping. Digi-
tal prototyping utilizes a 3D product model based on Computer Aided
Design (CAD) techniques. It creates shapes, puts them together, and
tests overall performances, all without manufacturing physical models.
Physical prototyping, by contrast, manufactures and tests physical
mock-ups in the real world. Therefore, it is inuenced by material prop-
erties and deformation, and as such, it has to lter incorrect assump-
tions or improper values and then eliminate drawbacks via the
process of constructing an assembly and testing it for realistic perfor-
mance. Recently, a complementary digital-physical prototyping strate-
gy has become a mainstream method in manufacturing design. It
helps to achieve highly specic building-system performance goals by
fully taking advantage of each prototyping methodology (Z [34]). The
digital model, harnessed with parametric technologies and integrated
simulation tools, empowers the designer not only to investigate various
possibilities and evaluate performances, but also nd the optimum de-
signs among the parametric variations. However, the digital model can-
not offer full real-world support in terms of complex environmental
conditions and user sense, perception, cognition and behavior. On the
other hand, when using the physical model, designers can detect design
errors intuitively by responding to physical conditions. Therefore, if
physical computing devices are integrated into the physical model, the
Smart Physical Model, thus evolved, will prove useful for in-depth in-
vestigation of real-time operations. Despite its advantage of the physical
model, the greatest barrier to the utility of the physical model is the
great time and cost incurred in fabrication or assembly. Furthermore,
complementary digital and physical prototyping is required for de-
signers to be able to fully maximize the advantages of both the digital
and physical models: the digital model's reduction of repetitive
workows and rapid discovery of various alternatives in terms of target
performances; the physical model's elaborate design scheme and utili-
ties for resolution of problems not investigated in the digital model.
In particular, SBE design needs to be enhanced in consideration of
the processes of engineering product development. If the complemen-
tary prototyping methodology is applied in SBE design methodology, a
system not only can be created for explaining design strategy but also
can be elaborately improved in its composition and movement. It is fun-
damentally different from the nature of traditional architectural design
which has been rather prescriptive. The complementary digital-physical
model allows for three advantages in SBE design. First, using the digital
model, parametric variations are generated based on the equivalent de-
sign scheme and evaluated in relation to the target performance to facil-
itate discovery of the proper design for users (occupants or clients).
Second, using the digital model with digital fabrication tools, the system
can be developed quickly from the free-form shapes to the intricate de-
tails. Third, the interaction between the digital and physical models
using sensors, processors, and actuators means that movement and
shape become adaptive. An adaptive system makes possible real-time
response to the physical environment. In this paper, such real-time-re-
sponse-enabled digital and physical models are referred to as the Virtual
Model (VM) and the Smart Physical Model (SPM), respectively. Howev-
er, whereas previous studies have analyzed affordance (i.e., the
 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
allowance, or non-allowance of particular tasks) of the digital and phys-
ical models in the early prototyping phase of facade design [17], they fo-
cused mainly on energy-related performance measures such as
ventilation, heat-saving, and wind-resistance [7,21]. The affordance of
virtual and Smart Physical Models in the prototyping-process for de-
signing SBE is as yet unknown. Such a prototyping process based on
the complementary VM-SPM (VPP) should be enhanced for perfor-
mance evaluation in consideration of user behaviors and environmental
conditions in order that adequate actuations based on occupant com-
port and safety can be performed.
The VM ideally represents the 3D model based on the parametric
technique, simulation tools and Building Information Modeling (BIM).
It enables generation of various forms, performance evaluation and sys-
tem operation in a computer-generated visual environment. As for the
SPM, it ideally represents the viable structure based on the material,
mechanics, and other details. It enables fabrication of an empirical
model based on the digital fabrication tools, intuitive evaluation of
physical issues, and operation of the designed system in the real envi-
ronment. Use of the SPM, then, makes possible the identication of
symptoms. Above all, the prototyping process enables designers to
grasp the perspectives of users. However, in this paper, in order to re-
ect the practical conditions of architectural design and components
such as sensors and actuators, the VM and SPM domains need to be
reduced.
The VM, in this paper, is dened as a 3D digital model for represen-
tation of motion and for demonstration of real-time motion change
based on digital/analogue signals. The VM allows designers to conduct
a process of generation-simulation-regeneration: not only generation
of cognate alternatives based on the specic regulations, but also mod-
ication of shapes or compositions based on target performances. This
process allows designers to quickly nd different shapes demonstrating
design ideas. On the other hand, the SPM is dened as a small-scale and
simplied mock-up integrated with sensors and accessory devices such
as gears, motors, and micro-processors. While it causes unexpected
problems such as those related to component assembly and system op-
eration using physical computing devices, it enables intuitive identica-
tion of real errors. When modifying the operation in the SPM, digital
fabrication tools can accelerate design renement such as that which
entails replacement of sub-parts or subtle components. The SBE design-
er, interacting with the VPP environment, will eventually be able to gen-
erate (or fabricate), operate, and evaluate both virtual and physical
models, while both models reect the status of each other in synchronic
manner (Fig. 1).
2. Research purpose
The aim of the present study was two-fold: to explore, based on the-
oretical frameworks and empirical case studies, the usability of an opti-
mal VPP model for SBE design, and to apply the ndings to architectural
design pedagogy.
There are three signicant barriers to the introduction of Virtual and
Smart Physical Prototyping (VPP) to architectural design. (1) First, the
architectural design process generally entails the application of the rea-
soning approach to spatial congurations. It motivates designers to
imagine adequate spatial elements and volumes based on design inten-
tions. By contrast, the engineering approach depends on reasoning
based on predetermined categories of products, assemblies, and
manufacturing processes [14,33]. Two approaches are fundamentally
different, yet need to be facilitated through the VPP process. (2) The sec-
ond signicant barrier to the introduction of VPP to architectural design
is that, the fabrication of full-scale SPMs requires highly trained experts
and engineering support in addition to expensive production cost. The
mock-up in the architectural design process is mainly a scaled model
or wireframe of design layouts. It is utilized to work out robust design
by adding color, component size, physical proportions, and mechanism
[26]. By contrast, the SPM is iteratively re-fabricated to ensure the
391
robust operation as well as the desired performance. (3) Third, for archi-
tectural design, information from different technologies is required, all
of which has to be translated to reect the designer's needs. Indeed,
the success of SBE depends on the work of many experts in heteroge-
neous disciplines, each of which are dependent on the work of other
elds. Also, because SBE design problems tend to be more complex
than those of the conventional envelope, analysis and tasks in SBE de-
sign have become more decentralized. This situation calls for the sophis-
tication of collaboration framework considering the versioning issues of
evolving both models.
Additionally, there are secondary barriers to the introduction of VPP
to architectural education, such as insufciency of resources and inex-
perience of designers. (1) Generally, the design process involves making
more accurate prototypes and nding a satisfactory design, which calls
for a number of design iterations involving testing, analysis, and rene-
ment of a product so as to identify design problems. So, the process of
developing high-delity designs from conceptual models is excessively
time-consuming which cannot be well accommodated within an archi-
tectural design studio class. (2) The SBE is implemented by new theoret-
ical expertise based on multidisciplinary collaboration. Such
collaboration is necessary not merely to assignment of tasks, but also
to interaction among specialists for dealing with unpredicted errors.
Multidisciplinary collaboration in SBE design requires qualied tutors
who are able to understand heterogeneous elds and introduce techni-
cal sources according to design intentions. In fact, implementation of the
SBE is overly dependent on intensive tutoring. (3) Improvement of SBE
delity is facilitated by integration of the latest hardware and software.
The elements ask the practical activities to recognize the functions of
devices and to apply the devices in design.
Therefore, for support of SBE implementation, a VPP Process Model
is required for due consideration of the special characteristics of the ar-
chitectural design process and architectural education. Besides, to adapt
the VPP Prototyping Model to the educational environment, a new type
of course needs to be established. This prototyping process model al-
lows designers to cultivate key capabilities for multidisciplinary collab-
oration, engineering design, design renement, and communication. In
this way, the model helps designers to grasp recent technology trends.
Ultimately, the research objective is to propose a VPP-Process Model
that enables and facilitates the reasoning of architectural designers but
also responds to shortages of design resources and the immaturity of
novice designers.
It is assumed that when the VPP-process model is embraced within
the educational environment, its impact on the architectural design pro-
cess of SBE design will be considerable. The process model should serve
designers as follows. (1) The VM is used for delivering the concept of
performance-oriented design: To nd the optimum mechanism, cong-
uration and details, it represents the design intentions of users, systems
and behaviors via changes to the dimensions, roles, and properties of
components. (2) The SPM, operating in real-time, is used to identify
symptoms: it observes the physical situation as inuenced by the size,
properties and movements of components. Indeed, the physical situa-
tion motivates designers to heighten the precision of the system so as
to compensate for the difculty of accessing engineering expertise for
contemporary-architecture-design classes.
To validate the usability of the VM and SPM for SBE design, an ex-
ploratory digital design course is set by considering the educational en-
vironment. The exploratory process model using complementary VM-
SPM needs to involve the process of understanding the denition of
the SBE and to practice with the physical computing tools. Learning
the kinematic movements of living things, traditional architecture, and
origami helps to grasp the dynamism that is the fundamental underly-
ing concept of the SBE. And nding devices based on physical comput-
ing and editing scripts is a process that enables manufacture by the
mechanical operation best optimized to the design intention. The digital
design course using the VM and SPM helps designers to grasp how the
overall shapes and movements of sub-parts inuence system
392 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
performance and to experience how design quality can be improved
using programming skill and the details of sub-elements. However, it
is insufcient to use only the VM and SPM to improve the process
model in architectural design. There remain traditional tools that are
still used in contemporary architectural design. Such tools can be com-
plementary to the use of the VM and SPM.
To achieve the aims of this research, the prototyping process model
is explored in 8 steps. (A) The complementary prototyping method in
engineering design, manufacture and (B) the role-change of the VM
and PM are investigated in architectural design. (C) The role and struc-
ture of VM and SPM are dened by consideration of (A) and (B). (D) The
VPP model is hypothesized to support SBE design focusing on the
versioning nature of two models. (E) The digital design course is
planned based on the hypothetical VPP and the pedagogical assump-
tions. (F) The design activities predicted based on the VPP are observed
in the process of designing the kinetic faade system. (G) The deduction
and induction processes in architectural design are investigated with re-
spect to how they are changed in the VPP. (H) The VPP is modied to
improve its usability based on (F), (G) (Fig. 2). The VPP-process model
proposed in this research entails the complementary use of the expand-
ed digital and physical model: the evaluation conducted in the VM leads
to reconstruction of the SPM; the errors perceived in the SPM lead to
reshaping of the VM.
3. Theoretical frameworks of VPP model for designing SBE
3.1. Role of models in designing SBE
Models traditionally have been used to externalize abstract design
ideas or to analyze and evaluate rened design solutions. Digital models,
Fig. 2. Research procedure.
in particular, are used to demonstrate the logic, process, and intended
results of the design in the form of digital information and media. The
role of the digital model is to represent mental images transforming in-
cessantly in the designer's mind or imagined buildings to be realized
later (Fig. 3-R). With the advances in design tools such as parametric
modeling, simulation and integrated information model, digital models
have evolved into essential tools for expanding the horizons of design
languages [911]. Also, the digital model enables generation of experi-
mental and complex geometries thanks to the generative nature of
parametric design models [23]. The digital model, in this case, is used
to generate the design idea or the building (Fig. 3-G). Lately, the digital
model has facilitated full sensory experiences from the design artifacts
of cyber space through to the full development of edgling technologies
such as the IoT and physical computing [22]. The sensory experience
helps virtualize buildings equal to imaginary thinking or viable products
to perform design intentions properly. This level of digital modeling
virtualizes imaginary thoughts and the smart space (Fig. 3-V).
The role of the digital model has been changed by reecting the
changing paradigms of building types. The initial digital model plays
the role of representing design ideas such as building shapes in 2- or
3-dimensional ways. The digital model was developed to generate com-
plicated building shapes by representing optional shapes and simulat-
ing the overall performances of those shapes. So far, such as the
notion of smart space, the digital model becomes amicable based on
the interactions among components [22]. The SBE is an adaptive system
that responds to interior/exterior environmental conditions and occu-
pant behaviors. The VM, which is the digital model at the level of
Virtualize, enables implementation of the adaptive system by utilizing
and managing the interactions among occupants, environmental chang-
es, and components. The physical model, just like the digital model (Fig.
3), has been used for Represent, Generate, and Virtualize. The physi-
cal model meanwhile, at the level of Represent, enables conceptualiza-
tion of new structure systems using various components. And,
piggybacking on the advance of digital fabrication tools, the physical
model, at the level of Generate, enables the rapid manufacture of com-
plicated geometries and arbitrary shapes. Above all, the role of the phys-
ical model is becoming difcult to distinguish from those of the digital
model, such as physical-model-based animation and real-time opera-
tion of physical components, which is viable based on the network
among sensors and actuators. The interactive physical model is an ex-
pansion of the previous physical model, and can be called the Smart
Physical Model (SPM).
At the level of Represent, digital models such as 3D modeling and
2D drawings have been extensively used in the form-making process.
This involves iterative creation and modication of operations that re-
quire the manual craft of the designer as a computer operator. At the
level of Generate, due to the development of computation design
tools such as generative parametric design based on scripts, Building In-
formation Modeling (BIM), simulation, and digital fabrication, the digi-
tal model also better supports regeneration of numerous offspring
alternatives in helping to nd the optimum forms [4,23]. The integration
between parametric techniques and integrated modeling methods en-
ables consolidation of large amounts of building information. Thereby,
it makes possible the rapid generation of alternatives in both cost- and
time-efcient ways. Advanced computer simulation allows for calcula-
tion of overall building performances. The digital fabrication tool allows
for producing various geometric shapes, and even 3D micro-scale
shapes, faster [3,24,28]. As those tools support the iterative process of
generation-evaluation, the digital model changes from form-making
to form-nding as designers take advantage of design solutions selected
from among a myriad of possible alternatives. At the level of Virtualize,
the digital model helps implement innite changing of forms beyond
the contemporary state of form and operation of design. The digital
model's interaction with the physical model enables it to be changed ac-
cording to sensor data on environmental conditions and user behaviors,
thus helping to demonstrate the level of satisfactory performance for
 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400 393

Fig. 3. Evolution of digital model.

end-users in real-time. This interaction between the digital model and
the physical model involves various aspects pertaining to the use of all
of the technologies previously mentioned. Current BIM and multidi-
mensional realistic technologies such as virtual haptic and tangible
space initiative have come to include this interaction. For example,
BIM and the interactive augmented model are expanded based on var-
ious sources such as terrestrial and airborne Lidar as well as other
types of sensors. Finally, the digital model aids a prototyping process
using the complementary digital and physical models by integrating
3D printing technologies and the Internet of Things. This integration re-
quires cumulative functions of the digital model, such as Represent,
Generate, and Virtualize. So, the digital model supports validation of
prototypes by changing multiple ranges of operations and various
types of shapes. SBE, itself, can be implemented using the digital
model at the Virtualize level, but can be fully validated when the
prototyping process supports other roles of the digital model such as
form-making and form-nding (Fig. 4).
The SBE has been called responsive, ecological, an interactive faade,
and other things [12,18,19,30,31]. The early model of the SBE was a me-
chanical system changed by exterior forces (Fig. 5-). By integrating
the passive movement (Fig. 5-) with sensors, actuators and micropro-
cessors, its movement could be changed in response to the specic
values of the external environmental conditions (Fig. 5-, Kinetic Sys-
tem). Additionally, the discovery of smart materials and microbes has

Fig. 4. Roles of digital model and physical model.

394 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
Fig. 5. History of the SBE.
enabled the design of an eco-friendly building envelope (Fig. 5-,
Smart Material System). In contrast to Fig. 5-, a digital media
interacting with users and environmental conditions also has been de-
veloped. The media facade is not merely a communication medium,
but catalyzes the breaking down of the boundary between subject
and object (Fig. 5-). Furthermore, to predict requirement changes
beyond responding to the changes of environmental conditions in
real-time, not only the technological development of material, struc-
ture, construction method and geometric shapes, but also advanced
programming technologies are applied for implementation of the SBE
(Fig. 5-).
The prototyping process of the SBE involves the concurrent evalua-
tion of quantitative and qualitative performance. The potentiality of
the SBE is linked to the performance of shapes and movements. The
VM needs to involve the parametric relationship among components
and the mechanism of operation, and the SPM needs to involve the
structural relationships and the material properties of parts.
3.2. Prototyping in manufacture engineering design
Prototyping is a method of design development in manufacture-de-
sign elds such as aircraft and automobiles. Contemporary prototyping
is based on the complementary use of the VM and SPM. For example,
prototyping using the VM is conducted in automobile design to arrange
seats and assemble components in ways such that the system yields op-
timum performance. Prototyping using the VM also enables operation
of accelerators, brakes, handles and doors for functional testing and vir-
tual certication. However, the VM tends not to immaculately describe
physical conditions of passenger reactions perfectly, and so it is not suit-
able for conrmation of bodily injury resulting from actual collisions
and physical shock.
The smart physical mock-up can be used to nd parts not investigat-
ed in the VM. An example of a smart physical mock-up is the physical
dummy employed in crash tests. The physical dummy is a medium
that records exceptional situations using numerous sensors communi-
cating with robot cameras and computers. The records of such physical
dummies have a signicant inuence on the entire design process in-
cluding aspects such as the high-performance and intricate VM.
Manufacturing designers utilize virtual and smart physical mock-ups
in tandem so that they can achieve improvements not only in fuel ef-
ciency, stability, steering, noise reduction and vibration but also, ulti-
mately, in the overall performance of the automobile system.
However, the prototyping process using complementary VM and
SPM is difcult to apply in the same way to SBE design. There are several
reasons for this. First and most fundamentally, architectural design is
based on an approach that differs from that of manufacturing design.
Whereas manufacturing engineers are educated to x specic problems
by utilizing chosen techniques or subordinate components, architectur-
al designers are trained to rst formulate a plan that provides insight
into design constraints and only thereafter to determine specic design
elements. For example, in architectural design, the schematic plan is the
unique method for catalyzing an overall grasp of spatial design and rea-
soning. To support those functions, VPP needs to consider the thinking
and reasoning that are applied in architectural design education. Origi-
nally for example, architectural designers used the scaled model to eval-
uate design performance, similarly to designers in engineering elds
[26]. The SBE, not merely an abstract sum of required functions, is an ar-
chitectural object projecting the aesthetic intentions of the architect. A
continuous dialog between overall performance and artistic intentions
will be a key factor in design process, which illustrates the importance
of traditional design media such as scale model or sketch. Designers
may still more rely on these media for the re-imagination of design al-
ternatives while dealing with the operation-wise issues of the SBE.
Also, the collaboration that has been discussed in reference to contem-
porary architectural design is relevant only to the types of information
sharing and communication that are common in construction-related
elds such as environmental engineering. But SBE design is based on ex-
tended collaboration involving heterogeneous elds such as physical
computing and robotics. Therefore, the VPP for SBE design needs to con-
sider conventional design tools, the scaled model, and multidisciplinary
collaboration.
In the case of the educational environment of architectural design,
there are the following limitations with respect to resources and the
necessary characteristics of designers. (1) In the process of SBE design,
more time is required than would be expected. The process of creating
a high-delity SBE for a feasible system entails a preliminary survey to
nd the appropriate components as well as signicant trial and error.
(2) Additionally and relatedly, it is difcult to ensure that students are
supported by tutors who offer a balance in terms of knowledge of robot-
ics and physical computing as well as multidisciplinary collaboration in
SBE design. Certainly, SBE is a subject that has not been conducted in the
conventional design studio. Thus, the learning process for sensing, actu-
ating, and algorithms is another essential prerequisite of operating a de-
sign studio for SBE implementation that students would be able to
conduct without undue difculty. (3) SBE also requires the equipment
and software necessary to make the system feasible. High-performance
software is generally very expensive. Also, for applicability in variable
elds, it is required that software offer designers a very high level of
 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
interoperability. The above-noted limitations within the educational
environment of architectural design serve to underscore the fact that ar-
chitectural reasoning, the usability of traditional media, and multidisci-
plinary design are required of the VPP model for support of SBE design.
Moreover, application of the VPP in the educational environment, in the
same way as it is already applied in the manufacturing industry, pre-
sents special difculties. Therefore, in order to utilize the VPP in SBE de-
sign, it is required that the VM and SPM paradigms be considered.
3.3. Conceptualization of VPP model for SBE design
The iterative process including the generating and evaluating of al-
ternatives phases is performed to develop prototypes. This process gen-
erates design alternatives in response to design intentions based on the
setting of criteria such as target performances and design assumptions.
To nd more proper alternatives, the alternatives generated need to be
evaluated based on quantitative analysis tools and qualitative criteria.
Competing alternatives can yield either an optimum alternative or a hy-
brid solution. However, if the alternatives fail to perform the intended
actions, solutions are required to be made feasible through changing
the target performance and improving the design assumption.
For SBE implementation, the process of developing prototypes incor-
porates fault detection compensations using schematic models involv-
ing imaginary congurations and phase-changes of movements.
During the development of schematic models, digital tools will help to
nd more feasible solutions that are not inspired only by thinking: by
means of digital tools, the VM is used to gather and evaluate informa-
tion, and the SPM is used to operate congurations in real-time. Con-
cepts such as Version and Versioning in the software design elds
help to manage hypothetical situations in the digital design process.
For example, when nding unexpected results, it is necessary to per-
form explicit analyses of design risks associated with various types of al-
ternatives. This entails distinguishing which factors are wrong under
different conditions.
Version comprehends the structured information including seman-
tic properties such as aspects of movements and principles of congura-
tions, as well as syntactic information that is used for software
management. When the version is applied to SBE design, the initial ver-
sions correspond to schematic models formulated according to the prin-
ciples of the conguration and the aspects of the movement ().
Because abiding by the same congurations and movements, paramet-
ric variations are cognate versions derived from changing the dimen-
sions of components, replacing parts, changing extents of motions,
and adding details. The principles and congurations with which para-
metric variations are mutually equipped are called Schema. In other
words, making parametric variations is the process of rening a proto-
type preserving a solitary schema (). If there is no way to achieve
the target performances using contemporary versions, up-to-date ver-
sions of new schema are created (). Modication of schema is neces-
sitated by unanticipated situations such as unsatisfactory performances
of the entire process. So, options based on new assumptions or interpre-
tation methods are required to be set in new versions. Problems inves-
tigated in the process of developing versions might arise from
incomplete identication of original problems. Furthermore, this devel-
opment process is inherently a non-linear process, which means that
the designer may explore different prototypes and sometimes revisit
previous ones through the creation and evaluation of current prototype
() (Fig. 6).
The process model using VPP is performance-based prototyping in-
volving the iterations of design practices such as representation-evalu-
ation. Fig. 7 illustrates the structure of this model which extends the
concept of versioning as described with Fig. 6. The conceptual model
() is a kind of abstract version that can set additional attributes to
make a correct version. The virtual prototypes () become rened
from the conceptual models by controlling the dimensional or motional
constraints (-(C)) according to the corresponding geometric
395
constraints: dimensional constraints involving the distance, length,
angle, and radius of objects (-(A)); motional constraints involving
the scope or the axis of the rotation and the linear movement (-
(B)); geometric constraints involving the relationships among operat-
ing components or parts. Compared with virtual prototypes, smart
physical prototypes () are restricted by natural phenomena related
to the physical properties of matter (-(A)). SPM prototypes are
crafted and operated to implement parametric design in the physical
world and to x parametric design's constraint problems using various
physical feedbacks: feedback involving the changing of the mechanism
of operation (-(B)), replacement of parts to improve bearing power
and intensity (-(C)), and adding effective details for improvement
(-(D)). The VM prototype enables not only access to digital represen-
tation of a facility including 3D geometric models and specic informa-
tion on building elements, but also analysis of overall performances
using simulations such as energy comfort simulation, daylighting, and
clash detection (). The SPM prototype, meanwhile, enables not only
the building of models using complex assembly logics and the operation
of physical components, but also the nding of realistic solutions using
analogue simulations (). Undertaking those simulations can help re-
ect various requirements accurately in the embryo versions of the
VM and SPM (): For consideration of the shapes and performances
of the VM, the SPM is changed in its entire assembly and types of mo-
tions; for consideration of the operative behaviors of the SPM, the VM
is changed in its specic component dimensions and radii. While the
prototype is implicated in the development of versions, it is evaluated
whether the conceptual model is well-reected in the VM- and SPM
prototypes (). Prototypes are built followed by integrated selection
involving not only objective testing but also subjective evaluations for
employment of better performances (). If prototypes can be improved
using akin versions, different versions () based on new ideas () are
necessary (Fig. 7).
4. Course set-up
Even though the literature on the adoption and use of the
prototyping technique is quite wide, few studies have been found that
have applied architectural reasoning to the prototyping process. This re-
search is related to the application of the reasoning inherent in architec-
ture to the prototyping process. So, the present research objective was
to explore the usability of a prototyping process model in SBE design.
This prototyping process model is used in the education environment.
An experimental class was designed so that the course structure reects
the VPP model within an education environment. And, basic software
specications and equipment-operation tutorials were provided in
order to help students recognize role of the various technical compo-
nents necessary for SBE implementation and to select and apply the
proper technologies.
A course is set up in a digital design class that introduces the role
changes of the digital model in architectural design. The class is limited
to architecture students in their 3rd to 5th year. And students who take
the class are 32. The course enables students to explore design alterna-
tives while trying to conduct a prototyping process for implementation
of kinetic faade systems. The kinetic faade systems, similarly to the
concept of the SBE, are required to be controlled for intricate changes
of size, operation, and detail. This digital design course is not merely
for constructing the systems of a kinetic faade, but also for exploring
the objective reasons for proposing optimum alternatives using para-
metric design, simulation tools, and details.
As shown in Fig. 7, the course is divided into six levels with the
following contents: inspiration for the design of the SBE (: Level
1); specication of the shapes/compositions in the VM and the as-
semblies/real-time operation in the SPM (: Level 2); generation
of cognate versions (,: Level 3); renement based on perfor-
mance estimations using digital and analogue simulations
(,,,,: Level 4); evaluation for overall performance (, :
396 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400

Fig. 6. Versioning of prototypes.

Level 5); creation of new prototypes based on evaluation results
(,: Level 6). However, design of the kinetic facade is challenging
for the novice designer. A process therefore is required to allow nov-
ice designers to understand the kinetic faade and tools such as the
VM and the SPM. Methods are addressed to help conduct the design
of the kinetic faade system based on the multiple levels of SBE de-
sign (Fig. 8).
Level 1 Ideations using case, analogy, and tool, as the means of un-
derstanding systems and nd solutions easily and quickly: case in-
volves previous examples such as contemporary kinetic facades,
traditional facades and natural examples (); analogy is for strate-
gic decisions such as visual and verbal reasoning (); tool supports
the implementation of the SBE such as by simulation, ICT devices,
etc. (). Ideation serves the schematic argument based on the
principles of the kinetic faade system and strategies employing
multidisciplinary knowledge.
Level 2 Representation of digital and physical modeling, as the way
to visualize the structure and motion-changes of the kinetic faade
system ().
Level 3 Generation of versions, as the way to produce cognate ver-
sions based on the same shape, mechanism and performance schemes.
By translating constraints such as dimensions, positions and
movements into numerical values, the initial version leads to the pro-
duction of cognate versions of the digital and physical models ().
Level 3 Renement of prototypes, by multiple iterations to make
optimum versions based on performance evaluations (using simula-
tion tools) and realistic operations (using the networks between the
sensors and actuators). In this procedure, the extra-precise itera-
tions entail operation of devices and modication of scripts. These

Fig. 7. Hypothetical VPP model.

 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
Fig. 8. Course set-up based on the VPP model.
enhance the solutions in response to problems such as data processing
problems, memory shortages, energy consumption problems, and me-
chanical problems (noises, vibrations, and conicts). To provide moti-
vation for the improvement of the quality of real-time operation
systems, training courses in basic programming skill are offered. Addi-
tionally, sensors, motors, Arduino boards and accessories are offered in
a package ().
Level 4 Empirical assessment & Summarization: Empirical assess-
ment is the way to learn the capabilities of product performance. By
comparing evaluation results with target performances, performance
measures are redened. Summarization of assessment information in-
dicates how to improve accuracy. Summarization skills are stimulated
using the engineering eld's expression methods such as the diagram-
ming of organizational relationships, circuits, and owcharts (): or-
ganization relationships are the relationships among major
structured components; circuits express the relationships among em-
bedded devices such as sensors and motors; owcharts help to explain
the logic of data processing.
Level 5 - New prototype: This is the way to propose new solutions via
situations such as the introduction of new variables into prototype de-
signs. To achieve the target performance using new prototypes, proto-
types are explained with drawings that include system architecture,
details, and data-ow ().
5. Results
The digital design course supported 32 students' implementation of
a kinetic faade system during the 16 weeks from Sept. 1st to Dec. 16th,
2015. The project outcomes were evaluated by four procients who par-
ticipated in the class as a tutor. Key points of the evaluation include the
following: whether (1) design intentions were sufciently explained
based on the study of precedents; (2) various design alternatives were
explored; (3) design exploration and renement were conducted con-
sidering the performance; (4) details were fully examined and devel-
oped to ensure the successful mechanical operation; and (5) the nal
design was fully completed.
The complementary use of the VM, SPM, and sketch helped students
examine design in multidisciplinary elds, which is difcult to experi-
ence in a contemporary architectural design studio. The VM enabled
manipulation of the models easily as well as assessment of the perfor-
mances of the intended shapes and movements in the iterative genera-
tion-simulation-regeneration design process. The VM supports the
generation of cognate alternatives by controlling geometry: for exam-
ple, changing the curvature of curve or dimensional values such as
width, height and depth (A-(a)), or changing the vector of a surface
397
(A-(b)). And, using simulation tools, the VM also supports the evalua-
tion of the performance in responding to environmental conditions,
which enables comparison of cognate alternatives (B). The virtual
mock-up, in turn, was developed to the level of the entity, element,
component, system, physical component, simulation design, and auto-
mation system. In this research, the VM was implemented using soft-
ware including SketchUp, Autodesk 3DS Max, and Rhinoceros
Grasshopper (Table 1).
The SPM enables one to think as an engineering expert: whereas the
design idea is translated into the engineering product using detailed
components and assemblies, the SPM helps to identify physical symp-
toms and nd optimum mechanisms and details based on multidisci-
plinary knowledge. It helps detect environmental stimuli (X-(a)),
diagnose realistic problems involving electronic (supply) shortage, ma-
terial properties, interference between components, and operation er-
rors (X-(b)). It is also used to identify the behavior of new details or to
apply contemporary engineering resources to the current design ver-
sion in order to facilitate the movement of components (Y). The smart
physical mock-ups were developed, in turn, to the level of the assembly
system (), mechanical system (), real-time operation system (),
and detailed system (). In particular, the mock-ups at the level of ,
were specialized as the optimum shapes and structures by consider-
ing the types, standards and performances of devices () such as sen-
sors and actuators (Table 2).
The VPP process model is required to support such architectural de-
sign processes as those involving rhetorical deduction and induction, as
addressed in the research objective. In this part, an assumption is
established: The sketch is useful for obtaining ideas in the brainstorm-
ing stage, mixing up scattered solutions in the mid-process pivot, or
communicating quickly with other persons. Building Information
Modeling (BIM) is becoming important for the construction industry
in general. However, over-reliance on CAD and the BIM does not help
to deliver completed work. Understanding how components go togeth-
er is very time-consuming. The sketch therefore has been used to in-
spire ideas and to explain concepts to stakeholders, which helps to
solve complicated design problems when using CAD and 3D modeling
[32]. The sketch supports architectural reasoning, which helps to ensure
that the architectural process is properly incorporated with the VPP pro-
cess model. This is essential, as the process model contains activities in-
cluding representing design ideas as the VM or the SPM, implementing
the interaction between the VM and the SPM, evaluating overall perfor-
mances, design renement, and contriving new concepts or versions to
achieve the target performance. If the versions of the VM or the SPM are
compared with the sketches, the role of sketches in the VPP process
model can be investigated.
398 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400

Table 1
Role of Virtual Model.

Characteristics of Virtual Model Functions Example Level of use Software

Parametric variations Parametric forms SketchUp

(A) (a)

Rhinoceros

Parametric motion-states Autodesk 3DS Max

(b)

SketchUp

, , Autodesk 3DS Max

Simulation Visualization of simulation data , SketchUp

(B)

, , , Rhinoceros Grasshopper

: entity, : element, : component, : system, : physical component, : simulation design, : automation system.

Table 2
Role of Smart Physical Model.

Characteristics of Smart Physical Models Functions Example Level of use Specications for sensors

Sensing and actuating Detect environmental stimuli Servo motor, microphone amplier
(X) (a) (Sound)

, Servo motor, raindrop sensor

(Water)

Diagnose realistic problems

(b)

, Servo motor

, DC motor, Joystick
(X Axis, Y Axis)

Detail design
(Y)

, , Servo motor, Cds cell

(Light)

: assembly system, : mechanical system (without connections to electronic devices), : real-time operation, : detailed system, : specialized shapes and structures (the types,
standards and performances of devices).
 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
Students might be novice designers who lack sufcient knowledge
for implementation of the kinetic faade system and encounter difcul-
ty in developing ideas using the VM and SPM. The novice designer tends
to heavily rely on the analysis of ideas using accessible features or
sources. Informal design tools, rather, can aid the novice designer's per-
ception of the effectiveness of design and help to enable him to make di-
agnoses based on technical knowledge. One example is a tool that does
not inuence VM or SPM operating behavior but helps to complete
those intermediate versions. Thus, traditional tools such as the sketch
were noted in this research. The sketch can be operated in various
ways by hand, and it can be used to investigate students' design activi-
ties that were not imagined while setting the VPP model and the course.
Studies of sketches found that they are useful in helping to describe
the essential shapes or logics in conceptual design, the synchronization
necessary to bridge the gap between the VM and SPM for adaptation to
current problems, and the gathering functions to establish design
criteria for design evaluation. First, the sketch enabled translation of
an abstract idea to the structures or assembly of components (). In
the prototyping process using the VM, the sketch illustrated the model-
ing, and thus enabled transformation of ideas into numbers related to
the fundamental principle of the shape. The sketch also illustrated
predened dimensions and ordering schemes, and thus enabled formu-
lation of design constraints based on designer intentions (). Mean-
while, in the prototyping process using the SPM, the sketch
represented the physical model including the general physical mecha-
nism and possible conformation of components. In this way, it enabled
testing of the physical movements and details (). Then, the sketch
helped students to better understand the qualitative reasoning involv-
ing generation-evaluation based on performance-based design, and
thus enabled diversication and evolution of functions in the versions
of the VM (). Additionally, the sketch helped to manage large contex-
tual knowledge for treating symptoms and making diagnoses based on
environmental conditions (e.g.: temperature, humidity), physical con-
ditions (e.g.: friction, gravity, interference), and material properties
(e.g.: tension, intensity) in the version of the SPM. Thereby, it enabled
implantation of manufactured goods and integration of subsequent de-
tail editing () (Fig. 9).
The post-class student survey reveals that the feedback process be-
tween team members and tutors were most critical in the design pro-
cess. As they didn't have enough knowledge about the SBE, students
mostly relied on the interaction with tutors for gaining the concept rath-
er than from previous studio experiences. The operation and test of the
SBE using VM were certainly helpful in developing the design. Students
Fig. 9. Revised VPP prototyping model integrating the role of sketch.
399
appreciated the virtue of performance-oriented design as they could
deal with performance-wise issues in detail before the nal stage of de-
sign. On the other hand, most students could not enjoy the full control of
both virtual and physical models. Sketching proved to be a powerful
medium to complement such limitations. Students utilized sketching
for sharing design concepts with other members at rst. Then, it was
still most important tool to develop details of the prototypes before
moving to other VM or SPM of next steps.
6. Conclusion
The research objective was to propose an exploratory study on the
utility and effectiveness in a word, the usability of a prototyping
process model for SBE design. This approach needs to be rened
through the challenge that is the application of the digital model's archi-
tectural-design-paradigm change to CAD education. The approach is re-
lated to the conceptualization of the prototyping process model based
on complementary use of the VM and SPM. The conceptual prototyping
process model is appropriate for consideration of the characteristics of
the architectural design, the resources of the educational environment
and the limitations of the novice designer. This process model needs
to be conceived as a support for the design activities of students in
SBE implementation. The model, as based on the parametric technique,
simulation, and detail designs, was introduced in a digital design course.
While setting up the digital design course, the sketch was considered as
an important source for the analysis of design activities, and in fact is
still ever useful in the age of BIM. So, based on observation of the digital
design course, the conceptualized process model was modied to sup-
port the integrated solution via multidisciplinary knowledge.
Using the VM, students were able to control the parametric shapes
and visualize the intended real-time operation involving the motion-
change in response to environmental conditions. (1) The parametric
technique enables students to generate cognate alternatives by chang-
ing the dimensions of parts, the relationships of geometric shapes, and
the movements of mechanisms. (2) The simulation tool enables stu-
dents to assess physical impacts and calculate overall system perfor-
mance. On the other hand, using the SPM, students were able to apply
engineering resources such as contemporary devices and an operation
algorithm to nd the optimum system. (3) The feedback based on the
network among sensors and actuators aided identication of the real-
time physical movement and mechanism. (4) The actuator enabled in-
vestigation of physical symptoms for control of the sequential move-
ment of components. (5) Using a laser cutter and 3D printer, the SPM
400 D.-Y. Kim, S.-A. Kim / Automation in Construction 81 (2017) 389400
could be fabricated and rened according to the intended shapes and
performance. In this process, the sketch was adapted to support the
case study, parametric design, scripting, and performance evaluation.
Further, it was adapted not only to inspire the conceptual shapes and
mechanism and improve the synchronization between the VM and
SPM, but also for the purposes of precise recording of information and
establishment of the design criteria.
The present research investigated the complementariness of the VM
and SPM as well as the effects of traditional tools such as sketch. Sketch
was used to record the target performance of the parametric system and
to replace design ideas with parametric elements. Also, it helped to
stimulate inspiration in detail design and communication with col-
leagues and others. Those effects coincided with the following: reason-
ing, designers' internal and external processes of communication [6,32],
efcient iterations in the phases of goal-establishment and early design
synthesis [2], and effective overviews of holistic constraints [8]. There-
fore, it can be said that sketch facilitates the process of implementing
spatial design to the VM and SPM, complementary use of the VM and
SPM, evaluation of overall performance, and the expression of new con-
cepts or versions. In the future, based on this research, the VPP process
model will be used to investigate, by comparison of sketches and ver-
sions of the VM and SPM, the role of sketch in VM and SPM
complementariness.
In digital design course, the complementary use of VM and SPM en-
hances the intended form and nds the optimum engineering system
for SBE implementation. However, the positive effects of their comple-
mentary use can be blunted by practical realities such as time consump-
tion and individual students' capacities for learning the use of design
tools. Development of 3D printers and laser-cutters for improved preci-
sion and speed would increase the cost-effectiveness of prototype man-
ufacture and, as a consequence, intensify detail design. Furthermore, the
prototyping process model in this research will help in the formulation
of guidelines for the educational process, which in turn will help not
merely to make intricate engineering products but also to introduce ob-
served results into the architectural design process.
Acknowledgements
This paper was supported by 63 Research Fund, Sungkyunkwan Uni-
versity, 2014.
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