Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1
Facultad de Agronoma, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
2
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires,
Ciudad Autnoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
ABSTRACT
Increasing urbanization and industrialization have resulted in a
dramatic increase in the volume of wastes generated worldwide. The
treatment of wastewater results in large amounts of municipal treated
sewage sludge, or biosolids. Sludge has traditionally been disposed
through ocean-dumping, landfilling, or incineration. But due to
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, these disposal methods
are being phased out. With increasing populations worldwide, biosolids
production is likely to continue to increase in a near future. The safe
disposal of biosolids is a major environmental challenge. Land
application of biosolids is largely considered the best option of disposal
because it offers the possibility of recycling plant nutrients, provides
*
torri@agro.uba.ar.
How to cite this book Chapter: Torri S, Cabrera M. 2017. Environmental impact of biosolids
land application. In: Organic Waste: Management Strategies, Environmental Impact and
Emerging Regulations, Editor: M Collins, Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788,
ISBN: 978-1-53610-936-8, 185-208, 226 pp
2
INTRODUCTION
Increasing urbanization and industrialization have resulted in a dramatic
increase in the volume of wastes generated worldwide. Sewage sludge results
from the accumulation of solids from chemical coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation during wastewater treatment. The term sludge is nowadays used
to refer to untreated primary and secondary organic solids. In the last decades,
the production of sewage sludge has worldwide increased. Past disposal
practices commonly included land filling or ocean dumping, but due to
increasingly stringent environmental regulations, these disposal methods are
being phased out. On the other hand, people are concerned about
environmental protection more than ever and relative legislation and
regulation are becoming more critical. Incineration is a feasible means of
reducing sewage sludges volume and converting this waste in a practically
inert, odorless and sterile ash. Technologies have been developed to make use
of the resulting ash, by replacing part of the raw material in brick
manufacturing (Hara, Mino 2008; Liew et al., 2004), cement production
(Tomita et al., 2006) and glazed tiles (Lin et al., 2005), among others.
However, sludge contains organic carbon together with macro and
micronutrients, and the use of sludge in the manufacture of construction
materials limits the potential recycling of these elements.
The term biosolids was officially recognized in 1991 by the Water
Environment Federation (WEF), and refers to the organic solids that have
The Environmental Impact of Biosolids' Land Application 3
Nitrogen
For regulatory and practical reasons, biosolids loading rates have been
typically determined by estimating the amount of plant available N released by
biosolids. Low levels of biosolids-borne N may lead to economic loss through
yield reduction, whereas a high N level may increases the risk of nitrate
leaching into groundwater.
Nitrogen supplied by biosolids is mainly present as organic forms, often
quoted between 50 - 80% (Sommers, 1977). However, these organic forms are
not immediately available to plants. The conversion of organic nitrogen into
plant available forms (ammonium NH4+ or nitrate ions NO3) is mediated by
heterotrophic soil microorganisms (Pierzynski et al., 2005). Nitrogen
mineralization is the process by which organic N is first released as NH4+ ions,
which may be directly absorbed by plant roots or oxidised by aerobic,
nitrifying bacteria to nitrite ions (NO2). Nitrite ultimately oxidises to nitrate
ions (NO3), which are easily absorbed by plant roots (Pierzynski et al., 2005).
The proportion of organic N in biosolids that becomes plant available is
referred to as the mineralizable fraction. For agronomic and environmental
purposes, it is often assumed that, after a single application, 20% of biosolids
organic-N is mineralized in the first year, 10% in the second, and 5% in the
third year (USEPA, 1995). However, the available fraction of organic N in
biosolids may be influenced by soil properties, and environmental conditions.
On the other hand, many authors reported that total N content and the release
of mineralized N in biosolids amended soil may be significantly influenced by
the type of sewage sludge treatment process, dewatering and/or storage (Hseu,
Huang 2005; Rouch et al., 2011; Al-Dhumri et al., 2013; Rigby et al., 2016).
Nitrogen may be lost from biosolids-amended soil by leaching, runoff or
gaseous emissions. Leaching of N mainly occurs as NO3, because most soils
have a low capacity to retain anions. On the contrary, NH4+ is less mobile
because it is adsorbed onto negatively charged soil components. Leaching of
NO3 to groundwater is a major cause of groundwater contamination
(Addiscott, 2005). This process is a function of the combination of many soil
and environmental factors, including N application rates and timing, soil
properties and mineralogy, rainfall, irrigation, depth of the aquifer and plants.
In general, coarse-textured soils have lower water holding capacities than fine-
textured soils, so the vertical movement of nitrates is more likely in sandy soils
(Corra et al., 2006). The presence of plants with a deep root system reduces N
leaching due to N uptake and evapotranspiration (Rigby et al., 2016). On the
The Environmental Impact of Biosolids' Land Application 7
other hand, soluble and particulate forms of N may be lost by wind or water
erosion or run-off. These looses may occur when the rate of precipitation
exceeds soil infiltration capacity (Pierzynski et al., 2005). This is also
dependent upon factors such as topography, soil physical and chemical
properties and crop cover (Ojeda et al., 2006). Hence, local investigation of N
dynamics in biosolids-amended soils is a key factor to determine appropriate
application rates and best management practices for each region.
Phosphorus
Biosolids-borne P may be found in both soluble and insoluble organic and
inorganic P compounds (Tian et al., 2012). Inorganic P is the predominant
form of P in biosolids, representing 70 to 90% of total P (O'Connor et al.,
2004; He et al., 2010). As said above, in most legislation, annual application
rates of biosolids are determined by crop N requirements in order to prevent N
leaching to groundwater (Al-Dhumri et al., 2013; Corra et al., 2012).
However, the relatively low N/P ratio of biosolids has led to a significant over-
application of P at the N-based rate. As the amounts of P applied often exceed
crop removal, more than 95% of biosolids-borne P remains in soils (Corra,
2004).
Phosphorus availability in biosolids is strongly influenced by the
wastewater treatment process used (White et al., 2010; Torri et al., 2016).
Biosolids treatment with high Al and/or Fe doses results in biosolids having
low available P concentrations, with Fe and Al phosphates as dominant P
forms (Shober, Sims 2007). Taking into account that the solubility kinetics of
these phosphate minerals is extremely slow, it is unlikely that, once formed,
these minerals would readily release P into the soil solution (Strawn et al.,
2015). In fact, P in biosolids treated with Al and Fe was found to be less
soluble than P in untreated biosolids or commercial fertilizers (Kyle,
McClintock 1995). Addition of lime was reported to increase biosolids pH and
decrease the solubility of P by the formation of recalcitrant Ca-phosphate
minerals (Islas-Espinoza et al., 2014). Heat-dried biosolids were reported to
have the lowest P availability of all WWT processes, whereas biosolids
obtained by biological P removal exhibit both elevated total P and water-
extractable P (Penn, Sims, 2002; Brandt et al., 2004).
The avalability of biosolids-borne P exerts a major influence on the
potential for off-site P migration at land application sites. Past research has
shown that soils that are more saturated with P have less capacity to retain
added P and may thus increase the more labile forms of soil P, with the risk of
P loss in runoff or by leaching (Hooda et al., 2000; Pautler, Sims 2000). The
8
introduced into the soil, they may be subjected to a series of chemical and
biochemical processes, such as adsorption/desorption, precipitation/
dissolution, complexation/dissociation, and oxidation/reduction (Violante et
al., 2010). Not all the processes are equally important for each element. Soil
physical-chemical properties such as pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC),
organic matter content, mineralogy and the nature and amount of the trace
element are also likely to assume great importance in determining PTE
behavior in biosolids amended soils, especially at low biosolids application
rates (Shaheen et al., 2014; Urasa, Mwebi 2011). It has been postulated that, at
very high application rates, biosolids properties dominate PTE chemistry and
bioavailability in the short to medium term (Zufiaurre et al., 1998). With time,
it is thought that biosolids properties will have progressively less influence
over PTE behavior and that soil characteristics will ultimately control
speciation (Parkpain et al., 1998; Smith, 1996).
CONCLUSION
Land application of biosolids is a beneficial way to recycle organic matter,
improving the chemical, physical and biological properties of soils, resulting
in an increase in crop yields. Biosolids loading rates have been typically
determined by estimating the amount of plant available N released by
biosolids. Although the relatively low N/P ratio of biosolids has led to a
significant over-application of P at the N-based rate, P solubility and mobility
is governed by the wastewater treatment plants processes, and may not be of
major environmental concern. The presence of biosolids-borne potentially
toxic elements is the most critical long-term hazard when biosolids are land
applied. Although the availability of PTEs has been reported to decrease over
time, many studies indicate that a small portion of PTEs is dissolved in the soil
solution and may move to subsoil horizons. However, research suggests that
environmental risks are minimal under current biosolids regulations.
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Name: Silvana Irene Torri
She is also involved in the supervision of pre and post graduate students
research. She acts as the Lead Editor in two scientific Journals, and she acts as
a reviewer in 18 academic Journals.
Book Chapters:
Torri S, Cabrera M, Torres- Duggan. 2013. Plants response to high
soil Zn availability. Feasibility of biotechnological improvement. En:
Biotechnologica lTechniques of Stress in Plants, Editor: M. Miransari,
Stadium Press LLC USA, ISBN: 1-62699-031-X, 101-118.
Torri S. 2014. Sustainable agriculture in the Pampas region,
Argentina. En: Sustainability behind Sustainability, editor: A Zorpas.
Nova Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, NY 11788, ISBN 978-1-
63321-595-5 (ebook) 297-318. 408 p.
Torri S, Urricariet A.S, Lavado R. 2015. Micronutrientes. En:
Fertilidad de suelos y fertilizacin de cultivos. Garca F y Echeverra
H. Ediciones INTA, Balcarce, ISBN 978-987-521-565-8, 357-377.
908.
KD