Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

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Computers & Fluids

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / c o m p fl u i d

The prediction of silencer acoustical performances by 1D, 1D3D and quasi-3D

non-linear approaches
G. Montenegro , A. Onorati, A. Della Torre
Politecnico di Milano, Department of Energy, via Lambruschini 4, 20156 Milano, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The design of silencers for internal combustion (I.C.) engines is a key issue to attenuate or emphasize cer-
Received 20 July 2011 tain spectral components of tailpipe noise. The optimization of complex shape silencing systems is gen-
Received in revised form 8 September 2012 erally a time-consuming operation, which must be carried out by means of concurrent experimental
Accepted 12 October 2012
measurements and numerical simulations. This paper describes the development and application of dif-
Available online 5 November 2012
ferent non-linear models: a coupled 1DmultiD model and a coupled 1D-quasi-3D model, to predict the
silencer behavior in the time and frequency domains. Second order time and space discretization were
Keywords:
adopted in the 3D and quasi-3D approaches, whereas specic coupling strategies were developed to real-
Non linear acoustics
1D3D coupling
ize the interface between them and the 1D model. In particular, since the 3D relies on a collocated grid
Riemann solvers discretization, a Riemann solver based method was developed to realize the coupling with the 1D code,
Quasi-3D approach while a cell overlapping procedure was exploited to interface the 1D code with the quasi-3D method, in
1D modeling order to t with the pseudo-staggered grid arrangement. Both a white noise and a single impulse bound-
ary condition have been imposed upstream of the pipe system to excite the wave motion. The integrated
1DmultiD and the quasi-3D approaches were applied to predict the transmission loss of reactive and
dissipative mufers in which the pressure waves can be signicantly non-planar, to point out the inu-
ence of higher order modes on the acoustical performance. Reverse chambers with extended inlet and
outlet and perforates have been investigated, showing the potential of both the hybrid 1D3D code
and the quasi-3D code with respect to a simple, fully 1D model. A comparison between predicted results
of transmission loss and experimental measurements has pointed out the importance of correctly captur-
ing multi-dimensional wave effects at mid and high frequencies as well as the effects of high amplitude
perturbations and mean ow.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction codes, for the prediction of the acoustic/uid dynamic behavior

The control of both the level and quality of internal combustion
engine noise is a key aspect of the design process of a new vehicle
powertrain system, in order to satisfy the legislation limits and
provide a pleasant interior and exterior sound. In particular, the
gas dynamic noise is radiated from the engine intake and exhaust
duct systems due to the highly unsteady ows in the pipes, origi-
nated by the periodic cylinder gas exchange process. The attenua-
tion of gas dynamic noise relies on suitable reactive and dissipative
silencers with simple and complex geometries, designed and opti-
mized to damp or emphasize certain spectral components of the
engine noise, according to the result expected. Therefore, the de-
sign of complex silencing systems is a time-consuming operation,
which must be carried out by means of concurrent experimental
measurements and numerical simulations. The role of simulation
Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 02 2399 8639.
E-mail address: gianluca.montennegro@polimit.it (G. Montenegro).
of the mufing systems, is fundamental during the rst phase of
the investigation, to nd out the most promising congurations
to be adopted and successively optimized by measurements and
calculations. In general, 1D and 2D-3D simulation models
[14,4,44,37] with different level of complexity can be applied to
evaluate the attenuation features of simple and complex acoustic
lters for both the intake and the exhaust side, in the time and fre-
quency domain. On one hand, 1D linear/non-linear codes are now-
adays widely used to calculate the acoustic performances of
mufers [17,39]. Certainly 1D linear acoustic codes are mainly ap-
plied for this purpose [13,19,9] due to their simplicity, accuracy
and very short computational times. However, as the ow speed
becomes not negligible and the sound pressure level of the signal
reaches values of 160 dB, as it can happen inside a mufer for
internal combustion engines, the magnitude of the incident pres-
sure perturbation makes the linear approximation not valid any-
more [5,20]. Therefore, when the dynamics of the system is non
linear, time domain simulation tools become attractive. In the case
of perforated tube silencers, the uid dynamics of the holes exhibit

0045-7930/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compuid.2012.10.016
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223
non linear features when exposed to sound pressure levels typical
of internal combustion engines. Therefore, time-domain simula-
tion tools are preferably applied to better reproduce complex pul-
sating ows associated with mean velocity, since they directly
account for these features in the fundamental equations they are
based on [5,12]. For this reason, in the last decade 1D non-linear,
time domain models have become preferential tools for the simu-
lation of the high amplitude wave motion in the silencer ducts
with mean ow, in order to predict the acoustic response of the
system and the noise radiated when it is coupled to the engine
source itself. Many researchers have pointed out the successful
development and validation of advanced silencer modeling by a
time-domain, non-linear, one-dimensional approach, including
complex elements like perforates [31], ow reversals [43], sound
absorptive materials [16], with both engine or white noise/impulse
excitation [4,34]. On the other hand, linear and non-linear 1D ap-
proaches are not adequate to capture the non-planar wave motion
in complex geometry systems and the related higher order modes,
due to the intrinsic limitation of the plane wave assumption. A
simple or complex shape device (air-box or mufer), characterized
by a signicant multi-dimensional wave motion in a certain fre-
quency range, can be successfully simulated resorting to a multiD
linear/non-linear model. MultiD linear codes, based on the nite
element method (FEM) or boundary element method (BEM)
[44,45,24], are commonly used for acoustic simulations, whereas
there are still only few examples of computational uid dynamics
(CFD), time-domain non-linear codes applied to predict the acous-
tic performances (TL) of silencers [37,53]. One reason is certainly
related to the signicant computational effort, typically twothree
orders of magnitude greater for CFD models. However, the higher
computational cost of time-domain non-linear multiD codes is bal-
anced by the wider applicability of simulation and validity of the
results, ranging from the mufer Transmission Loss (TL), including
high amplitude wave effects, to acoustic and uid dynamic perfor-
mances of silencing systems under engine pressure pulsations. As
an alternative to the fully multiD CFD simulation, a non-linear qua-
si-3D approach, hereinafter referenced as 3Dcell for simplicity
sake, has been investigated recently [26], in order to develop an
intermediate tool between 1D and 3D time-domain non-linear
models, representing a good compromise in terms of computa-
tional effort and prediction accuracy of non-planar wave motion.
The 3Dcell method relies on a network of 0-D elements, such as
volumes, connected to the others by means of specic connecting
elements. Due to its 3D nature, this method is able to predict high-
er order modes, improving the accuracy at high frequencies, with
respect to conventional 1D plane wave approaches. To exploit
the advantages of both 1D (simplicity, low computational effort,
straightforward boundary conditions) and multiD or quasi-multiD
non-linear models in a convenient way, few examples of hybrid
1DmultiD uid dynamic models have been realized during the
last decade [37,7,8]. The integration of 1D and multi-D/3Dcell com-
putational domains can be pursued by different methods
[22,41,3,28,29], to carry out the uid dynamic/acoustic simulation
of the whole engine intake and exhaust duct systems, including the
silencers. In this case the 3D and the 3Dcell approach can be ap-
plied to model the elements in which the non-planar wave motion
is predominant, whereas the 1D approach is reserved to simulate
simple pipe systems. The integrated simulation tool can capture
both the non-linear effects dictated by the high amplitude wave
motion with signicant mean ow and the complex wave motion
in 3D devices, providing a detailed prediction of the attenuation
features of silencing systems and radiated tailpipe noise, when
the coupling with the engine source is considered. This hybrid
1D3D approach can be successful only if a satisfactory numerical
coupling strategy is implemented, to achieve a robust and accurate
method and guarantee the absence of numerical overshoots at the
209
interface between the 1D and the 3D/3Dcell computational
domains.
In this work the authors describe the development and applica-
tion of both a coupled 1D3D and a coupled 1D3Dcell time-do-
main, non-linear model, for the simulation of the acoustic
performances of I.C. engine silencers. With regard to the former
integrated model, the 1D research code GASDYN (developed in-
house by the authors) has been strictly coupled to the CFD code
OpenFOAM (open-source software) on the basis of an innovative
method, involving the solution of the Riemann problem at the
computational domain interface by means of the approximate
HLLC solver. This coupling approach is more general and robust
with respect to other typical coupling techniques [22,41,3], which
rely mainly on the exchange of uid dynamic variables by means of
classical boundary conditions. The same 1D code has been recently
enhanced with the implementation of a 3Dcell model which is cou-
pled to the LaxWendroff 1D numerical methods with an approach
based on the overlap of the boundary computational cells and on
the sharing of the uxes calculated in the 1D domain.
Both the hybrid 1D3D and 1D3Dcell codes have been adopted
to predict the transmission loss of different silencing systems, in
which the multiD wave motion has a clear effect on the acoustical
performance. The 1D approach has been exploited to impose 1D
boundary conditions both upstream of the system, to excite the
wave motion in the ducts by a white noise or single impulse, and
downstream of the silencer, to represent an anechoic outlet and
hence evaluate the transmission loss. Both boundaries have been
treated by a characteristic-based approach, introducing the Rie-
mann variables [52]. All the silencers have been modeled either
resorting to a 3D domain on unstructured grids by a set of custom-
ized CFD libraries (Lib-ICE) [25,40], specically developed into the
OpenFOAM code, or by a grid of 3Dcell elements, to reproduce the
3D geometry of the device. The hybrid model has been applied to
predict the Transmission Loss (TL) of reactive mufing systems in
which the three-dimensional waves can be signicant, such as
expansion chambers with ow reversals. Moreover, a detailed
investigation and validation of perforated duct by the 3D and
3Dcell non-linear approaches has been performed. A rst valida-
tion, carried out in conditions of null mean ow along with a small
amplitude perturbation, was further extended to the non-linear
eld. In particular, non linear effects due to the presence of mean
ow and high amplitude pressure perturbations have been ana-
lyzed. The calculated results have been compared with the corre-
sponding experimental measurements of transmission loss and
also with the calculated results of a fully 1D non-linear time-do-
main simulation, to point out the differences among the three
methods.
2. One-dimensional non-linear model
The 1D non-linear model adopted for the integrated 1DmultiD
simulations is a research code developed by the authors (GASDYN)
[10]. The conservation equations of mass, momentum and energy
are expressed in a strong conservative form, with source terms to
account for the friction and the heat transfer between the gas
and the walls:
@Wx; t @FW
BW CW 0; 1
@t @x
where
2 3 2 3
qF quF
6 7 6 7
Wx; t 4 quF 5; FW 4 qu2 pF 5; 2
qe0 F quh0 F
210 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

2 3 2 3
0 0 t
6 7 6 7
BW 4 p dF
dx 5
; CW 4 D2 qujujfw F 5: 3
n +1
0 qqF Wi
n +1
In the above conservation equations W is the vector of conserved
variables mass, momentum and energy while F(W) is the ux vec- n+ 1 n + 12
tor of the conserved variables. The source terms B(W) and C(W) ac- W _ 12 W
i + 12
n + 12 i
count respectively for the section variation along the duct axis (dFdx
, 2
where F is the ow section) and for the presence of friction (fw)
and heat ux between the gas and the walls (q). The system of equa-
tions (Eq. (1)) is closed by the perfect gas equation of state. Refer-
ring to the computational grid shown in Fig. 1, the integral form i_1 i_ 1
i i + 12 i +1 x
2
of the governing equation Eq. (1) can be expressed as [52]:
Z Z   Fig. 2. Two-step LaxWendroff computational procedure.
@W @FW
BW CW dx dt 0: 4
Dx Dt @t @x
LaxWendroff method achieves second order accuracy both in
On integration this equation gives: space and time, the numerical scheme introduces spurious oscilla-
Dt   tions in the solution, according to the Godunov theorem [48,49],
Wn1
i Wni Fi1  Fi1  Bni Cni Dt; 5 when sharp gradients are present in the solution eld. This problem
Dx 2 2

is usually faced by adopting ux-limiting techniques [9], which

where W represents the average of conserved variables on a compu- smooth the solution where numerical overshoots occur. The main
tational cell given by: drawback is the addition of rst order dissipation terms, which re-
Z xi1=2
1 duce the accuracy of the solution. However, when the amplitude of
Wi W dx; 6 the pressure perturbations remains small, as in the case of linear
Dx xi1=2
acoustic simulations, the computational procedure remains stable
and F is the average ux across the cell boundaries over an interval even without any ux-limiter, allowing to retain the second order
of time Dt: accuracy of the method. The 1D treatment of the boundary condi-
Z tn1
tions relies on a characteristics-based approach, exploiting the
1 mesh method of characteristics (MOCs) [2] only in the boundary
Fi1=2 F dt; 7
Dt tn cells of the pipes to evaluate the transmission and reection of
The numerical scheme adopted for the solution is the symmetric waves, in terms of incident and reected Riemann variables. This
second order two-step LaxWendroff method [52,49]. The compu- method provides a good basis to develop the typical boundary con-
tational procedure, whose time marching stencil is described in ditions required to model silencing duct systems, with a valuable
Fig. 2, consists of two steps. The rst step is based on the LaxFried- physical insight.
richs method, with space centered differences in the points (i  1/
2, n) and (i + 1/2, n): 3. Multi-dimensional non-linear model
n1=2 1  Dt  n 
Wi1=2 Wni Wni1 Fi  Fni1 8 A CFD model based on the OpenFOAM code [51] was developed
2 2 Dx
1  Dt  n  and adopted for the multi-dimensional simulation of silencers,
n1=2
Wi1=2 Wni1 Wni F  Fni 9 starting from the formulation of the non-linear set of Euler equa-
2 2Dx i1
tions to describe the wave motion in the system:
The second step is a mid-point Leapfrog calculation with the time
difference centered at point (i, n + 1/2): @q !
r  q U 0 11
@t
Dt  n1=2 n1=2
 !
Wn1
i Wni Fi1=2  Fi1=2 10 @q U ! !
Dx r  q U  U rp 12
@t
The values of the uxes Fn1=2
i1=2 in the second step are obtained @ qe0 ! !
n1=2
from the values of Wi1=2 at the end of the rst step. Since the r  qe0 U r  p U 13
@t
In particular, the Euler set of equations can be adopted for the pre-
diction of silencer transmission loss, since at high Reynolds num-
bers (typical of silencers along the intake and exhaust systems of
I.C. engines) the problem is dominated by convection, making vis-
cous phenomena negligible [21]. Moreover, the 3D solver does not
take into account the tracking of chemical species and approxi-
mates the thermal behavior of the gas with a constant heat capacity
perfect gas equation. In order to achieve a good resolution of the
wave motion inside the mufer, a second order discretization both
in space and time was adopted. In particular, linear face cell inter-
polation was used to determine the face center value of the con-
served variables for the calculation of the uxes while an implicit
CrankNicholson marching procedure was adopted for the time dis-
cretization. This set of numerical schemes applied to a suitably re-
ned calculation grid allows for an accurate resolution of the
silencer acoustic behavior up to 3000 Hz. Although the Euler
Fig. 1. Computational 1D grid for the solution of the conservation equations. approximation is fairly acceptable in the case of acoustic simulation
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223
with small amplitude pressure perturbations and null mean ow, to
account for the power loss due to the viscous dissipation of vortex
kinetic energy, the full set of NavierStokes equations has been con-
sidered as well. This is required to capture the effects of ow sepa-
ration occurring at the edges of the orices of perforated elements.
The momentum equation considered is therefore:
! and right side of the connector itself. The discretized form of the
@q U ! !
r  q U  U r  s;
@t
where s is the stress tensor of a Newtonian uid:
 
2 where DL is the characteristic length between the centroid of the
s  p lr  U I 2lD:
3 two neighboring cells and Un the projection of cell velocity along
4. 3Dcell non-linear model
The 3Dcell approach consists of reproducing a 3D geometry as a
network of 0D element, namely volumes, to which characteristic
length in space are assigned. As shown in Fig. 3, the 3Dcell is de-
ned by means of two fundamental elements: the cell and the con-
nector. The cell element is dened by its volume and by the list of
the connectors linked to it. The connector element stores informa-
tion about the connectivity between neighboring cells, and geo-
metrical parameter such as the distance from the adjacent cell
centers, the direction with respect to an absolute orientation sys-
tem and the ow area. The 3Dcell method is based on the formu-
lation of the conservation equations of mass, momentum and
energy for unsteady ows. The governing equations the 3Dcell is
based on are the same of the 3D model (Eqs. (11)(13)). Hence, also
in this case the assumption of inviscid ow can be still considered
as valid along with the adoption of the perfect gas equation of state
for the closure of the set of equations. The 3Dcell model is based on
a partially staggered grid approach, which means that intensive
properties such as pressure, temperature, density, internal energy
and other derived quantities are dened over the cell element,
while velocity and momentum are dened on the connectors
[18,6]. The continuity and energy conservation equations are
solved with respect to the cell element, taking into account the
net ux of the conserved variables through the connectors linked
to the cell. Their integration over the cell volume and in the time
will lead to the following discretized forms:
X
Nc
qVn1 qVn qUFc Dt; 16
c1
X
Nc
qe0 Vn1 qe0 Vn qUFh0 c ; Dt 17
c1
where the subscript c indicates the connector and Nc is the total
number of connectors attached to the cell. The term (qUF)c indicates
the net mass ow through the connector. According to the deni-
tion of quasi-staggered arrangement, to allow the construction of
the connector momentum equation, the velocity has been dened
also in the centroid of the cell element. The cell velocity is oriented
in space and consequently has three components, while the velocity
Fig. 3. Schematic of the 3Dcell element: cells and connectors.
211
Uc is oriented in a direction orthogonal to the connector face. Hence,
when the solution of the connector momentum is addressed, the
projection of the velocity along the connector normal direction is
considered, as shown in Fig. 3. The connector momentum balance
will take into account the momentum variation along the connector
direction and the resultant of the pressure forces acting on the left
momentum equation will be as follows:
14
Dt h  2    i
qUFn1
c qUFnc qU n p  qU 2n p F c ; 18
DL L R
15
the connector normal direction. Once the connector momentum
has been calculated, the cell momentum is determined according
to the net momentum ux entering the cell:
! 1X Nc
!
q U Vcell q U F c DLc : 19
2 c1
The numerical method rstly solves for the momentum equation,
determining the mass ow through the connectors. The updated va-
lue of (qU F)c is then used to calculate the uxes in the mass and
energy equations. The term h0 in the expression of energy ux is
evaluated resorting to an upwind approach, by assigning the enthal-
py of the left or right neighboring cell depending on the ow direc-
tion. Finally the mass and energy equations are solved. The whole
procedure accounts for only one equation for the momentum in-
stead of three, leading to a slight speed up if compared to CFD codes.
In particular, the momentum equation becomes a 1D problem arbi-
trarily oriented in the space. The main advantage of this procedure
is that the addition of source terms permits to mimic the presence
of certain components such as porous materials, perforated bafes
and many other parts, without resolving the details with the mesh.
This results in the possibility of adopting calculation grids charac-
terized by a high degree of uniformity and orthogonality, which,
coupled with the adoption of second order methods both in space
and time, leads to accurate results in the frequency range of interest
without the need of a very rened mesh.
5. 1D boundary conditions
A range of boundary conditions is required for the modeling of
silencing duct systems by a 1D approach, to take account of the dif-
ferent ow regions which may occur. In general, it is necessary to
model the upstream excitation source, the tailpipe open termina-
tion, abrupt cross-sectional area changes, junctions of pipes, ori-
ces, perforated ducts, axial side-branches, etc. The GASDYN
model includes suitable boundary conditions to correctly represent
all these elements, on the basis of the classic assumption of quasi-
steady ow, involving the steady conservation equations of mass,
momentum and energy, solved by the mesh-method of character-
istics, as described in previous works [33,52,2]. These boundary
conditions are applied extensively in the case of a fully 1D simula-
tion of the silencer; conversely, only the upstream excitation
source and the tailpipe end (open or anechoic termination) bound-
ary conditions are required to model the system in the case of an
integrated 1D3D or 1D3Dcell simulation, due to the structure
of the hybrid calculation. In particular, the use of 1D boundary con-
ditions (coupled to one-dimensional pipes) upstream and down-
stream of the 3D calculation domain allows a straightforward
treatment of non-reecting boundaries, which conversely could
be critical if modeled directly by a CFD approach. In fact, in this
case pressure transmissive boundary conditions may result not
completely anechoic, reecting small pressure waves whose mag-
nitude scales with the jump in pressure across the approaching
212 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

perturbation. Another important reason why the coupling between

the 1D and the CFD/3Dcell models has been developed is the pos-
sibility to carry out simulations of the I.C. engine coupled to its in-
take and exhaust duct systems and silencers. In this case the one-
dimensional modeling can be used to represent the whole engine
system, while the multiD modeling can be exploited to simulate
only the complex geometry devices.

5.1. White noise

The upstream excitation source has been represented by a

white noise pressure perturbation, covering the whole range of
frequencies of interest in the eld of I.C. engines. The alternative
of a pure tone harmonic perturbation [33], repeated in a given fre-
quency range to simulate the response of the system to each fre-
quency component, is certainly accurate but very time
consuming, therefore cannot be applied for complex 1D systems
and 1D3D simulations. On the other hand, a white noise ap-
proach allows to determine the Transmission Loss (TL) or the
Transfer Function (TF) of the system by a fast Fourier transform
(FFT) spectral analysis of the resulting standing wave motion up-
stream and downstream of the mufer, reached after a few oscilla-
tion periods of the perturbation, with a very short computer run-
time. This technique has proved to be advantageous for example
in the 1D simulation of perforates, which generally needs a very
large computational effort, due to the great number of short ducts
required to model the holes, the perforated pipe and the cavity
liner [34]. The white noise perturbation is characterized by a dis-
crete spectrum with constant amplitude components, over a given
frequency band. The numerical generation of a white noise peri-
odic pressure perturbation may be carried out as the sum of N
sinusoidal pressure oscillations with a xed amplitude Dp and fre-
quencies which are multiple of the fundamental f0, with a random
phase [35]:

X
N
pt p0 Dp sin2npf0 t un ; 20
n1

where p0 is a constant value representing the mean ambient pres-

sure upstream of the ow duct system. If the frequency band to
be examined is 202000 Hz, the fundamental frequency f is 20 Hz,
while the number N of sinusoids is 100. A generation of N random
numbers kn in the range 01, via a dedicated numerical routine, al-
lows to have a random phase /n = 2kn in each sinusoidal component
of the sum. This choice yields a periodic pressure signal p(t) with a
random character, which falls in the band of the prescribed pressure
amplitude and has a discrete spectrum with a 20 Hz step in the cho-
sen band. The pressure signal and the spectrum of the white noise
achieved are shown in Fig. 4a and b, respectively. This boundary
condition has been implemented in such a way to achieve an
anechoic inlet, avoiding the reections of pressure waves coming
from the mufer. Referring to the mesh method of characteristics
[52], which involves the non-dimensional Riemann variables kin
and kout, the boundary condition used at the inlet is given by the
following Eq. (4):
 c1
pt 2c
kout 2  1; 21
p0
kin 1; 22
where in Eq. (21) p(t) is a white noise periodic pressure perturba-
tion, given by Eq. (20), while Eq. (22) imposes the absence of pres-
sure waves coming back from the calculation domain to the inlet,
preventing the reection at the boundary. In this way the white
noise perturbation is introduced at the inlet only as an incident
wave in terms of kout, without reections.
Fig. 4. White noise.
5.2. Single impulse
With regard to the white noise approach, it is evident that at
least one complete oscillation period has to be simulated, to cover
the whole frequency range and get the corresponding TL. In the
case of 1D3D hybrid simulations, in which the multi-dimensional
domain is composed by a large number of cells, this time interval
can imply an excessively high computational effort. To speed up
the simulation, a single impulse pressure perturbation, character-
ized by a small duration in time and a rather at spectral content
(Fig. 5), has been implemented in the 1D code. In this way, the time
interval to be simulated can be signicantly reduced, achieving an
acceptable computational time. Moreover, in some experimental
measurements [4,50] a pressure impulse is used to generate the
wave motion in the duct system, hence the single impulse numer-
ical boundary conditions can be useful to exactly reproduce the
same conditions. In this case the peak amplitude can be signicant
(non-linear) and may resemble a pressure pulsation coming from
the engine source. Fig. 5 illustrates the single pressure impulse im-
posed and the corresponding spectral content in dB in the fre-
quency domain. The passage of such perturbation can induce
locally high gas velocity, with important non-linear effects which
may prevent the use of a frequency-domain linear model. To deter-
mine the power of the incident and transmitted waves, needed for
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223 213

the method of characteristics, by simple correlations involving

the Riemann variables. In particular, the boundary condition is
simply represented by Eq. (26) [4]:
kout 1; 26
so that kout, related to reected waves, is constant and equal to its
initial value, typical of ow at rest. This simple condition deter-
mines the absence of reected waves at the termination (anechoic),
like in the case of a virtual innite length of the duct.

6. 1D3D coupling approach

The integration of 1D and 3D uid dynamic simulation tools is

today a common procedure in the eld of internal combustion en-
gine simulations, as reported in several publications found in the
recent literature [41,37,3]. Among the different coupling strategies,
the most accurate and robust one is the so called strict coupling,
which allows to take into account the mutual effects between the
multi-dimensional and one-dimensional domains. In this case, at
each time step the two codes can pass the information back and
forth, so that one domain is affected by what happens in the other
one. Different procedures have been suggested in the past, on the
basis of computational cell overlapping [36] or exchange of uid
dynamic variables [46]. In every case a general requirement is to
place the 1D/3D interface in regions where the ow is nearly
one-dimensional, far from sharp corners or sudden changes of ow
direction, to guarantee stability and accuracy of the coupling meth-
od. In this work an advanced procedure has been devised and
implemented to overcome this constraint and consequently to lo-
cate the 1D3D interface even in regions close to highly 3D shapes,
allowing the treatment of non-uniform elds on the 3D side with-
out compromising the stability of the solution [30]. This approach
is based on the solution of multiple local Riemann problems, each
Fig. 5. Impulse. one centered on a face constituting the boundary patch which
interfaces the 1D domain with the 3D one. In particular, at the
beginning of each time step (as shown in Fig. 6), the average of
the calculation of the transmission loss, the pressure pulse is
the conserved variables in the centroids of the cells bordering
decomposed into two components, p+ and p, representing respec-
the interface is assigned to the n (last) node of the 1D domain,
tively the incident and the reected wave [38]:
while the conserved variables in the n  1 node of the 1D domain
(  c21c  !)c1
2c
are assigned to the left state of the local Riemann problems. On the
p 1 p c1 u other hand, the right state of the local Riemann problems is repre-
1 1 ; 23
p0 2 p0 2 a sented by the conserved variables in the centroid of each cell own-
ing face located in the boundary region between the two domains.
(  c21c  !)c1
2c In this way at all the cell faces constituting the 1D/multiD
p 1 p c1 u boundary a Riemann problem can be established, which is solved
1 1 : 24
p0 2 p0 2 a

Since the perturbation has a nite amplitude, the pressure pulse can
be reconstructed from its two components by the following
equation:
 c21c  c21c   c21c
p p p
 1: 25
p0 p0 p0

5.3. Anechoic termination

The calculation of the silencer Transmission Loss (TL) can be

performed resorting to an anechoic termination boundary condi-
tion at the exit and to the separation between incident and re-
ected pressure waves upstream of the silencer. Hence, the FFT
spectral analysis of the incident sound power upstream and of
the transmitted sound power downstream of the mufer, whose
difference in terms of sound power level spectra (in dB) gives the
TL, can be carried out. A non-reective/anechoic outlet boundary Fig. 6. Procedure adopted for the integration of the two 1D (GASDYN) and 3D
condition has been implemented in the 1D code, on the basis of (OpenFOAM) codes. The solution of the local Riemann problem is pointed out.
214 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

Fig. 7. Schematic of the coupling between 1D and 3Dcell domains in GASDYN.

Fig. 8. Schematic of the perforated connector element.

adopting the approximate HLLC Riemann solver. The theory of this

solver and its adaption to the treatment of boundary conditions is
fully described in [48]. This procedure has the advantage that no
eld, in particular the velocity, can be forced with non-compatible
values at the interface boundary. Moreover, it allows a correct
treatment of eventual non-uniform ow elds at the domain inter- Fig. 10. Layout of the reverse chambers with extended inlet and outlet: congu-
face for every ow condition, sub-sonic or supersonic [30]. ration A and B.

Fig. 9. Detail of the calculation grid around a perforate hole. The difference between the mesh and the real geometry is highlighted.
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223 215

7. 1D3Dcell coupling approach

The coupling between 1D and 3Dcell domains is realized on the

basis of the ux vector F, in Eq. (1), calculated by the 1D numerical
method between the last and the second last node at the 1D do-
main, as shown in Fig. 7. At each timestep the 1D method needs
to calculate the inter-cell ux vector F in order to update the state
vector W. The coupling procedure is explained in Fig. 7, which
points out the passage of information between the 1D and the
3Dcell domains. The coupling connector of 3Dcell domain, whose
characteristic length is required to be the same of the boundary
1D mesh, receives the uxes (the vector F) of the conserved vari-
able computed by the 1D numerical scheme. Conversely, the cell
owning the boundary connector sends the values of the conserved
variable to the state vector W of the 1D model. Therefore, the two
codes adopt independent time marching techniques within the
same calculation time step. The main advantage of this approach
is that at the interface the 1D and 3Dcell domains share not only
the state vector but also the uxes, since they are computed by
the same approach.

8. Modeling of perforates

Most of the silencers for I.C. engine applications make use of

perforated pipes to achieve a reactive/dissipative behavior and
meet the required attenuation feature. The satisfactory modeling
of these elements is fundamental in the eld of 1D and multiD
non-linear simulation. On one hand, one-dimensional uid
dynamic models have been enhanced to cope with perforated
pipes by different approaches during the last two-decades
[31,42,34,11,1], considering the treatment of the ow through
the holes. On the other hand, a CFD non-linear simulation of perfo-
rates is more challenging, essentially due to the very rened mesh
required to reconstruct in detail the perforations along the pipe,
with consequent large computational run times [47,23]. The 1D
model developed by the authors follows an approach based on
branches of several ducts to model the ow in every single hole
of the perforate. This method is described in detail in [34] and will
be reported here only briey. The perforated duct and the related
cavity liner may be represented resorting to the boundary condi-
tion for the junction of several pipes (constant pressure model or
pressure loss model [2] and to appropriate corrective lengths
[50,1]. Briey, the n holes of each group on the perforate, distributed
on a circle, may be represented by n very short ducts, with the
same hole diameter and a length related to the wall thickness and
to end effects. On the basis of hole group spacing, the subdivision
of the perforated liner into axial elements allows to join, on one
end, the n holes (short ducts) of each group to two adjacent
axial elements. On the other end, the holes are joined to the cavity
liner, which is characterized by an analogous subdivision into axial
elements. This approach allows to describe the axial plane wave
propagation in both the perforated pipe and the cavity, which is
essential to capture the actual acoustic behavior. Moreover, the
unsteady ow in the individual holes can be modeled, taking Fig. 11. Mesh generated for the 1D3D and 1D3Dcell simulation of conguration A.
account of:

 the effective acoustic length of each hole, by means of an appro-
priate corrective length to be added to the wall thickness, as
described in [1,50];
 the dissipative effect of the perforate, by means of an appropri-
ate friction coefcient for the short ducts rendering the orices;
 the effective ow area (porosity) of the holes, by a ow coef-
cient in the range 0.61 [50].
Finally, the junctions of several pipes, originated from the
connections among the holes and the axial elements of both the
perforate and cavity liner, may be treated as boundary conditions
by a constant pressure model [2], when the pressure wave ampli-
tude is limited and the mean ow is null, or more suitably by a
pressure loss model [2,52], when the amplitude of pressure waves
is signicant and/or a non-zero mean ow is established in the
silencer.
With regard to the 3Dcell approach, perforated elements have
been modeled by extending the properties of the connector ele-
ment. The perforated connector is characterized by the number
of holes nh, hole cross section Ah, hole length lh and by the total
216 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

60
Measured
50 1D

Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

60
Measured
50 1D-3D
Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

60
Measured
50 1D-3Dcell
Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 12. Transmission loss of mufer conguration A.

h    i
connector surface Ac (see Fig. 8). The approach developed for the qUAn1 qUAnh qcv ;L U 2cv ;L pcv ;L Ah  qcv ;R U 2cv ;R pcv ;R Ah
h
perforated elements solves the momentum equation for only one
single hole, in order to calculate its mass ow, and calculates the Dt
F 28
connector mass ux by knowing the number of holes nh after- LC;h
wards. As shown in Fig. 8, the momentum equation for one single
hole is solved over a control volume dened by the hole cross sec- where qcv, pcv, Ucv are respectively the density, the pressure and the
tion Ah and the length lC,h. This length is determined on the basis of normal velocity at the control volume boundaries. In particular qcv
end corrections suggested in the literature. They are a function of and pcv have been assumed equal to the same quantities in the
the hole length lh and hole diameter dh according to the following neighboring cell while the velocity Ucv has been interpolated be-
relation [50]: tween the connector and cell centers as follows:
LC;h Lh 0:8dh : 27  
1
LC;h U n;L DLL  12 LC;h U h
This correction is necessary to take into account the inowoutow U cv ;L 2 ; U cv ;R
DL L
phenomena and the fact that the ow eld is extended outside the 1
 
hole. The momentum equation (Eq. (18)) applied to the hole control LC;h U n;R DLR  12 LC;h U h
2 29
volume will become as follows: DL R
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223
The term F in the momentum conservation equation (Eq. (28)) ac-
counts for the gas-wall friction and is determined as follows [52]:
2 3Dcell approaches, four different mufer congurations have been
F qUAh jU h jfh 30
dh
where the friction factor fh is dened as [52]:
sw
fh : 31
1
2
qUh2
Finally, dealing with the CFD modeling of the perforate, there is
no need of resorting to particular modeling techniques, since
everything is accounted for at the mesh level. The hole distribution,
diameter and wall thickness are quantities that the user can dene
during the calculation grid setup. The solution of the conservation
equations will not require the denition of any other corrective
length or ow coefcient, the full set of NavierStokes will com-
pute the dissipative phenomena occurring in the ow eld [47].
The main limitation of calculation grids for perforated elements
is the cell size needed around the holes. As a matter of fact, the cell
size cannot be greater than the cell wall thickness in order to be
able to capture the presence of the edge representing the hole
height. This means an edge size of 12 mm, which in most cases
is not adequate to properly model a perforated element. As pointed
out in Fig. 9, to correctly represent a perforate porosity close to the
real one, a rened mesh is mandatory. This means that the mini-
mum edge depends on the hole diameter, and must be small en-
ough in order to not sensibly affect the perforate porosity. From
these considerations the 3Dcell approach appears to be a compro-
mise between the 1D model and the fully 3D approach. In particu-
lar, the global shape of the mufer can be captured in the same
way it is done with a traditional CFD tool, whereas the details
requiring severe mesh renement, or the adoption of an unstruc-
tured and nonorthogonal-mesh, can be modeled in the momentum
equation instead of adopting small mesh spacing. This means that
the mesh does not need to be adapted to any small detail of the
geometry. Therefore, it can be generated with high orthogonality
and uniformity and its size can be larger than the one adopted with
traditional CFD codes, leading to the adoption of a higher time step
and smaller number of computational cells. For instance, this con-
sideration applies to the resolution of internal bafes having con-
necting elements with a thickness of 12 mm. This kind of detail
is not captured in the 3Dcell model, removing a constrain in the
choice of the time step and reducing the number of computational
cells required.
Fig. 13. Conguration A, non-planar wave motion calculated by the 1D3D model.
217
9. Results
In order to validate and compare the integrated 1D3D and 1D
modeled. The results of the 1D3D and 1D3Dcell coupled simula-
tions have been compared to the measured transmission loss data
and to calculations carried out by means of the fully 1D approach.
The instantaneous pressure trends at inlet and outlet have been
decomposed by the FFT algorithm and the transmission loss calcu-
lated, evaluating the incident and transmitted acoustic power [32].
In particular, two expansion chambers with ow reversals have
been considered, in which the inlet and outlet pipes are extended
inside the mufer, as shown in Fig. 10. The extensions of inlet and
outlet pipes are meant to suppress the pass-bands of the expansion
chamber by means of resonance peaks typical of quarter wave res-
onators. In general, the expansion chamber with reverse ow is a
good test to point out the capability of the simulation technique
to capture the attenuation curve in the frequency domain, when
the wave motion is signicantly multi-dimensional. Congurations
A and B are characterized by different extension lengths, whereas
the main chamber dimensions are the same [29]. Fig. 11ac shows
the different domain discretizations of conguration A, created for
the three different levels of approximation: 1D, 3D and 3Dcell. The
two multidimensional approaches are based on the geometrical
reconstruction of the silencer shape, while 1D approximation is
usually tied to the skills of the user in generating equivalent 1D
schematic of complex shape silencers. Moreover, in order to cap-
ture the effect of non planar waves the 1D approximation makes
use of corrective lengths. For this reason in the fully 1D simulation
a corrective length has been adopted for the abrupt area changes
between the extended pipes and the main chamber. This end cor-
rection can be expressed as an increase of length proportional to
the ratio between the extension diameter and the chamber
diameter:
f 1
: 32
a 4L dcorr
An estimation of dcorr as a function of the extension/chamber
diameter ratio can be found in [50]. The Transmission Loss (TL)
has been calculated resorting to the white noise approach for the
1D and 1D3Dcell simulations, and to the single impulse approach
for the 1D3D simulation, in order to reduce the computational ef-
fort in this last case.
In Fig. 12 the comparison with experimental data generally
points out a satisfactory agreement for the fully 1D calculation
218 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

up to approximately 700 Hz, due to the good denition of the 1D
acoustically equivalent duct-systems and to the use of corrective
lengths. In particular, the extensions have been modeled by means
of quarter wave resonators whose lengths are equal to the pipe
extensions plus the corrective length [35]. Resonance peaks and
transparency frequencies are well captured with respect to the
measured TL in that frequency range. The rst attenuation peak
is caused by the quarter wave effect generated by the chamber
length minus the inlet extension and the second peak is the third
harmonics of this resonance frequency. The pass bands of the ser-
ies chamber are present at frequency multiple of the base one
(f0 = a/2L) and depend on the length of the chamber. The main
quarter wave effect can be captured by correctly modeling the col-
umn resonator length, which however counteracts a precise mod-
eling of the series chamber length, shifting the pass bands towards
slightly higher frequencies. As can be seen, it is possible to reach a
good balance between these two dimensions, however a slight er-
ror in the estimation of the rst quarter wave frequency becomes
larger when higher harmonics of this frequency are considered.
At frequencies higher than 700 Hz the predicted TL is poor, due
to the excitation of higher order modes. These are excited at
approximately 1000 Hz, in agreement with the nodal lines theory
[15]. All in all, a good match with experimental data is achieved
by both the 1D3Dcell and the 1D3D hybrid models for congu-
ration A, especially at mediumhigh frequencies, without the need
of introducing corrective lengths. The predicted TL curves are evi-
dently very similar, except for some details of the experimental
trend which may have been captured better by one approach or
the other. The resonance peaks at frequencies higher than
1000 Hz have been well predicted by both the methods, with some

60
Measured
50 1D
Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

60
Measured
50 1D-3D
Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

60
Measured
50 1D-3Dcell
Transmission Loss [dB]

40

30

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 14. Transmission loss of mufer conguration B.

 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223 219

Fig. 15. Layout of the expansion chambers with perforates: congurations C and D.

exception in which one of the two methods misses a certain abate-

ment peak. The explanation is not trivial, since the frequency range
at which this difference occurs is above the higher order modes cut
off frequency, making difcult to understand exactly the source of
particular acoustic behaviors. However, the different mesh spacing
adopted in the two approaches, very coarse in the 3Dcell and re-
ned in the 3D, could have resolved differently a geometry detail
leading to a slight mismatch only for high harmonics of a base fre-
quency. The importance of multi-dimensional waves is evident in
the 3D calculation reported in Fig. 13, in which it is possible to no-
tice the non-planar nature of the wave motion. In Fig. 14 the com-
parison between the measured TL of conguration B and the
calculated ones by means of the three different approaches is
shown. Compared to conguration A, this new geometry shows
the effect of a longer extension of the inlet pipe. Hence, the rst Fig. 16. Mesh generated for the 1D3D and 1D3Dcell simulation of conguration
resonant peak at 414 Hz corresponds to the quarter wave reso- C.
nance of the reverse ow length minus the inlet extension, while
the second peak at 974 Hz is related to the inlet extension. The
transparency frequencies (354 Hz, 720 Hz, 1062 Hz, 1460 Hz) are the 1D and the 3D domain, to 7 mm near the canning of the muf-
associated to the main longitudinal resonance. Once again it is evi- er. In order to investigate a wider eld of application, two further
dent the main limitation of the 1D approach to capture the correct congurations C and D including perforates, whose geometries are
acoustic behavior at frequencies higher than 800 Hz, similarly to reported in Fig. 15, have been chosen for the validation of the hy-
what was highlighted for conguration A. Conversely, for the two brid 1D3Dcell and 1D3D non-linear models [31,27]. Fig. 16
multidimensional approaches the agreement can be regarded as shows the three different domain discretizations adopted by the
good, since the abatement peaks and pass bands are correctly cap- three approaches for conguration C. In particular, the fully 1D
tured over a wide range of frequency, without showing a signi- method reduces the perforated pipe to multiple connections be-
cant frequency shift. In general, the 3D or 3Dcell CFD simulations tween two pipes by small 1D channels, whose length and diameter
expectedly allow to capture the effects of non-planar wave motion. have been assigned on the basis of the wall thickness and porosity
Obviously the 1D3D modeling allows to determine much more of the perforated pipe (Fig. 16a). The length of these channels are
detailed information about the ow eld with respect to the 1D corrected according to well established corrective lengths. The
3Dcell, such as the velocity vectors and the large scale vortices 3D model is based on a purely geometrical discretization of the do-
along the whole geometry of the silencer, even if the computer main, in which every hole is singularly reproduced in the mesh.
run times are three orders of magnitude larger. In fact, the compu- This requires a high level of mesh renement in order not to under-
tational effort due to 1D3Dcell simulations is a matter of a few estimate the perforate porosity. This issue can be overcome
minutes on a typical PC, whereas the 1D3D calculations have a increasing the size of the perforate hole, aiming at having a mesh
computational demand in the order of magnitude of hours. In par- porosity equal to the real one. In principle this strategy can be
ticular, the mesh size ranges from 5 mm, at the interface between acceptable, however it cannot be pushed too far when high poros-
220 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

Measured
30

Transmission Loss [dB]

1D

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

Measured
30
Transmission Loss [dB]

1D-3D

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

Measured
30
Transmission Loss [dB]

1D-3Dcell

20

10

0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Frequency [Hz]

Fig. 17. Transmission loss of mufer conguration C.

ity mufer are considered. In this case the hole to hole interaction
could change and the results of the calculation may be penalized.
The mesh generated to carry out the 1D3D simulation is reported
in Fig. 16b, from which it is evident that the perforated domain is
characterized by a tetrahedral mesh (average cell size: 1 mm),
whereas the rest of the domain is represented by an hexahedral
mesh (average mesh size: 3 mm). The 3Dcell approach, instead, de-
scribes the computational domain as a pipe connected to the exter-
nal cavity by means of suitable connectors, without the need of
resorting to a rened mesh (Fig. 16c). Due to the geometry of the
system, the experimental TL curve (Fig. 17) exhibits resonance
peaks and pass bands related both to chamber length and to the
perforated pipe behavior. The comparisons between the TL curves
predicted by 1D, 1D3D and 1D3Dcell calculations and the mea-
sured data [31] are reported respectively in Fig. 17ac, showing
that a satisfactory agreement can be achieved by all the models.
In this particular case the small non-planar wave effects, that
may occur at the beginning of the perforated region and may prop-
agate in the axial extension of the cavity, are inhibited by the vicin-
ity of the cavity walls, resulting in three predictions of
transmission loss which are very close between each other
(Fig. 18). In fact, due to the geometrical shape of the silencer, the
non-planar wave motion, although still present, is less signicant
in this case, as shown by the pressure eld reported in Fig. 18. This
means that it has a minor inuence on the acoustic response of the
mufer and makes the 1D approach, once corrective lengths for the
perforations are considered, a suitable and reliable model. All in all,
the 1D3Dcell and 1D3D predictions of the perforate TL curves
are intrinsically more satisfactory in terms of the location of reso-
nance frequencies and attenuation amplitude, even if they do not
require the use of corrective lengths. As can be noted in Fig. 16c
the shape of the chamber has been reconstructed as a square sec-
 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223
Fig. 18. Conguration C, wave motion calculated by the 1D3D model.
50
Measured (small amplitude)
1D
40
Transmission Loss [dB]
1D-3Dcell
1D-3D
30
20
10
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 19. Conguration C, effects of high amplitude perturbation (nonlinear case).
tion. This simplication could be applied since higher order modes
are occurring at frequencies higher than 3000 Hz [15]. Therefore,
the square shape reconstruction allows to capture correctly the
area ratio using a coarse mesh. Conguration C was also modeled
imposing a high amplitude pressure perturbation. In particular,
the impulse boundary condition mimics a pressure pulse with
0.15 bar of peak amplitude. This resulted in a sharp pressure peak
which propagates along the system, giving rise to local high speed
ow. Fig. 19 shows the results obtained with the three models in
the case of high amplitude perturbation, compared to the mea-
sured transmission loss obtained exciting the system with small
amplitude perturbations. The 1D model shows a trend which
resembles the linear behavior and matches the prediction given
by the 1D3Dcell model, whereas the TL calculated by the 1D
3D model appears to be affected by higher dissipation. The main
reason can be found in the fact that the 1D and the quasi3D models
are based on a similar treatment of the perforated elements, where
a localized loss depending on the hole diameter, hole thickness and
gas local velocity is introduced. Moreover, both the approaches are
not able to capture correctly the vortex kinetic energy dissipation.
In particular, the one-dimensional model, because of its intrinsic
1D nature, cannot resolve this ow eld detail and the attenuation
level predicted depends mainly on the corrective lengths adopted
to model the perforations. On the other hand, the 3Dcell approach,
despite its underlying 3D assumption, does not seem to differ
much from the 1D, even if the governing equations can resolve
221
ow vortexes. The explanation may be found in the fact that the
grid resolution is higher than the hole size, typically 34 times
the hole diameter, and in the fact that the loss introduced by the
hole is modeled resorting to correlations similar to those adopted
by the 1D approach. A further contribution to viscous losses, how-
ever, is brought by the numerical viscosity introduced by the adop-
tion of ux limiting techniques, which in cases with high
amplitude perturbation are needed to guarantee the method sta-
bility. The last conguration taken into account (conguration D)
is an example of dissipative perforated mufer. Its behavior has
been studied when subject to small amplitude perturbations with
and without mean ow. This last conguration, whose dimensions
are summarized in Fig. 15b, consists of a perforated tube running
1750 2000 through the center of an expansion chamber. The middle of the
perforated tube is blocked by a plug so that the ow is forced
out through the perforate holes on the inlet half of the pipe and
back through the perforate holes on the outlet half of the pipe.
The forced passage through the perforations is realized in order
to increase the acoustic damping by the generation of viscous dis-
sipation phenomena. Fig. 20a shows the comparison between the
measured transmission loss and the calculated ones by means of
the three models, namely 1D, 1D3Dcell and 1D3D in condition
of null mean ow. The simulations were carried out imposing a
white noise boundary condition with small amplitude perturba-
tions, in order to point out the linear behavior of the device. The
same conguration was further tested with the presence of mean
ow (M = 0.05) introducing dissipative effects due to the forced
passage through the holes. Fig. 20b shows that with a careful cali-
bration of the friction coefcient and of the corrective lengths used
for the solution of the momentum equation inside the quasi3D and
the 1D model, it is possible to mimic the effects of viscous dissipa-
tion. In this case the results provided by the 1D and the 1D3Dcell
model are in agreement with the measured data and with the re-
sults provided by the 1D3D model. In Table 1 the computational
runtime for the three approaches is compared. It can be noticed
that the computational demand of the 1D model is very low, in
the order of magnitude of the seconds. On the other hand the 3D
approach is characterized by a high computational cost, due to
the high number of cells required for the detailed geometry
description. In particular, congurations A and B are very similar
and therefore they could be modeled adapting approximately the
same number of cells (around 130,000). Congurations C and D
are characterized by the presence of perforated elements, which
require to be modeled with a ner grid, leading to an amount of
cells higher than in the two previous cases (around 400,000 cells).
222 G. Montenegro et al. / Computers & Fluids 71 (2013) 208223

(a) 50 tional demand required to perform the calculation. Being the two
models based on different domain reconstruction techniques, also
Measured
1D their integration with the 1D model is different. The 1D3D inte-
40
Transmission Loss [dB]

1D-3Dcell gration was realized resorting to the implementation of an approx-

M=0 1D-3D imate Riemann solver, which was adopted to determine the
30 physical state of the conserved variables at the centers of every
face belonging to the coupling interface. A cell overlap method
20
could be adopted in the case of the integration between the 1D
and the 3Dcell approaches, due to the pseudo-staggered grid ap-
proach the latter is based on. Both the coupling strategies demon-
10 strated to be stable and robust for uid dynamic and acoustic
simulations with and without mean ow. The two approaches
0 were validated onto four different geometries: two reverse ow
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 chambers with extended inlet and outlet pipes and two perforates
Frequency [Hz] with concentric pipes. Additionally a comparison with the calcula-
tion carried out resorting to a fully 1D model was presented in or-
(b) 50 der to point out the capability of the multiD approaches in
Measured capturing higher order modes. The 3Dcell and the 3D models, cou-
40 1D pled to the 1D code, proved to be fairly accurate for the prediction
Transmission Loss [dB]

M = 0.05 1D-3Dcell of the acoustic behavior of the silencers. In particular, the TL pre-
1D-3D diction up to 2000 Hz agrees satisfactorily with the measurements,
30 showing the possibility of capturing higher order modes, whereas
the 1D approach requires some special expertise to generate an
20 appropriate acoustically equivalent 1D schematic for a correct
representation of the mufing behavior. The three models pro-
posed proved that the required calculation time scales with the de-
10
gree of complexity. In particular the computational demand of the
1D model is very low, almost negligible. The 3Dcell approach, due
0 to the coarse grid it allows to use, requires a computational de-
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
mand strictly related to the number of cells adopted for the dis-
Frequency [Hz] cretization. It is usually in the order of magnitude of minutes.
Fig. 20. Transmission loss of the single pass plug mufer (conguration D): (a)
The main reason of this characteristic is the fact that the mesh size
without mean ow; (b) with mean ow M = 0.05. is similar to the one adopted in the 1D approach. In the case of the
3D approach the mesh is forced to follow each detail of the geom-
etry under consideration, leading in certain cases, such as perforate
Table 1
holes, to very rened grid sizes. This means that the computational
Computational runtime (min).
demand is affected by two aspects: the increase of the cell number
Method Case A Case B Case C Case D and the decrease of the time step due to the CFL constraint. The
1D 0.09 0.1 0.25 0.07 resulting computation runtime is in the order of magnitude of
1D3Dcell 4.9 4.5 1.0 2.4 hours or, for very rened meshes combined with high capacity
1D3D 4514 4456 5621 5553
geometries, days.

This results in a computational runtime in the order of magnitude References

of days, as happened for cases A and B, or to even higher calcula-
tion time when the mesh size is rened due to the presence of per-
forations. In this last case there is also a reduction of the time step
needed by CFL requirements. The hybrid 1D3Dcell approach is
positioned in the middle of these two limits: its computational
demand is generally in the order of magnitude of minutes and it
is strictly related to the number of cells adopted for the
discretization.
10. Conclusions
In this article the development and application of two different
hybrid 1DmultiD non-linear models has been described, in order
to predict the silencer behavior in the time and frequency domains.
The multiD approaches adopted for the validation are based on dif-
ferent assumption and have different advantages. One approach is
based on the detailed 3D reconstruction of the studied geometry to
which a set of 3D conservation equation for unsteady inviscid and
viscous ows are applied. The other one, named 3Dcell, is based on
a simplication of the equations and of the domain reconstruction.
The main advantages of the 3Dcell approach are the possibility of
resorting to a coarse domain discretization and the low computa-
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