Herron Osorio Tópicos Previos A La Matemática Superior PDF

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6OB GVODJO f : G H FOUSF EPT HSVQPT (G, ) Z (H, ) TF MMBNB
JTPNPSTNP TJ f (a b) = f (a) f (b) QBSB UPEP a, b G Z BEFNT
f FT CJZFDUJWB &O FTUF DBTP MPT HSVQPT TF MMBNBO JTPNPSGPT

4FB (G, ) VO HSVQP UBM RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF FMFNFOUPT a Z b

TF DVNQMF RVF (a b)1 = a1 b1 . %FNVFTUSF RVF FT VOB
PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB DPONVUBUJWB
4FBO (G, ) Z (H, ) HSVQPT 4J FO G H TF EFOF
(g1 , h1 ) (g2 , h2 ) = (g1 g2 , h1 h2 ),
QSVFCF RVF (GH, ) FT VO HSVQP &TUF HSVQP TF MMBNB FM QSPEVDUP

EJSFDUP EF (G, ) Z (H, )
4FBO (G, ) VO HSVQP Z g G VO FMFNFOUP KP 4J TF EFOF f :

G G QPS f (x) = g 1 x g QSVFCF RVF f FT VO JTPNPSTNP
4FBO (G, ) VO HSVQP BCFMJBOP Z f : G G EBEB QPS f (x) = x1

1SVFCF RVF f FT VO JTPNPSTNP
4FB (G, ) VO HSVQP Z TVQPOHB RVF f : G G EFOJEB QPS

f (x) = x1 FT VO IPNPNPSTNP 1SVFCF RVF (G, ) FT VO HSVQP
BCFMJBOP 6O IPNPNPSTNP EF VO HSVQP (G, ) FO PUSP HSVQP
(K, ) FT VOB GVODJO : G K DPO MB QSPQJFEBE
(g1 g2 ) = (g1 ) (g2 )
QBSB DBEB g1 , g2 G

4FB (G, ) VO HSVQP UBM QBSB UPEP a G TF DVNQMF RVF a a = e

EPOEF e FT FM FMFNFOUP OFVUSP %FNVFTUSF RVF G FT BCFMJBOP

$BQUVMP
-PT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT
&YJTUFO WBSJBT NBOFSBT EF QSFTFOUBS MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT QPS FKFNQMP

VTBOEP MB UFPSB EF DPOKVOUPT P DPOKVOUPT JOEVDUJWPT -B QSFTFOUBDJO
RVF IBDFNPT BD FT WB MPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP &TUPT QPTUVMBEPT QFSNJ
UFO EFSJWBS UPEB MB BSJUNUJDB EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT &O MB GPSNVMB
DJO EF MPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP TF TVQPOF EF BOUFNBOP MB FYJTUFODJB EFM
DPOKVOUP N
$POTUSVDDJO BYJPNUJDB EF N

%FOJDJO &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT EFOPUBEP QPS N
TF DBSBDUFSJ[B QPS MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT MMBNBEPT BYJPNBT EF 1FBOP
"1
&YJTUF VO FMFNFOUP 0 N MMBNBEP FM DFSP
"1
1BSB DBEB n N FYJTUF VO OJDP n+ N MMBNBEP FM TVDFTPS
EF n.
"1
1BSB DBEB n N, n+ = 0.
"1
4J m, n N TPO UBMFT RVF m+ = n+ FOUPODFT m = n.
"1
1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO TJ S N FT UBM RVF J
0 S Z JJ
n S n+ S FOUPODFT S = N.
0CTFSWBDJO &M QSJNFS BYJPNB EJDF FO QBSUJDVMBS RVF FM DPOKVOUP N

FT OP WBDP $PNCJOOEPMP DPO "1
EJDF RVF N UJFOF VO FMFNFOUP
FM DFSP RVF OP FT TVDFTPS EF BMHO PUSP OBUVSBM BT RVF FM DFSP FT FM
iQSJNFSu FMFNFOUP -PT BYJPNBT "1
Z "1
EJDFO RVF DBEB OBUVSBM
UJFOF VO OJDP TVDFTPS Z RVF EPT OBUVSBMFT EJTUJOUPT UJFOFO TVDFTPSFT

(JVTFQQF 1FBOP
GVF VO NBUFNUJDP Z MHJDP JUBMJBOP

EJTUJOUPT 0USB NBOFSB EF FOUFOEFS FM BYJPNB "1

FT MB TJHVJFOUF TJ
EFOJNPT MB GVODJO S : N N QPS S(n) = n+ MB GVODJO TVDFTPS EF
n FOUPODFT FTUB GVODJO FT JOZFDUJWB 'JOBMNFOUF FM BYJPNB "1
FT
EF NVDIB JNQPSUBODJB QVFT DPOTUJUVZF VOB IFSSBNJFOUB QPEFSPTB QBSB
QSPCBS NVDIBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO FM DPOKVOUP N.
&O USNJOPT TJNQMFT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT DPOTJTUF
EF VO FMFNFOUP EJTUJOHVJEP FM DFSP
Z MB GVODJO TVDFTPSB EF n RVF TBUJT
GBDFO MPT QPTUVMBEPT EF 1FBOP .VDIPT BVUPSFT QSFFSFO RVF FM FMFNFOUP
EJTUJOHVJEP TFB FM OBUVSBM NBUFNUJDBNFOUF FTUP FT JSSFMFWBOUF
'JOBMNFOUF OP QSFTFOUBSFNPT BMVTJO QSPGVOEB BOUF FM BTVOUP SFMB
DJPOBEP DPO MB FYJTUFODJB Z MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT &O MB
SFGFSFODJB <"&> TF SFBMJ[B VOB CSFWF EFTDSJQDJO TPCSF FM QBSUJDVMBS Z FO
<#> TF IBDF VOB QSFTFOUBDJO NT DPNQMFUB
6OB QSJNFSB QSPQJFEBE RVF EFNPTUSBNPT FT RVF FYDFQUVBOEP FM DF
SP DBEB OBUVSBM FT VO TVDFTPS &O MB QSVFCB JMVTUSBNPT FM QPEFS EFM
RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
1SPQPTJDJO 5PEP ONFSP OBUVSBM EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP FT VO

TVDFTPS
%FNPTUSBDJO 6TBNPT FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EFOJFOEP VO DPOKVOUP EF OB

UVSBMFT RVF SFOB MPT FMFNFOUPT RVF UJFOFO MB QSPQJFEBE EFTFBEB Z MVFHP
EFNPTUSBNPT RVF UBM DPOKVOUP FT FO FTUF DBTP N {0}. 4FB S : N N
MB GVODJO TVDFTPSB EBEB QPS S(k) = k + Z EFOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S = {n N : ( m N) (S(m) = n)} {0}.
1SPCFNPT RVF S = N, MP DVBM QSVFCB MB QSPQPTJDJO /PUFNPT RVF FO

MB EFOJDJO EFM DPOKVOUP S BHSFHBNPT FM DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS {0} QPS
SB[POFT UDOJDBT FT EFDJS QBSB QPEFS BQMJDBS MB DPOEJDJO J
EFM BYJP
NB "1
QFSP OP FTUBNPT BSNBOEP OJ QSPCBOEP RVF 0 TBUJTGBDF MB
QSPQJFEBE FOVODJBEB FO MB QSPQPTJDJO 7BNPT B MPT EFUBMMFT EF MB EF
NPTUSBDJO
1PS EFOJDJO EF S FM OBUVSBM 0 S. -VFHP TF DVNQMF J
EFM BYJPNB
"1

4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF n S Z WFBNPT RVF n+ S. &O FGFDUP
DPNP n S FOUPODFT FYJTUF k N UBM RVF n = k + . -VFHP
S(k + ) = S(n) = n+ ,
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF n+ S. 2VFEB BT QSPCBEB MB DPOEJDJO JJ

EFM
RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP -VFHP UFOFNPT RVF S = N.

4F EFTQSFOEF EFM "YJPNB "1

Z MB QSPQPTJDJO QSFWJB RVF MB GVO
DJO TVDFTPS EF n, S : N N {0} FT CJZFDUJWB
" DPOUJOVBDJO WBNPT B PDVQBSOPT EF JOUSPEVDJS MBT PQFSBDJPOFT
TVNB Z NVMUJQMJDBDJO FO MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT
%FOJDJO &O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT N EFOJNPT

MB TVNB i u EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
m N, m + 0 = m,
m, n N, m + n+ = (m + n)+ .
3FJUFSBNPT RVF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EFOJEBT

FO FM DPOKVOUP N TFSO EFNPTUSBEBT VTBOEP FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
FTUP FT FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF EPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT PUSP ONFSP OBUVSBM

FT EFDJS i u FT VOB PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB FO N.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB S = {n N : ( m N) (m+n N)} $PNP IFNPT

WFOJEP DPNFOUBOEP MB JEFB FT VTBS FM BYJPNB "1
QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF
S = N MP RVF QSVFCB FM UFPSFNB 1PS MB EFOJDJO EF TVNB UFOFNPT
RVF 0 S. 7FBNPT RVF TJ n S FOUPODFT n+ S. 4FB m N. 1PS
MB IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO m + n N QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM m Z BT QPS FM
BYJPNB "1
FM TVDFTPS EF m + n FT VO OBUVSBM Z QPS MB EFOJDJO EF
TVNB TF UJFOF RVF (m + n)+ = m + n+ N, FTUP FT n+ S.

5FPSFNB -B TVNB EF OBUVSBMFT FT BTPDJBUJWB FTUP FT m, n, k N

TF DVNQMF RVF
(n + m) + k = n + (m + k).
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB

S = {k N : ( m, n N) (n + m) + k = n + (m + k) }.
/VFWBNFOUF MB FTUSBUFHJB FT QSPCBS RVF S = N. 1PS MB EFOJDJO EF TV

NB UFOFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF
(n + m) + 0 = n + m = n + (m + 0) MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF 0 S.
%FNPTUSFNPT RVF k S k + S. &GFDUJWBNFOUF VTBOEP MB IJQUFTJT
EF JOEVDDJO Z MB EFOJDJO EF TVNB UFOFNPT RVF QBSB m Z n OBUVSBMFT
(m + n) + k + = [(m + n) + k]+ = [m + (n + k)]+ = m + (n + k)+

= m + (n + k + ).
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF k + S.

"OUFT EF QSPCBS MB QSPQJFEBE DPONVUBUJWB EFNPTUSBNPT MPT TJHVJFO

UFT MFNBT RVF TFSO DSVDJBMFT
-FNB 1BSB DBEB m N, 0 + m = m.
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP BOUFT VTBNPT FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO

4FB S = {m N : 0 + m = m}. 7FBNPT RVF S = N. 1PS EFOJDJO
EF TVNB 0 + 0 = 0 1PS UBOUP 0 S. "IPSB CJFO TJ m S FOUPODFT
m+ S ZB RVF QPS EFOJDJO EF TVNB Z MB IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO
0 + m+ = (0 + m)+ = m+ . -VFHP S = N.

-FNB 1BSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m, n TF UJFOF RVF
(m + n)+ = m+ + n.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB S = {n N : ( m N)((m + n)+ = m+ + n)}.

&T DMBSP RVF 0 S QVFT EBEP m N, (m + 0)+ = m+ = m+ + 0.
"IPSB EFNPTUSFNPT FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP 4VQPOHBNPT n S Z TFB m N.
&OUPODFT
m+ + n+ = (m+ + n)+ %FOJDJO EF TVNB
+ +
= [(m + n) ] )JQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+ +
= (m + n ) . %FOJDJO EF TVNB
&O DPOTFDVFODJB n+ S.

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF TJ m Z n TPO OBUVSBMFT FOUPODFT m + n = 0 TJ

Z TPMP TJ m = 0 Z n = 0.
5FPSFNB -B TVNB FO N FT DPONVUBUJWB
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB S = {n N : ( m N) (m + n = n + m)}.

1SPCFNPT RVF S = N. 1PS MB EFOJDJO EF TVNB Z FM -FNB UFOFNPT
RVF m + 0 = m = 0 + m, m N. 1PS UBOUP 0 S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB
RVF n S FTUP FT m N, m + n = n + m. -VFHP
m + n+ = (m + n)+ %FOJDJO EF TVNB
+
= (n + m) )JQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+
= n + m. 1PS FM -FNB
2VFEB BT QSPCBEP RVF n+ S.

-B TVNB FO MPT OBUVSBMFT HP[B EF MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB Z MB QSP

QJFEBE VOJGPSNF NT QSFDJTBNFOUF

5FPSFNB 4FBO m, n, k N. &OUPODFT m + k = n + k m = n.
%FNPTUSBDJO &T JONFEJBUP RVF TJ m = n FOUPODFT m + k = n + k FTUB

FT MB QSPQJFEBE VOJGPSNF
4VQPOHBNPT RVF m + k = n + k Z WFBNPT
RVF m = n FTUB FT MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB
1BSB FMMP VTBNPT PUSB WF[
FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB TFB
S = {k N : ( m, n N) (m + k = n + k m = n)}.
&T JONFEJBUP RVF 0 S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF k S Z EFNPTUSFNPT

RVF k + S. /PUFNPT RVF FTUP TJHOJDB QSPCBS MB BSNBDJO
( m, n N) (m + k + = n + k + m = n).
4FBO QVFT OBUVSBMFT m, n UBMFT RVF m + k + = n + k + . 1PS EFOJDJO EF

TVNB FTUP FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB JHVBMEBE (m + k)+ = (n + k)+ MP DVBM QPS
FM BYJPNB "1
JNQMJDB RVF m + k = n + k 'JOBMNFOUF QPS MB IJQUFTJT
JOEVDUJWB UFOFNPT RVF m = n. )FNPT QSPCBEP BT RVF k + S Z QPS
UBOUP S = N.

1SPQPTJDJO 1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF n+ = n + 0+ .
%FNPTUSBDJO 6OB QSVFCB TJNQMF FT
n + 0+ = (n + 0)+ = n+ .
4JO FNCBSHP DPNP IFNPT WFOJEP JMVTUSBOEP PUSB FTUSBUFHJB DPOTJTUF FO

VTBS FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP 1BSB FMMP TFB
S = {n N : n+ = n + 0+ }.
$PNP 0+ = 0 + 0+ FOUPODFT 0 S. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF n S Z

WFBNPT RVF n+ S. &O SFBMJEBE FTUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB IJQUFTJT EF
JOEVDDJO Z EF RVF n+ + 0+ = (n + 0+ )+ = (n+ )+ .

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF UJFOF RVF

n+ = n.
0CTFSWBDJO 4J EFOJNPT 1 := 0+ MB QSPQPTJDJO QSFWJB OPT QFSNJUF

EFOJS
1+ = 1 + 0+ = 1 + 1 =: 2, 2+ = 2 + 0+ = 2 + 1 =: 3, FUD
&M FUDUFSB TF KVTUJDB HSBDJBT BM BYJPNB "1

FT EFDJS FM QSPDFTP TF
QVFEF DPOUJOVBS JOEFOJEBNFOUF &O WJSUVE EFM BYJPNB "1
FM QSPDFTP

OP MMFWB OVODB BM ONFSP 0 Z QPS MPT BYJPNBT "1

Z "1
FM QSPDFTP
OP MMFWB OVODB B VOP EF MPT ONFSPT ZB EFOJEPT 1BSB KVTUJDBS FTUP
MUJNP WBNPT B EFOJS MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT QBSB n N,
J0 = , Jn+ = Jn {n+ }.
%F GPSNB SFDVSTJWB TF WF RVF Jn = {1, 2, . . . , n} 3B[POFNPT QPS DPO

USBEJDDJO Z TVQPOHBNPT ZB EFOJEPT MPT OBUVSBMFT 0, 1, 2, . . . , m Z RVF
m+ FT VOP EF FTUPT DMBSBNFOUF m+ = 0 Z m+ = m
&OUPODFT m+ Jp
EPOEF p+ = m %FTDBSUBSFNPT UPEBT MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT TJ m+ = 1 = 0+
FOUPODFT QPS FM BYJPNB "1
UFOESBNPT RVF m = 0 QFSP UBNCJO
m = p+ Z QPS UBOUP MMFHBSBNPT B MB DPOUSBEJDDJO p+ = 0. &TUP EFTDBS
UBSB m+ = 1. "IPSB CJFO TJ GVFSB RVF m+ = 2 = 1+ FOUPODFT m = 1 Z
DPNP m = p+ UFOESBNPT p+ = 1 = 0+ FTUP FT p = 0 MP DVBM JNQMJDBSB
MB DPOUSBEJDDJO m+ J0 = . $PO FTUP EFTDBSUBSBNPT RVF m+ = 2. 4J
PDVSSJFSB RVF m+ = 3 = 2+ FOUPODFT m = 2 Z DPNP m = p+ UFOESB
NPT p+ = 2 FMMP FT p = 1 -VFHP DPODMVJSBNPT RVF m+ = 1, MP DVBM
DPOUSBEJSB m+ = 3. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF m+ / {1, 2, . . . , k} = Jk Z
WFBNPT RVF m + + +
/ {1, 2, . . . , k } = Jk+ EPOEF k Jp . 4J PDVSSJFSB MP
DPOUSBSJP FOUPODFT m+ = k + Z QPS UBOUP m = k 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP
k = 0 FYJTUF j N UBM RVF k = j + Z QPS UBOUP p+ = m = k = j + JNQMJ
DBSB p = j. 'JOBMNFOUF DPNP m+ Jp = Jj Jj + = Jk PCUFOESBNPT
VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO DPO MB IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
" DPOUJOVBDJO OPT PDVQBNPT EF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO FO N
%FOJDJO 4F EFOF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO P FM QSPEVDUP

i u FO FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
m N, m 0 = 0,
m, n N, m n+ = m n + m.
0CTFSWBDJO %F MB EFOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP Z MB PCTFSWBDJO BOUFSJPS TF

EFEVDF RVF QBSB UPEP m N, m 1 = m QVFTUP RVF
m 1 = m 0+ = m 0 + m = 0 + m = m.
6TBOEP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO Z FM IFDIP EF RVF MB TVNB FO N FT

VOB PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB TF EFNVFTUSB FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB -B NVMUJQMJDBDJO EFOJEB FO N FT VOB PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB

FTUP FT TJ m, n N FOUPODFT m n N.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM 5FPSFNB

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT UBMFT RVF m n = 0. 1SVFCF RVF

m = 0 n = 0.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB p N KP %FNVFTUSF RVF TJ m p = 0 QBSB UPEP

m N, FOUPODFT p = 0.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUF VO OJDP OBUVSBM p UBM RVF m p = m

QBSB UPEP m N.
&KFSDJDJP 1BSB UPEP m N, 0 m = 0.
0CTFSWBDJO %F BIPSB FO BEFMBOUF QBSB EFOPUBS FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF EPT

OBUVSBMFT m Z n PNJUJSFNPT FM QVOUP
"OUFT EF QSPCBS MB DPONVUBUJWJEBE EFM QSPEVDUP QSFTFOUBNPT VO MFNB
RVF KVOUP DPO FM &KFSDJDJP TFSO DMBWFT FO TV EFNPTUSBDJO
-FNB 1BSB UPEP m, n N, m+ n = mn + n.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB S = {n N : ( m N) (m+ n = mn + n)}. 1VFTUP

RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM m, m+ 0 = 0 = m0 + 0 TF DPODMVZF RVF 0 S.
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n S Z WFBNPT RVF n+ S. 4FB m N. &OUPODFT
m+ n+ = m+ n + m+ %FOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP
+ +
= (mn + n) + m = mn + (n + m ) )JQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
= mn + (n + m)+ %FOJDJO EF TVNB
+ +
= mn + (n + m) = (mn + m) + n 1PS FM -FNB
+ +
= mn + n . %FOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM MFNB

5FPSFNB &M QSPEVDUP FO N FT DPONVUBUJWP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB S = {n N : ( m N) (mn = nm)}. 1BSB WFS RVF

0 S, KFNPT VO m N DVBMRVJFSB Z OPUFNPT RVF QPS MB EFOJDJO EF
QSPEVDUP Z FM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF RVF m0 = 0 = 0m. 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF n S, FT EFDJS RVF mn = nm QBSB UPEP m N. -VFHP QBSB UPEP
m N UFOFNPT RVF
mn+ = mn + m %FOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP
= nm + m )JQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
+
= n m, 1PS FM -FNB
MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB RVF n+ S.

" DPOUJOVBDJO EFNPTUSBNPT MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP

SFTQFDUP B MB TVNB
5FPSFNB 1BSB UPEP m, n, k N TF DVNQMF RVF
m(n + k) = mn + mk.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB

S = {k N : ( m, n N) m(n + k) = mn + mk }.
&M OBUVSBM 0 FTU FO S QVFT EBEPT m Z n OBUVSBMFT UFOFNPT RVF
m(n + 0) = mn = mn + 0 = mn + m0.
%FNPTUSFNPT FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP TVQPOHBNPT RVF k S Z TFBO

m, n N. &OUPODFT
m(n + k + ) = m(n + k)+ %FOJDJO EF TVNB
= m(n + k) + m %FOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP
= (mn + mk) + m )JQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB
= mn + (mk + m) 1PS BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF
+
= mn + mk , %FOJDJO EF QSPEVDUP
MP RVF QSVFCB RVF k + S.

$PO MB BZVEB EF MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB TF EFNVFTUSB MB BTPDJBUJ

WJEBE EFM QSPEVDUP
5FPSFNB -B NVMUJQMJDBDJO EFOJEB FO N FT BTPDJBUJWB QBSB UPEP

m, n, k N TF UJFOF RVF (mn)k = m(nk).
%FNPTUSBDJO &KFSDJDJP

0SEFO FO MPT OBUVSBMFT

3FDPSEFNPT RVF VOB SFMBDJO R EFOJEB FO VO DPOKVOUP OP WBDP A TF
EJDF RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO TJ FT SFFYJWB BOUJTJNUSJDB Z USBO
TJUJWB &O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT EFOJNPT VOB SFMBDJO
RVF DVNQMF FTUBT USFT DBSBDUFSTUJDBT
%FOJDJO 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT %FDJNPT RVF m n TJ FYJTUF

VO p N UBM RVF m + p = n.
-B SFMBDJO m n TJHOJDB n m.

0CTFSWBDJO /PUFNPT RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM m TF UJFOF RVF m m.

"EFNT FM OBUVSBM p EF MB EFOJDJO FOVODJBEB QSFWJBNFOUF FT OJDP
&O FGFDUP TJ p Z q TPO OBUVSBMFT UBMFT RVF m + p = n Z m + q = n
FOUPODFT QPS MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB TF UJFOF RVF p = q.
1SPQPTJDJO -B SFMBDJO i u FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO FO N.
%FNPTUSBDJO -B SFFYJWJEBE FT DMBSB QVFT FYJTUF p = 0 N UBM RVF

m+0 = m, m N. 7FBNPT RVF FT BOUJTJNUSJDB TFBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT
UBMFT RVF m n Z n m -VFHP FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT RVF
m + p = n Z n + q = m. 4VTUJUVZFOEP MB QSJNFSB JHVBMEBE FO MB TFHVOEB
MMFHBNPT B RVF m = m + p + q EF EPOEF TF DPODMVZF QPS MB QSPQJFEBE
DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB RVF p + q = 0 Z BT QPS FM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF
RVF p = 0 = q MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m = n. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT MB
USBOTJUJWJEBE TJ m n Z n k FOUPODFT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT
RVF m + p = n Z n + q = k. $PNCJOBOEP FTUBT EPT JHVBMEBEFT UFOFNPT
RVF m + (p + q ) = k Z DPNP p + q N DPODMVJNPT QPS MB EFOJDJO
RVF m k. 2VFEB FOUPODFT EFNPTUSBEB MB QSPQPTJDJO

0CTFSWBDJO &O MB QSPQPTJDJO QSFWJB TF EFNPTUS RVF TJ m n Z

n m FOUPODFT m = n. &O SFBMJEBE FM SFDQSPDP UBNCJO UJFOF WBMJEF[
FO FGFDUP TJ m = n DPNP m + 0 = m Z n + 0 = n FOUPODFT m + 0 = n
Z n + 0 = m Z TFHO MB EFOJDJO FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m n Z n m
SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF &O DPODMVTJO m = n (m n n m).
%FOJDJO 4FBO m Z n OBUVSBMFT %FDJNPT RVF m < n TJ m n

Z m = n.
-B SFMBDJO m > n TJHOJDB n < m.
-B TJHVJFOUF BSNBDJO OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VOB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO RVJ[

NT NBOFKBCMF EF MB DPNQBSBDJO FTUSJDUB RVF TF EFOJ QSFWJBNFOUF
1SPQPTJDJO %BEPT OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF m < n TJ Z TPMP

TJ FYJTUF VO OJDP p N UBM RVF m + p+ = n.
%FNPTUSBDJO 1SPCFNPT QSJNFSP MB FYJTUFODJB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF

m < n Z WFBNPT RVF m + p+ = n QBSB BMHO p N. 1PS EFOJDJO UF
OFNPT RVF m n Z m = n FT EFDJS FYJTUF q N UBM RVF m + q = n DPO
m = n. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF q = 0 Z QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJO TF UJFOF RVF
q = p+ QBSB BMHO OBUVSBM p. &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOEJDJO OFDFTBSJB
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF UBNCJO FT DPOEJDJO TVDJFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT QVFT
RVF m + p+ = n QBSB BMHO p N. &TUP TJHOJDB RVF m n 4J GVFSB
m = n FOUPODFT UFOESBNPT RVF p+ = 0 MP RVF DPOUSBEJSB FM BYJPNB

"1
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB FTUB DPOUSBEJDDJO HBSBOUJ[B RVF m = n Z BT
m < n. 'JOBMNFOUF EFNPTUSFNPT MB VOJDJEBE FM SB[POBNJFOUP FTUOEBS
QBSB EFNPTUSBS VOJDJEBE DPOTJTUF QPS MP HFOFSBM FO TVQPOFS RVF IBZ EPT
FMFNFOUPT RVF WFSJDBO MB QSPQJFEBE Z QSPCBS RVF TPO JHVBMFT 'JFMFT B
FTUB FTUSBUFHJB TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO p, q N UBMFT RVF m + p+ = n
Z m + q + = n -VFHP QPS EFOJDJO EF TVNB UFOFNPT RVF
(m + p)+ = m + p+ = n = m + q + = (m + q)+
Z QPS FM BYJPNB "1

MMFHBNPT B RVF m + p = m + q 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE
DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB UFOFNPT RVF p = q. )FNPT EFNPTUSBEP BT MB
QSPQPTJDJO

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB 1SPQPTJDJO JNQMJDB MB %FOJDJO

&TUP TJHOJDB RVF DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT BSNBDJPOFT MB EF MB
QSPQPTJDJO Z MB EF MB EFOJDJO
TF QVFEF EFKBS DPNP EFOJDJO Z EF
FMMB TF EFEVDF MB PUSB
0CTFSWBDJO /PUFNPT MP TJHVJFOUF
1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n DPO n = 0, n 1. &TUP FT EFCJEP B MB FYJT

UFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM p UBM RVF n = p+ Z BT n = p+ = p + 1, MP
DVBM TJHOJDB MP BSNBEP
5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF n < m n m.
"EFNT TF DVNQMF m n (m < n m = n). 6OB KVTUJ

DBDJO FT DPNP TJHVF m n JNQMJDB RVF m + p = n QBSB BMHO
OBUVSBM p 4J p = 0 FOUPODFT FT EF MB GPSNB p = q + Z QPS UBOUP
m < n; Z TJ p = 0 FOUPODFT m = n. 3FDQSPDBNFOUF TJ m < n
FOUPODFT QPS FM DPNFOUBSJP QSFWJP TF UJFOF RVF m n. 4J m = n
FOUPODFT QPS VOB PCTFSWBDJO BOUFSJPS TF UJFOF RVF m n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFO

UFT BSNBDJPOFT
B
1BSB UPEP n TF UJFOF RVF n < n + 1.
C
-B SFMBDJO i < u FT USBOTJUJWB
D
4F DVNQMF RVF m + p < n + p m < n.
E
-B SFMBDJO i u FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB PQFSBDJO i u FT EFDJS TJ
m < n Z p < q FOUPODFT m + p < n + q.

F
4J m < n FOUPODFT m + 1 n.
G
4J m < n + 1 FOUPODFT m n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n OBUVSBMFT &MBCPSF VO BSHVNFOUP RVF KVTUJ
RVF MB GBMTFEBE EF MBT BSNBDJPOFT TJHVJFOUFT
B
m < n Z m = n.
C
n < m Z m = n.
D
m < n Z n < m.
&M QSYJNP SFTVMUBEP FYQSFTB RVF EBEPT EPT OBUVSBMFT BSCJUSBSJPT TPMB
NFOUF QVFEF PDVSSJS VOB EF USFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT MP DVBM QSFDJTBNFOUF EB
FM OPNCSF BM UFPSFNB
5FPSFNB -FZ EF USJDPUPNB
%BEPT EPT OBUVSBMFT m Z n TPMP VOB
EF MBT USFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT FT WFSEBEFSB m < n, m = n, n < m.
%FNPTUSBDJO 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP OP QVFEFO PDVSSJS EPT EF MBT BSNB
DJPOFT FYQSFTBEBT FO FM UFPSFNB EF NBOFSB TJNVMUOFB 1PS UBOUP CBTUB
QSPCBS RVF BM NFOPT VOB EF FMMBT T TF QSFTFOUB 1BSB FMMP BQMJDBNPT FM
QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO BM DPOKVOUP
S = {n N : ( m N) (TPMP VOB PDVSSF m < n, m = n, n < m)}.
4FB m N 4F UJFOFO EPT DBTPT m = 0 P m = 0. 4J FM QSJNFS DBTP

PDVSSF FOUPODFT 0 S. 4J TF EB FM TFHVOEP DBTP FOUPODFT m > 0, FT
EFDJS 0 < m &TUP JNQMJDB RVF 0 S. "IPSB QSPCFNPT MB JNQMJDBDJO
n S n+ S : TFB m N. 1PS MB IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB TF UJFOF
4J m < n DPNP n < n+ FOUPODFT m < n+ .
4J m = n DPNP n < n+ FOUPODFT m < n+ .
4J n < m QPS FM &KFSDJDJP E
n+ m -B PCTFSWBDJO EF MB QHJOB
JNQMJDB RVF n+ < m n+ = m.
&O DVBMRVJFS DBTP TF DPODMVZF RVF n+ S Z QPS UBOUP S = N.

0CTFSWBDJO $PNCJOBOEP MB UFSDFSB QBSUF EF MB PCTFSWBDJO QSFTFOUB

EB FO MB QHJOB DPO MB -FZ EF 5SJDPUPNB TF EFEVDF MB FRVJWBMFODJB
m n m > n. %F FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF MB SFMBDJO i u EFOJEB
FO FM DPOKVOUP N FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO UPUBM FT EFDJS EBEPT OBUV
SBMFT m Z n TF UJFOF RVF m n n m. /UFTF RVF MB EJTZVODJO
QSFWJB FT WFSEBEFSB ZB RVF TV OFHBDJO FT VOB QSPQPTJDJO GBMTB
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p OBUVSBMFT DPO p = 0. %FNVFTUSF
m < n mp < np.

&M QSYJNP FKFSDJDJP FYQSFTB RVF FM QSPEVDUP QFSNJUF DBODFMBS GBD

UPSFT OP OVMPT
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m, n Z p OBUVSBMFT DPO p = 0. %FNVFTUSF
mp = np m = n.
1SJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO

$PNP WFSFNPT B DPOUJOVBDJO FTUF QSJODJQJP QVFEF EFEVDJSTF EFM QSJO
DJQJP EF JOEVDDJO JODMVTP TPO MHJDBNFOUF FRVJWBMFOUFT FT EFDJS TF
JNQMJDBO NVUVBNFOUF
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO 1#0
4FB A N OP WBDP
&OUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP A UJFOF VO NFOPS FMFNFOUP FT EFDJS FYJTUF m A
UBM RVF m a, a A (m FT FM NOJNP EF A).
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP FT MP FTUOEBS BM BQMJDBS FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
EFOJNPT VO DPOKVOUP RVF UFOHB MPT FMFNFOUPT DPO MB QSPQJFEBE EFTFB
EB %FOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S = {n N : ( a A) (n a)}.
$PNP A = FYJTUF a A /PUFNPT RVF N S QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF VO

OBUVSBM RVF OP FTU FO S, B TBCFS a +1
/ S ZB RVF a +1 > a
1PS UBOUP
S = N QFSP 0 S. -VFHP MB DPOEJDJO JJ
EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO OP
TF DVNQMF FYJTUF m S UBM RVF m + 1 / S 7FBNPT RVF FTUF FMFNFOUP
m SFTVMUB TFS FM NOJNP EF A DPNP m S FOUPODFT m a a A
TPMP SFTUB WFS RVF m A &O FGFDUP EBEP RVF m + 1 / S FOUPODFT
FYJTUF VO a A UBM RVF m + 1 > a &M &KFSDJDJP E
JNQMJDB RVF
a m Z QPS PUSB QBSUF m a MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m = a A.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB
&KFSDJDJP 4FB m N KP %FNVFTUSF RVF OP FYJTUFO ONFSPT

OBUVSBMFT k UBMFT RVF m < k < m + 1.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FT VOB NPEJDBDJO EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
Z TVFMF MMBNBSTF QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO DPNQMFUB &T DPOTFDVFODJB EFM
1#0 QSJODJQJP EFM CVFO PSEFO
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO DPNQMFUB
4FBO a N KP Z
S {k N : k a} UBMFT RVF
J
a S,
JJ
4J QBSB UPEP j N DPO a j n, j S FOUPODFT n + 1 S.

&OUPODFT S = {k N : k a}
0CTFSWBDJO &TUF QSJODJQJP EJFSF FO TVT EPT DPOEJDJPOFT EFM EBEP

QPS FM RVJOUP BYJPNB EF 1FBOP -B QSJNFSB EJGFSFODJB FT RVF FM OBUVSBM a
QVFEF TFS EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP MB TFHVOEB FT RVF QBSB RVF n + 1 QFSUFOF[DB
B S FYJHF RVF a, a + 1, , n FTUO FO S MB UFSDFSB EJGFSFODJB FT RVF MB
DPODMVTJO OP FT RVF S = N TJOP RVF MB DPODMVTJO FT RVF
S = {k N : k a}.
%FNPTUSBDJO 6TBSFNPT QSVFCB JOEJSFDUB FTUP FT TVQPOHBNPT RVF

S = {k N : k a} Z EFOBNPT A = {k N : k a} S 1PS FM TV
QVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP SFTVMUB RVF A = . 1PS FM 1#0 BQMJDBEP BM
DPOKVOUP A FYJTUF VO NFOPS FMFNFOUP m A UBM RVF m k, k A
$PNP m A FOUPODFT m a Z m / S 1PS MB IJQUFTJT J
OFDFTBSJB
NFOUF m > a. &TUP HBSBOUJ[B RVF m = 0 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM
p UBM RVF m = p+ "SNBNPT RVF BMHVOP EF MPT ONFSPT a, a + 1, , p
OP FTU FO S ZB RVF TJ UPEPT QFSUFOFDJFSBO BM DPOKVOUP S FOUPODFT QPS
MB IJQUFTJT JJ
TF UFOESB RVF p+ = m UBNCJO FTUBSB FO S MP DVBM OP
FT DJFSUP 4FB FOUPODFT l UBM ONFSP OBUVSBM RVF OP FTU FO S Z OPUFNPT
RVF a < l p < p+ = m. %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT IBMMBEP VO OBUVSBM
l A DPO l < m DPOUSBEJDJFOEP BT MB NJOJNBMJEBE EFM ONFSP m. &TUB
DPOUSBEJDDJO EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

" DPOUJOVBDJO QSFTFOUBNPT VOB WFSTJO EFM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO

RVF FT DPNP VOB iDPNCJOBDJOu EF MBT EPT BOUFSJPSFT -B DPNCJOBDJO TF
FYQMJDB FO RVF MB QSJNFSB DPOEJDJO FT DPNP FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
DPNQMFUB Z MB TFHVOEB DPOEJDJO DPNP FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
EBEP QPS "1
FT EFDJS QBSB RVF FM TVDFTPS EF n a QFSUFOF[DB BM
DPOKVOUP S TF SFRVJFSF RVF n MP FTU /P TF FYJHF RVF a, a + 1, , n
FTUO FO S
5FPSFNB 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO

4FBO a N KP Z
S {k N : k a}
UBMFT RVF
J
a S,
JJ
( n a) (n S n + 1 S).
&OUPODFT S = {k N : k a}

%FNPTUSBDJO #BTUB QSPCBS RVF TF DVNQMF MB DPOEJDJO JJ

EFM QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJO DPNQMFUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF j N DPO a j n
Z UBM RVF j S 1SPCFNPT RVF n + 1 S. &TUP FT JONFEJBUP ZB RVF
j = n S DPO n a Z QPS MB IJQUFTJT JJ
EF FTUF UFPSFNB TF DPODMVZF
RVF n + 1 S. 2VFEB BT EFNPTUSBEP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
0CTFSWBDJO "M SFBMJ[BS VOB MFDUVSB DVJEBEPTB EF MBT QSVFCBT RVF IF
NPT QSFTFOUBEP FO FTUB TFDDJO FT JNQPSUBOUF OPUBS RVF IFNPT QSPCBEP
MP TJHVJFOUF
"1
1#0 1SJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO DPNQMFUB 5FPSFNB
7FSFNPT RVF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO UBNCJO JNQMJDB FM BYJPNB
"1
DPNQMFUOEPTF BT FM DJDMP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB FRVJWBMFODJB EF UPEPT
FTUPT QSJODJQJPT 1PS FTUB SB[O TF TVFMF BTJHOBS FM OPNCSF EF QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJO NBUFNUJDB B DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUPT QSJODJQJPT
5FPSFNB &M QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO JNQMJDB FM BYJPNB EF 1FBOP
"1

%FNPTUSBDJO 5PNBEB EF <+(3>
4FB a N KP WFSJDBOEP FM QSJO
DJQJP EF JOEVDDJO 7FBNPT RVF TF DVNQMF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
EBEP QPS "1
4FB S N UBM RVF
(i1 ) 0 S,
(i2 ) ( n N) (n S n + 1 S)
%FCFNPT EFNPTUSBS QBSB DVMNJOBS MB QSVFCB RVF S = N. 1BSB FMMP TF
JOUSPEVDFO MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
U = {k N : ( s S) (k = a + s)}, T = {k N : k a}.
&T JONFEJBUP RVF U T. &O SFBMJEBE U = T 1BSB EFNPTUSBSMP WBNPT
B VUJMJ[BS FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO QSJNFSP OPUFNPT RVF a U QVFT
a = a + 0 Z 0 S QPS (i1 ) "IPSB WFBNPT RVF TF DVNQMF MB DPOEJDJO
JJ
DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO 4FB n a, n U
-VFHP FYJTUF s S UBM RVF n = a + s Z BT n + 1 = a + (s + 1). 1PS
MB IJQUFTJT (i2 ) UFOFNPT RVF s + 1 S Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB n + 1 U.
)FNPT QSPCBEP RVF TJ n U DPO n a FOUPODFT n+1 U. &M QSJODJQJP
EF JOEVDDJO JNQMJDB RVF U = T. 1BSB UFSNJOBS MB QSVFCB CBTUB WFS
RVF N S ZB RVF QPS IJQUFTJT TF UJFOF MB JODMVTJO JOWFSTB 4FB m N
Z OUFTF RVF m + a a MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m + a T = U. 1PS UBOUP
FYJTUF s S UBM RVF m + a = a + s , FTUP FT m = s . $PNP s S
FOUPODFT m S Z BT RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF S = N Z RVFEB UBNCJO
EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJO J
6OB QSVFCB EJSFDUB EFM UFPSFNB QSFWJP DPOTJTUF FO UP
NBS a = 0 FO FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
JJ
&O MB QSDUJDB FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO TVFMF BQMJDBSTF NT FO
USNJOPT EF QSPQJFEBEFT RVF FO USNJOPT EF DPOKVOUPT Z TF VTB EF MB
TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB TFBO a N KP Z Pn VOB QSPQJFEBE RVF TF DVNQMF
QBSB FM ONFSP OBUVSBM n &OUPODFT Pn FT DJFSUB QBSB UPEPT MPT ONFSPT
OBUVSBMFT EFM DPOKVOUP {k N : k a} TJFNQSF RVF
B
Pa TFB WFSEBEFSB QBTP CBTF

C
4J Pk TF DVNQMF DPO k a FOUPODFT Pk+1 UBNCJO QBTP JOEVDUJWP

&KFSDJDJP 6UJMJDF FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO NBUFNUJDB DVBOEP TFB
FM DBTP QBSB EFNPTUSBS MBT TJHVJFOUFT QSPQPTJDJPOFT
4FBO f : N N Z g : N N EPT GVODJPOFT 4FBO p Z q OBUVSBMFT
UBMFT RVF q p Z p FTU KP 4F EFOF MB OPUBDJO

p
q+1
q
f (i) = f (p), f (i) = f (i) + f (q + 1) TJ q > p.
i=p i=p i=p
%FNVFTUSF RVF TJ m Z n TPO OBUVSBMFT KPT FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM k p TF DVNQMF RVF

k
k
k
[m f (i) + n g(i)] = m f (i) + n g(i).
i=p i=p i=p
0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MB EFOJDJO TF EFEVDF RVF

k
f (i) = f (p) + f (p + 1) + + f (k). (7FS QJF EF QHJOB ).
i=p

n
1BSB UPEP n 1 TF UJFOF RVF 2(1+2+ +n) = 2 i = n(n+1).
i=1
1BSB UPEP n 1 TF UJFOF RVF

n
6(12 + 22 + + n2 ) = 6 i2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
i=1

k

&T QPS FTUP RVF MB OPUBDJO f (i) TF MFF DPNP MB TVNB EF MPT f (i) WBSJBOEP i
i=p
EFTEF p IBTUB k.


n
1BSB UPEP n 1 : 4(13 + 23 + + n3 ) = 4 i3 = n2 (n + 1)2 .
i=1
7FS QJF EF QHJOB

1BSB UPEP n 1 TF UJFOF RVF 3[1 2 + 2 3 + + n(n + 1)] =

n
3 i(i + 1) = n(n + 1)(n + 2).
i=1
$PNCJOBOEP MPT SFTVMUBEPT EF MPT &KFSDJDJPT Z TF EFNVFTUSB

FM &KFSDJDJP TJO VUJMJ[BS JOEVDDJO +VTUJRVF FTUB BSNBDJO

n
1BSB UPEP n N TF DVNQMF RVF [2i+1] = (n+1)2 . 1SPQPSDJPOF
i=0
VOB JOUFSQSFUBDJO EF FTUF SFTVMUBEP

n
%FNVFTUSF RVF n N, (2i + 1)3 = (n + 1)2 (2n2 + 4n + 1).
i=0

n
%FEV[DB VOB GSNVMB QBSB 6k(k + 1).
k=1
4FBO f : N N VOB GVODJO Z m < n OBUVSBMFT KPT %FNVFTUSF

MB QSPQJFEBE MMBNBEB TVNB UFMFTDQJDB

n
[f (i + 1) f (i)] = f (n + 1) f (m).
i=m
4FBO p, q, n N DPO p 1 Z q 1 KPT 4F EFOF q 0 = 1 Z QBSB

n > 0 q n+1 := q n q.
B
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n TF DVNQMF
RVF q n q m = q n+m .
C
4J p < q FOUPODFT pn < q n .
1BSB UPEP n N UFOFNPT RVF 3n 2n + 1.
1BSB UPEP n 6, 2n > 7n.
1BSB UPEP n 4, 3n > n3 .
1BSB UPEP n 4, 3n > 3n + 25.

/PUF RVF EF MPT FKFSDJDJPT Z TF EFEVDF RVF n 1, 13 + 23 + + n3 =
(1 + 2 + + n)2 .

4FBO k VO OBUVSBM KP Z n N 1SVFCF MB TJHVJFOUF EFTJHVBMEBE

MMBNBEB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ (1 + k)n 1 + nk.
4F EFOF FM GBDUPSJBM EF VO OBUVSBM n BT
0! := 1; n! := 1 2 3 n,
TJ n 1. 1SVFCF RVF TJ n 4 FOUPODFT 2n < n! < nn .
/PUB "MHVOPT FKFSDJDJPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FTUF DBQUVMP GVFSPO FYUSB

EPT EFM UFYUP i5FPSB EF ONFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFTu
'BDVMUBE
EF $JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB EF MPT BVUPSFT - 3 +JN
OF[ #FDFSSB + & (PSEJMMP "SEJMB Z ( / 3VCJBOP 0SUFHO 4JNJMBSNFOUF
BMHVOBT JEFBT Z EFNPTUSBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEBT TF FYUSBDUBSPO EF BMM PC
WJBNFOUF DPO MB BVUPSJ[BDJO EF MPT BVUPSFT

$BQUVMP
-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
3FDPSEFNPT RVF UPEB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO VO DPOKVOUP PSJHJOB

VOB QBSUJDJO EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP FO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB .T FYBD
UBNFOUF TJ R FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO VO DPOKVOUP U OP
WBDP FOUPODFT FTUF RVFEB QBSUJDJPOBEP FO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z FO
DPOTFDVFODJB QBSB a U TF EFOF MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB EF a DPNP
[a] := {x U : x R a}.
%F JONFEJBUP TF QVFEF WFS RVF [b] = [a] b R a b [a].
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b U Z R VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB EFOJEB

FO U . 1SVFCF RVF
[b] = [a] b R a b [a].
$POTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT

%JTQPOJFOEP IBTUB BIPSB TPMP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT FYJTUFO QSPCMF
NBT RVF OP UJFOFO TPMVDJO 1PS FKFNQMP FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM x UBM RVF
x + 8 = 2 P x + 16 = 10 &O SFBMJEBE IBZ NVDIBT FDVBDJPOFT TJNJMBSFT
RVF OP UJFOFO TPMVDJO FO FM DPOKVOUP N. &TUP PCMJHB B DSFBS PUSP TJTUFNB
OVNSJDP EPOEF FTUB TJUVBDJO TF QVFEB SFTPMWFS 4J SFQSFTFOUBNPT MPT
ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT JOWPMVDSBEPT FO DBEB VOB EF MBT FDVBDJPOFT BOUFSJP
SFT FO QBSFKBT FT EFDJS (2, 8) Z (10, 16) OPUBNPT RVF 2 + 16 = 8 + 10
$PO FTUP MUJNP QSFUFOEFNPT EBS VOB MJHFSB NPUJWBDJO EF MB NBOFSB
DPNP WBNPT B DPOTUSVJS FTUF DPOKVOUP OVNSJDP
%FOJDJO &O FM DPOKVOUP N N := N2 EFOJNPT MB SFMBDJO EF

MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
(m, n) (p, q) m + q = n + p.

1SPQPTJDJO -B SFMBDJO EFOJEB FO N2 FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJ

WBMFODJB
%FNPTUSBDJO &O SFBMJEBE FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB EFOJDJO Z EF RVF

MB JHVBMEBE FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB -B SFFYJWJEBE Z MB TJNF
USB TPO JONFEJBUBT 7FBNPT MB USBOTJUJWJEBE TFBO (m, n), (p, q) Z (r, s)
FMFNFOUPT EF N2 UBMFT RVF (m, n) (p, q) Z (p, q) (r, s) -VFHP
m + q = n + p Z p + s = q + r Z BM BQMJDBS FM 5FPSFNB PCUFOFNPT
RVF m + q + s = n + p + s Z p + s + n = q + r + n %F FTUP DPODMVJNPT
RVF m + s = r + n MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF (m, n) (r, s)
-BT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB PSJHJOBEBT QPS MB SFMBDJO MBT EFOPUB

NPT [(m, n)] Z FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT FTUBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB DPOT
UJUVZF OVFTUSP QSYJNP DPOKVOUP OVNSJDP

%FOJDJO &M DPOKVOUP EF MBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB N2 MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS Z FT
EFDJS
Z := N2 .
&M QBTP B TFHVJS BIPSB FT EFOJS FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT FOUF

SPT MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z EF QSPEVDUP "OUFT EF FTP EFCFNPT SFBMJ[BS
VO QBTP JOUFSNFEJP FM DVBM DPOTJTUF FO EFOJS DJFSUBT PQFSBDJPOFT FO N2
RVF OPT QFSNJUJSO QSFTFOUBS MBT EFOJDJPOFT EF MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP
FO Z.
%FOJDJO %FOJNPT FO FM DPOKVOUP N N MBT TJHVJFOUFT MFZFT EF

DPNQPTJDJO JOUFSOBT

(m, n) (p, q) := (m + p, n + q)
(m, n) (p, q) := (mp + nq, mq + np).
&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z EFOJEBT FO N N

TPO DPONVUBUJWBT Z BTPDJBUJWBT
1SPQPTJDJO -B SFMBDJO FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z

EFOJEBT FO N N
%FNPTUSBDJO %FCFNPT NPTUSBS RVF TJ (m, n) (p, q) Z (m , n )

(p , q ) FOUPODFT

(m, n) (m , n ) (p, q) (p , q )

(m, n) (m , n ) (p, q) (p , q ).

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
7FBNPT MB TFHVOEB EF FMMBT Z EBEP RVF MB QSJNFSB FT TFODJMMB MB EFKBNPT

DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS 1VFTUP RVF

(m, n) (m , n ) = (mm + nn , mn + nm )

(p, q) (p , q ) = (pp + qq , pq + qp ),
EFCFNPT DPODMVJS RVF
mm + nn + pq + qp = mn + nm + pp + qq .
&GFDUJWBNFOUF EF MBT IJQUFTJT PCUFOFNPT RVF
m + q = p + n mm + qm = pm + nm

p+n=m+q pn + nn = mn + qn
m + q = p + n pm + pq = pp + pn
p + n = m + q

qp + qn = qm + qq .
4VNBOEP FTUBT DVBUSP JHVBMEBEFT EF MB EFSFDIB Z VUJMJ[BOEP MB QSPQJFEBE

DBODFMBUJWB EF MB TVNB FO OBUVSBMFT MMFHBNPT B
&TUP UFSNJOB MB
EFNPTUSBDJO EF MB QSPQPTJDJO

-B JNQPSUBODJB EF MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE SBEJDB FO RVF QFSNJUF EFOJS

PQFSBDJPOFT FOUSF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z BEFNT RVF EJDIBT PQFSBDJP
OFT TPO JOEFQFOEJFOUFT EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF RVF TF FTDPKBO
%FOJDJO 4FBO [(m, n)], [(p, q)] Z %FOJNPT MB TVNB FOUSF
FMMPT EFOPUBEB QPS i + u EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] := [(m, n) (p, q)].
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVNB FO Z FTU CJFO EFOJEB FTUP FT RVF MB TVNB FT
JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF FTDPHJEPT 4FBO (m , n )
(m, n) Z (p , q ) (p, q) $PNP Z TPO DPNQBUJCMFT FOUPODFT
(m , n ) (p , q ) (m, n) (p, q)
Z QPS UBOUP [(m , n ) (p , q )] = [(m, n) (p, q)], MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF
[(m , n )] + [(p , q )] = [(m, n)] + [(p, q)]
%FOJDJO 4FBO [(m, n)], [(p, q)] Z %FOJNPT FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF
FMMPT EFOPUBEP QPS i u EF MB TJHVJFOUF GPSNB
[(m, n)] [(p, q)] := [(m, n) (p, q)].
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO EFOJEB FO Z FT JOEFQFO

EJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF FTDPHJEPT

&O FM QSYJNP UFPSFNB SFTVNJNPT MBT QSJODJQBMFT QSPQJFEBEFT EF

MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z EF QSPEVDUP EFOJEBT FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT
ONFSPT FOUFSPT
5FPSFNB -BT PQFSBDJPOFT i + u Z i u EFOJEBT FO Z TBUJTGBDFO MBT
TJHVJFOUFT QSPQJFEBEFT
B
4PO BTPDJBUJWBT Z DPONVUBUJWBT
C
5JFOFO VO OJDP FMFNFOUP OFVUSP [(0, 0)] FT FM NEVMP EF MB TVNB
Z [(1, 0)] FT FM OFVUSP EFM QSPEVDUP
D
-B TVNB FT JOWFSUJWB EBEP VO FOUFSP [(m, n)] TV JOWFSTP BEJUJWP
FT [(n, m)] FT OJDP

E
&M QSPEVDUP FT EJTUSJCVUJWP DPO SFTQFDUP B MB TVNB
%FNPTUSBDJO B
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB EFOJDJO EF MBT PQFSBDJP
OFT i + u i u Z EF MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE Z DPONVUBUJWJEBE EF Z EF .
C
4FB [(m, n)] Z &OUPODFT
[(m, n)] + [(0, 0)] = [(m, n) (0, 0)] = [(m, n)].
1PS PUSB QBSUF UFOFNPT RVF
[(m, n)][(1, 0)] = [(m, n)(1, 0)] = [(m1+n0, m0+n1)] = [(m, n)].
-B VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB TF TJHVF GDJMNFOUF EFM IFDIP

[(p, p)] = [(0, 0)] QBSB UPEP p N. 7FBNPT MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QB
SB FM QSPEVDUP TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF [(p, q)] Z UBM RVF QBSB UPEP
[(m, n)] Z TF DVNQMF RVF [(m, n)] [(p, q)] = [(m, n)] FTUP FT
mp + nq + n = mq + np + m.
$MBSBNFOUF [(p, q)] = [(0, 0)], FT EFDJS p = q. 1PS MB USJDPUPNB FO MPT

OBUVSBMFT TF UJFOF VOP EF MPT EPT DBTPT p < q p > q. 7FBNPT RVF FM
QSJNFSP OP QVFEF PDVSSJS TJ BT GVFTF FYJTUJSB VO OBUVSBM j UBM RVF
p + j + = q.
4VTUJUVZFOEP FO
MMFHBSBNPT B RVF n(j + + 1) = m(j + + 1) MP DVBM
QPS FM &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDBSB RVF m = n &T EFDJS [(m, n)] = [(0, 0)]
QBSB UPEP FOUFSP [(m, n)], RVF FT JNQPTJCMF &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO QSVFCB
RVF MB OJDB QPTJCJMJEBE FT p > q. 7FBNPT RVF OFDFTBSJBNFOUF p = q +1.
&O FGFDUP FYJTUF k N UBM RVF q + k + = p Z BM SFFNQMB[BS FO
PCUFOFNPT RVF mk + + n = nk + + m EF EPOEF TF TJHVF RVF mk = nk

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
-VFHP k = 0 QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP UFOESBNPT RVF m = n FT EFDJS

[(m, n)] = [(0, 0)] QBSB UPEP FOUFSP [(m, n)]. )FNPT QSPCBEP BT RVF
p = q + 1 MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF [(p, q)] = [(q + 1, q)] = [(1, 0)] %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP FO FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
D
/PUFNPT RVF EBEP [(m, n)] Z TF UJFOF RVF
[(m, n)] + [(n, m)] = [(m + n, n + m)] = [(0, 0)].
-B VOJDJEBE FT TJNQMF EF QSPCBS

E
&T VOB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF RVF JOWJUBNPT BM MFDUPS B SFBMJ[BSMB

&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF MB TVNB FO MPT FOUFSPT TBUJTGBDF MB QSPQJFEBE

DBODFMBUJWB
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] = [(m, n)] + [(r, s)] [(p, q)] = [(r, s)].
0CTFSWBDJO %F BDVFSEP DPO MB OPUBDJO FTUBCMFDJEB FO FM DBQUVMP

QBSB MPT JOWFSTPT BEJUJWPT WBNPT B EFOPUBS FM PQVFTUP EF VO FOUFSP
[(m, n)] QPS [(m, n)]. 1PS UBOUP BM DPNCJOBS FTUP DPO MB QBSUF D
EFM
UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS UFOFNPT RVF
[(n, m)] = [(m, n)].
-B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJO FT MMFWBS MB FTDSJUVSB EF MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT B

VOB GPSNB HJM TJO VTBS MB OPUBDJO EF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB &O FTB
EJSFDDJO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO TFS EF HSBO VUJMJEBE
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB [(p, q)] Z &YJTUF VO OJDP OBUVSBM n UBM RVF
VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT JHVBMEBEFT TF DVNQMF
[(p, q)] = [(n, 0)] P [(p, q)] = [(0, n)].
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP p Z q TPO OBUVSBMFT MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNB HBSBOUJ[B

RVF TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT UJFOF MVHBS
p = q, p < q, p > q.
4J PDVSSF MB QSJNFSB FOUPODFT DPO n = 0 TF DVNQMF MB QSPQPTJDJO

&O FM TFHVOEP DBTP FYJTUF VO OJDP OBUVSBM m UBM RVF p + m+ = q Z
BT [(p, q)] = [(p, p + m+ )] = [(0, m+ )], EF EPOEF TF UJFOF FM SFTVMUBEP
UPNBOEP n = m+ . 'JOBMNFOUF TJ p > q FYJTUF VO OJDP OBUVSBM k UBM
RVF q + k + = p Z DPNP BOUFT [(p, q)] = [(q + k + , q)] = [(k + , 0)], Z FM
SFTVMUBEP TF PCUJFOF UPNBOEP n = k + .

&OTFHVJEB WBNPT B QSPCBS RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSB

MFT FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT 1BSB
FTUF QSPQTJUP WBNPT B OFDFTJUBS MB BZVEB EF VO DPODFQUP BMHFCSBJDP
JTPNPSTNP -P RVF FTU EFUST EF VO JTPNPSTNP FT QSFDJTBS DVOEP
DJFSUB DMBTF EF DPOKVOUPT TPO FTUSVDUVSBMNFOUF JHVBMFT JOEFQFOEJFOUF
NFOUF EF RVF TVT FMFNFOUPT TFBO EJGFSFOUFT
6OB BQMJDBDJO f : X Y
FOUSF EPT DPOKVOUPT EPUBEPT EFM NJTNP UJQP EF FTUSVDUVSB FT VO JTPNPS
TNP DVBOEP DBEB FMFNFOUP EF Y QSPWJFOF EF VO OJDP FMFNFOUP EF
X Z f USBOTGPSNB MBT PQFSBDJPOFT SFMBDJPOFT FUD RVF UFOFNPT FO X
FO MBT RVF UFOFNPT FO Y NT QSFDJTBNFOUF MBT QSFTFSWB $VBOEP FOUSF
EPT FTUSVDUVSBT IBZ VO JTPNPSTNP BNCBT TPO JOEJTUJOHVJCMFT UJFOFO
MBT NJTNBT QSPQJFEBEFT
%FOJDJO 4FBO X Z Y EPT DPOKVOUPT FO MPT DVBMFT IBZ EFOJEBT
PQFSBDJPOFT Z SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF %FDJNPT RVF FTUPT DPOKVOUPT TPO
JTPNPSGPT TJ FYJTUF VOB CJZFDDJO f : X Y UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x, y X
TF UJFOF RVF f (xy) = f (x)f (y). -B GVODJO f TF MMBNB VO JTPNPSTNP
$PO FM OJNP EF QSPCBS RVF N Z JOUSPEVDJNPT VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF
Z EFOJEP QPS
:= {[(n, 0)] : n N}
N
Z UBNCJO EFOJNPT J : N N QPS J (n) = [(n, 0)]. 7FBNPT RVF J
FT CJZFDUJWB MB TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
J (n) = J (m) -VFHP (n, 0) (m, 0) Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB n = m.
&TUP QSVFCB RVF J FT JOZFDUJWP Z QPS UBOUP FT CJZFDUJWP 'JOBMNFOUF
WFBNPT RVF J QSFTFSWB MBT PQFSBDJPOFT TVNB Z QSPEVDUP EFOJEBT FO
NZN SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
J (n + m) = [(n + m, 0)] = [(n, 0) (m, 0)] = [(n, 0)] + [(m, 0)]

= J (n) + J (m).
J (n m) = [(n m, 0)] = [(n, 0) (m, 0)] = [(n, 0)] [(m, 0)]
= J (n) J (m).
2VFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF J FT VO JTPNPSTNP FOUSF N Z N QPS FMMP QP

EFNPT BSNBS RVF FTUPT DPOKVOUPT TPO JEFOUJDBCMFT JOEJTUJOHVJCMFT P
RVF VOP FT VOB DPQJB EFM PUSP $PNP N FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP EF
Z FOUPODFT QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF N Z. "EFNT QPS FM JTPNPSTNP
QPEFNPT JEFOUJDBS FM OBUVSBM n DPO TV JNBHFO J (n) FO Z, FT EFDJS
[(n, 0)] = n.
"QSPWFDIBOEP FTUP Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF FM PQVFTUP EF [(p, 0)] EF
OPUBEP QPS [(p, 0)]
FT [(0, p)] QPEFNPT BSNBS QPS MB VOJDJEBE EFM

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
JOWFSTP BEJUJWP RVF [(0, p)] = p. "IPSB CJFO EBEP DVBMRVJFS FOUFSP
[(p, q)], JOWPDBOEP MB 1SPQPTJDJO FYJTUF VO OJDP OBUVSBM n UBM
RVF [(p, q)] = [(n, 0)] P CJFO FT JHVBM B [(0, n)] QFSP DBEB VOP EF FTUPT FT
JEFOUJDBEP DPO n P n SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF "T MBT DPTBT FM DPOKVOUP EF
MPT ONFSPT FOUFSPT RVFEB EFTDSJUP EF NBOFSB TJNQMJDBEB FO MB GPSNB
DMTJDB DPNP TF MFT DPOPDF TJO DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB
Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}.
)BTUB BIPSB FO FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT FOUFSPT IFNPT EFOJEP EPT PQFSB

DJPOFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP $PO MB OPUBDJO EFM JOWFSTP QPEFNPT
JOUSPEVDJS VOB UFSDFSB
%FOJDJO %BEPT EPT FOUFSPT m Z n EFOJNPT TV EJGFSFODJB EF

OPUBEB QPS m n DPNP m + (n).
*OUSPEVDJNPT MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJO N := N {0}
5FPSFNB 4FBO m, n Z k ONFSPT FOUFSPT &OUPODFT
B
&M PQVFTUP EFM PQVFTUP EF m FT m, FT EFDJS (m) = m.
C
4F DVNQMF MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNB FO Z FTUP FT TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT
TJHVJFOUFT BSNBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF m = 0, m N , m N .
D
m 0 = 0.
E
4F UJFOF MB MMBNBEB MFZ EF TJHOPT BMHFCSBJDPT
m(n) = (mn) = (m)n, (m)(n) = mn.
F
4F DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP TJ mn = mk Z
m = 0 FOUPODFT n = k.
G
/P IBZ EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FTUP FT TJ mn = 0 FOUPODFT m = 0 P
n = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJO 1PS DPNPEJEBE Z GPSUBMF[B FO MPT BSHVNFOUPT VTBSFNPT

MB OPUBDJO EF DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB QBSB VO FOUFSP
B
1VFTUP RVF m + (m) = 0 Z FM PQVFTUP FT OJDP FTUB JHVBMEBE
EJDF RVF m FT FM PQVFTUP EF m FM DVBM FT EFOPUBEP QPS (m). &TUP
EFNVFTUSB MB BSNBDJO
C
7FBNPT QSJNFSP RVF EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT OP QVFEFO EBSTF TJNVM
UOFBNFOUF MBT EPT QSJNFSBT PSJHJOBO VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO MB QSJNFSB Z

MB UFSDFSB UBNCJO PSJHJOBO VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO ZB RVF FO FTF DBTP UFO

ESBNPT m = 0 Z m = 0 Z DPNP N Z QPS UBOUP m, m Z "MM
m = 0 UJFOF DPNP OJDP JOWFSTP B m = 0 'JOBMNFOUF TJ PDVSSJFSBO
TJNVMUOFBNFOUF MBT EPT MUJNBT FOUPODFT UFOESBNPT RVF m, m N
Z UBOUP m DPNP m TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP MP RVF JNQMJDBSB RVF FYJT
UJSBO OBUVSBMFT p Z q UBMFT RVF m = p+ Z m = q + . .JSBOEP FTUPT
OBUVSBMFT DPNP FOUFSPT TF UFOESB RVF
0 = [(0, 0)] = m + (m) = [(p+ , 0)] + [(q + , 0)] = [(p+ + q + , 0)]

= p+ + q + = (p+ + q)+ .
&TUP DPOUSBEJSB FM BYJPNB "1

EF 1FBOP
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF BM NFOPT VOB EF MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT T PDVSSF TV
QPOHBNPT RVF m = 0 Z QSPCFNPT RVF m N m N . 1PS MB
1SPQPTJDJO m FT EF MB GPSNB [(n, 0)] P CJFO m = [(0, n)] QBSB
BMHO OBUVSBM n = 0. &O FM QSJNFS DBTP TF UJFOF JONFEJBUBNFOUF RVF
m = n N EFM TFHVOEP DBTP TF MMFHB B RVF
m + [(n, 0)] = [(0, n)] + [(n, 0)] = [(0, 0)] = 0.
-VFHP [(n, 0)] FT FM PQVFTUP EF m Z QPS VOJDJEBE EF FTUF PCUFOFNPT RVF

m = [(n, 0)] = n N .
D
4FB m = [(p, q)] Z. &OUPODFT [(p, q)] [(0, 0)] = [(0, 0)].
E
1PS FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS Z MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB UFOFNPT RVF
0 = m 0 = m(n + n) = m(n) + mn,
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF m(n) FT FM PQVFTUP EF mn Z QPS MB VOJ

DJEBE EF FTUF FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF m(n) = (mn). %F NBOF
SB TJNJMBS 0 = n 0 = n(m + m) = (m)n + mn JNQMJDB RVF
(m)n = (mn) $PNP FTUP FT WMJEP QBSB UPEP QBS EF FOUFSPT m
Z n FOUPODFT DBNCJBOEP n QPS n Z VTBEP OVFWBNFOUF B
UFOFNPT
RVF (m)(n) = [m(n)] = [(mn)] = mn.
F
%FOPUFNPT m = [(p, q)], n = [(r, s)] Z k = [(u, v)]. -B IJQUFTJT
OPT QSPQPSDJPOB MB JHVBMEBE [(pr + qs, ps + qr)] = [(pu + qv, pv + qu)],
FTUP FT
pr + qs + pv + qu = ps + qr + pu + qv.
1VFTUP RVF m = 0 FOUPODFT p = q Z QPS UBOUP QPS 5SJDPUPNB FO MPT

OBUVSBMFT TF UJFOF RVF p < q P q < p. &O MB QSJNFSB TJUVBDJO p+j + = q
QBSB BMHO OBUVSBM j. 3FFNQMB[BOEP FO
TF PCUJFOF RVF
j + (s + u) = j + (r + v),

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF [(r, s)] = [(u, v)] FT EFDJS n = k. &O FM TFHVOEP
DBTP TF SB[POB EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS
G
4VQPOHBNPT RVF m = 0. %BEP RVF MB IJQUFTJT TF QVFEF FTDSJCJS
mn = m 0, FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS JNQMJDB RVF n = 0.

%FOJDJO 4FBO m Z n FOUFSPT %FDJNPT RVF m < n TJ nm N

Z EFDJNPT RVF m n TJ n m N. -BT BSNBDJPOFT m n Z m > n
TJHOJDBO n m Z n < m SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
/PUFNPT RVF EF FTUB EFOJDJO TF EFTQSFOEF RVF MB
QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNB FO Z QVFEF FOVODJBSTF EF NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF
BT EBEP VO FOUFSP m TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF
DVNQMF
m = 0, m > 0, m < 0.
$VBOEP VO FOUFSP m FT UBM RVF m > 0 EFDJNPT RVF EJDIP FOUFSP FT
QPTJUJWP Z TJ TBUJTGBDF m < 0 EFDJNPT RVF FT OFHBUJWP
JJ
&O FM DBTP FO FM RVF m Z n TFBO OBUVSBMFT DPNP N Z FOUPODFT
MB SFMBDJO EF DPNQBSBDJO i < u SFDJO EFOJEB FO Z DPJODJEF DPO MB
EFOJEB FO FM DPOKVOUP N FT EFDJS TJ EFOPUSBNPT FTUBT SFMBDJPOFT DPNP
<N Z <Z FOUPODFT m <N n m <Z n 3FDPSEFNPT RVF m Z n MPT
QPEFNPT JEFOUJDBS DPO [(m, 0)] Z [(n, 0)] SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF Z BT
m <Z n [(m, 0)] <Z [(n, 0)] [(n, 0)] [(m, 0)] N
[(n, 0)] + [(0, m)] N
[(n, m)] N [(n, m)] = p+ = [(p+ , 0)]
n = p+ + m, QBSB BMHO OBUVSBM p
m <N n.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO m Z n FOUFSPT 1SVFCF
m n (m < n m = n).
&KFSDJDJP .VFTUSF RVF TJ k N Z k N FOUPODFT k = 0.

5FPSFNB -B SFMBDJO i u EFOJEB FO Z TBUJTGBDF MP TJHVJFOUF
B
&T VO PSEFO UPUBM MP RVF TJHOJDB RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO
SFFYJWB BOUJTJNUSJDB Z USBOTJUJWB
Z RVF EPT FMFNFOUPT m, n Z
TPO DPNQBSBCMFT m n n m

C
&T DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB TVNB n m n m n+n m+m .
D
n m n + k m + k.

E
m n k 0 m k n k.
F
m n k 0 m k n k
%FNPTUSBDJO B
-B SFFYJWJEBE Z MB USBOTJUJWJEBE TPO JONFEJBUBT Z MB
BOUJTJNFUSB FT DPOTFDVFODJB EFM &KFSDJDJP &TUP HBSBOUJ[B RVF EJDIB
SFMBDJO FT VO PSEFO "IPSB CJFO QBSB QSPCBS RVF FT UPUBM QPEFNPT
SB[POBS BT EBEPT EPT FOUFSPT m Z n QPS MB MFZ EF USJDPUPNB FO Z TF
UJFOF RVF TPMBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT QPTJCJMJEBEFT PDVSSF
m n = 0, m n N , n m N .
4J TF UJFOF MB QSJNFSB QPTJCJMJEBE FOUPODFT m = n TJ FT MB TFHVOEB

FOUPODFT n < m Z TJ FT MB UFSDFSB FOUPODFT m < n. &O DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT
DBTPT VTBOEP FM &KFSDJDJP TF PCUJFOF RVF m n P CJFO n m.
C
%FCFNPT WFS RVF m + m (n + n ) N. /PUFNPT RVF TFHO MB
QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB Z MB MFZ EF TJHOPT
m + m (n + n ) = (m n) + (m n )
Z DBEB VOP EF FTUPT USNJOPT QPS MB IJQUFTJT FT VO OBUVSBM Z QPS UBOUP

TV TVNB UBNCJO MP FT
D
&T VOB QSVFCB TJNQMF Z TF EFKB BM MFDUPS
E
1VFTUP RVF n m N Z k N k 0 k N
FOUPODFT
(n m)k N FT EFDJS nk mk N MP DVBM TJHOJDB mk nk.
F
&T TJNJMBS BM BOUFSJPS

0CTFSWBDJO -B SFMBDJO EF DPNQBSBDJO FTUSJDUB i u TBUJTGBDF MBT

NJTNBT QSPQJFEBEFT C
F
FOVODJBEBT FO FM UFPSFNB QSFWJP FT EFDJS
DBNCJBOEP i u QPS i u %FKBNPT BM MFDUPS MPT EFUBMMFT
DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT
7BNPT B QSFTFOUBS FO MB TJHVJFOUF TFDDJO BMHVOBT OPDJPOFT FMFNFO
UBMFT EF UFPSB EF ONFSPT "OUFT EF JOJDJBS FTUVEJBSFNPT FM DPODFQUP
EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP
%FOJDJO 4FB m Z. &M WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF m EFOPUBEP QPS |m|
TF EFOF QPS
m TJ m 0
|m| =
m TJ m < 0.
0CTFSWBNPT RVF QBSB UPEP m Z TF UJFOF RVF |m| 0.

"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO m, n Z. &OUPODFT

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
B
1BSJEBE |m| = | m|.
C
%JTUSJCVZF SFTQFDUP BM QSPEVDUP |mn| = |m| |n|.
D
|m|2 = m2 .
E
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n N . &OUPODFT |m| < n n < m < n.
%FNPTUSBDJO B
#BTUB VTBS MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNB 4J m = 0 MB
JHVBMEBE FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF m > 0. -VFHP | m| = m Z
DPNP m < 0 FOUPODFT QPS MB EFOJDJO | m| = (m) = m = |m|.
&M DBTP m < 0 TF SB[POB EF GPSNB TJNJMBS
C
#BTUB VTBS MB MFZ EF TJHOPT Z DPOTJEFSBS MBT DVBUSP
QPTJCJMJEBEFT
m > 0 n > 0, m < 0 n < 0, m > 0 n < 0 Z m < 0 n > 0.
4J m = 0 P n = 0 MB DPODMVTJO TF UJFOF USJWJBMNFOUF

D
/PUFNPT RVF MB BSNBDJO FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
|m| |m| = m m = (m)(m).
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF MB QSVFCB

E
6TBNPT MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNB BQMJDBEB BM FOUFSP m Z EF DBEB
QPTJCJMJEBE TF EFEVDF MB BSNBDJO

5FPSB CTJDB EF ONFSPT

%VSBOUF UPEB MB IJTUPSJB EFM IPNCSF MPT ONFSPT IBO TJEP VOB OFDFTJ
EBE Z VOB NBOFSB FTUOEBS EF DVBOUJDBS NFEJS FUD "QSPYJNBEBNFO
UF DVBUSP TJHMPT BUST MB UFPSB NPEFSOB EF MPT ONFSPT UVWP TV NBZPS
EFTBSSPMMP DPO MB DPNVOJEBE EF NBUFNUJDPT EF MB QPDB UBOUP RVF B MB
GFDIB FYJTUFO WBSJBT QSFHVOUBT TJO SFTPMWFS -PT QSJODJQBMFT FYQPOFOUFT
GVFSPO 'FSNBU &VMFS -BHSBOHF Z (BVTT " MB GFDIB IBZ QSFNJPT FO NJ
MFT EF EMBSFT QBSB RVJFO SFTVFMWB BMHVOPT EF MPT QSPCMFNBT TJO SFTPMWFS
RVF EF BMHVOB NBOFSB QBSFDFO FTUBS SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO MB EJTUSJCVDJO EF
MPT ONFSPT QSJNPT
6OP EF MPT NT GBNPTPT QSPCMFNBT RVF GVF SFTVFMUP FO QPS "O
ESFX 8JMFT BZVEBEP QPS 3JDIBSE 5BZMPS FT FM MMBNBEP i MUJNP UFPSFNB
EF 'FSNBU u *OJDJBNPT FTUB TFDDJO DPO VO JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB "MHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO

4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT DPO b > 0
&YJTUFO OJDPT FOUFSPT q Z r UBMFT RVF a = bq + r DPO 0 r < b.

%FNPTUSBDJO -B JEFB DFOUSBM EF MB QSVFCB DPOTJTUF FO VTBS FM 1#0 1BSB

FMMP TF JOUSPEVDF FM TJHVJFOUF DPOKVOUP
S = {k N : ( x Z) (k = a bx)}.
7FBNPT RVF FTUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDP QPS USJDPUPNB a 0 a < 0.

%FM QSJNFS DBTP TF UJFOF RVF DPO x = 0, a S QVFT a = a b0 0 EFM
TFHVOEP DBTP DPO x = a Z TF UJFOF RVF a ab S QVFT
a ab = a(1 b) 0.
1PS UBOUP S = . %BEP RVF S N QPS 1#0 FYJTUF r S UBM RVF

r = NO S FT EFDJS s S, r s Z r FT EF MB GPSNB r = a bq QBSB
BMHO q Z. %F FTUP TF UJFOF RVF a = bq + r DPO r 0 Z TPMP SFTUB
QSPCBS RVF r < b Z MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT FOUFSPT q Z r 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
r b &OUPODFT 0 r b = a bq b = a (q + 1)b DPO q + 1 Z
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB r b S. 1PS MB NJOJNBMJEBE r r b Z FOUPODFT
DPODMVJNPT RVF b 0 RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO DPO MB IJQUFTJT &TUP
QSVFCB RVF r < b. 'JOBMNFOUF WFBNPT MB VOJDJEBE TFBO q, q , r, r Z
UBMFT RVF
a = bq + r, 0r<b

a = bq + r , 0 r < b.
-VFHP DPNCJOBOEP MBT JHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT PCUFOFNPT RVF
r r = b(q q )
Z DPNCJOBOEP MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT TF PCUJFOF RVF |r r| < b VTBS MB

1SPQPTJDJO E
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF b|qq | < b MP RVF FT FRVJWBMFOUF

B EFDJS RVF 0 |q q | < 1 FT EFDJS |q q | = 0 EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF
q = q Z BT r = r %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB
&KFNQMP 4FB a Z BSCJUSBSJP "M BQMJDBS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO

DPO b = 2 PCUFOFNPT a = 2q + r QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT q Z r DPO r = 0
P r = 1 4J r = 0 FM FOUFSP a UPNB MB GPSNB a = 2q 6O FOUFSP EF FTUB
GPSNB TF MMBNB FOUFSP QBS TJ r = 1 FOUPODFT a = 2q + 1 TF MMBNB VO
FOUFSP JNQBS $PNP TPMP IBZ EPT PQDJPOFT QBSB FM SFTJEVP r RVFEBO EPT
QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB DBEB FOUFSP FT QBS P CJFO FT JNQBS
&KFSDJDJP 4FB a Z 1SVFCF RVF a FT QBS TJ Z TPMBNFOUF TJ a2 FT QBS

5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF a FT JNQBS TJ Z TPMBNFOUF TJ a2 FT JNQBS "TJNJTNP
EFNVFTUSF RVF MB TVNB EF QBSFT FT QBS RVF MB TVNB EF JNQBSFT FT QBS
Z RVF MB TVNB EF VO FOUFSP QBS DPO VOP JNQBS FT JNQBS

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
" DPOUJOVBDJO JOUSPEVDJNPT FM DPODFQUP EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE DMBWF FO

UPEP MP RVF SFTUB EF FTUF DBQUVMP
%FOJDJO %FDJNPT RVF FM FOUFSP a = 0 EJWJEF BM FOUFSP b P RVF

b FT NMUJQMP EF a
TJ FYJTUF VO FOUFSP q UBM RVF b = aq.
6TBSFNPT MB OPUBDJO a | b QBSB TJHOJDBS DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT TJHVJFO
UFT GSBTFT a EJWJEF BM FOUFSP b a FT EJWJTPS EFM FOUFSP b b FT NMUJQMP
EF a
3FTVNJNPT BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB OPDJO EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE Z EF

KBNPT MPT TJNQMFT EFUBMMFT EF MB QSVFCB BM MFDUPS
5FPSFNB 4FBO a, b Z c ONFSPT FOUFSPT &OUPODFT
B
4J a = 0 FOUPODFT a | 0, a | (a).
C
1 | a Z 1 | a.
D
4J a | b FOUPODFT a | bc.
E
4J a | b Z b | c FOUPODFT a | c.
F
4J a | b Z a | c FOUPODFT a | (bx + cy) QBSB UPEP x, y Z.
G
4J a | b Z b = 0 FOUPODFT |a| |b|.
H
4J a | b Z b | a FOUPODFT a = b a = b.
I
4J a | b Z k = 0 FOUPODFT ka | kb.
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF 24 | (52n 1) QBSB UPEP n N.

-B QSVFCB MB IBSFNPT QPS JOEVDDJO NBUFNUJDB -MBNFNPT Pn B MB
BSNBDJO 24 | (52n 1) &T JONFEJBUB MB WFSBDJEBE EF P0 . 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF Pn FT DJFSUB QBSB n 0 Z QSPCFNPT RVF TF DVNQMF Pn+1 . 1PS MB
IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB FYJTUF VO FOUFSP q UBM RVF 52n 1 = 24q. "IPSB CJFO
52(n+1) 1 = 52n+2 1 = 52 52n 1 = (24 + 1)52n 1

= 24 52n + 52n 1 = 24 52n + 24q
= 24(52n + q).
&TUP TJHOJDB RVF 24 | (52(n+1) 1) Z BT Pn+1 UBNCJO TF DVNQMF 1PS

UBOUP MB BSNBDJO Pn FT WFSEBEFSB QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n.
&KFNQMP 4FB k Z. 1SPCFNPT RVF k, k + 2 P k + 4 FT EJWJTJCMF

QPS

"QMJDBSFNPT FO FTUF FKFNQMP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO 5FPSFNB

&YJTUFO OJDPT FOUFSPT q Z r UBMFT RVF k = 3q + r DPO 0 r < 3.
4J r = 0 FOUPODFT k = 3q TJ r = 1 FOUPODFT k + 2 = 3q + 3 = 3(q + 1)
Z TJ r = 2 FOUPODFT k + 4 = 3q + 6 = 3(q + 2) RVFEBOEP BT QSPCBEB MB
BSNBDJO
&KFSDJDJP
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP FOUFSP n TF UJFOF RVF n(n + 1) TJFNQSF FT
QBS
1SVFCF RVF FM QSPEVDUP EF USFT OBUVSBMFT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF FT

EJWJTJCMF QPS
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n N, n3 + 2n FT NMUJQMP EF 3.
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n N, 52n + 7 FT NMUJQMP EF 8.
1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n N, 7 16n + 3 FT NMUJQMP EF 5.
.VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n n3 n FT NMUJQMP EF 6.
.VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP n N 11n 4n FT EJWJTJCMF QPS 7.

n
4F EFOFO MPT ONFSPT EF 'FSNBU Fn = 22 + 1, n N. 1SVFCF
RVF QBSB UPEP n 1,
F0 F1 Fn1 + 2 = Fn .
%FNVFTUSF RVF NT FM QSPEVDUP EF DVBUSP FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT

FT VO DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP FT EFDJS FT VO FOUFSP EF MB GPSNB k 2 DPO
k Z

%FOJDJO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &M NYJNP
DPNO EJWJTPS EF a Z b EFOPUBEP QPS (a, b) FT FM NBZPS EF UPEPT MPT
EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EF a Z b
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EF EPT FOUFSPT
a Z b OP BNCPT DFSP FT VO DPOKVOUP OJUP QVFT TJ d | a Z a = 0 FOUPODFT
QPS FM 5FPSFNB G
TF UJFOF RVF |d| |a|.

1JFSSF EF 'FSNBU
GVF VO KVSJTUB Z NBUFNUJDP GSBODT " 'FSNBU TF EFCF
VOP EF MPT QSPCMFNBT NT GBNPTPT EF MB NBUFNUJDBT RVF FTUVWP TJO SFTPMWFS IBTUB

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
JJ
&T DMBSP RVF (a, b) = (b, a) .T BO TF UJFOFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
JHVBMEBEFT
(a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b).
&O FGFDUP DPNP (a, b) = NY{d Z : d | a d | b}
(a, b) = NY{D Z : D | a D | (b)},
d | a Z d | b FOUPODFT (a, b) (a, b) 3FDQSPDBNFOUF TF UJFOF RVF

(a, b) (a, b) MP RVF JNQMJDB (a, b) = (a, b) $PO FTUP Z MP BSNBEP
BM JOJDJP FT TVDJFOUF QBSB PCUFOFS MB DPODMVTJO
JJJ
'DJMNFOUF TF EFEVDF RVF (a, b) 1.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FYQSFTB RVF FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS EF a Z b
FT FM NFOPS FOUFSP QPTJUJWP RVF QVFEF TFS FTDSJUP DPNP VOB DPNCJOBDJO
MJOFBM EF a Z b
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &OUPODFT
(a, b) = NO{z N : ( x, y Z) (z = ax + by)}.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO S = {z N : ( x, y Z) (z = ax + by)} Z

d = (a, b). 1SPCFNPT RVF d = NO S. 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B VTBS FM 1#0
*OJDJBMNFOUF DPO x = a, y = b WFNPT RVF S = QVFT z = a2 + b2 > 0
Z z S. 1PS FM 1#0 FYJTUF g S UBM RVF g = NO S Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x0 , y0 UBMFT RVF g = ax0 + by0 . #BTUB FOUPODFT QSPCBS RVF d = g.
$PNP d | a Z d | b FOUPODFT QPS FM 5FPSFNB F
d EJWJEF B DVBMRVJFS
DPNCJOBDJO MJOFBM EF FMMPT FO QBSUJDVMBS d | g Z QPS FM MJUFSBM G
EFM
NJTNP UFPSFNB UFOFNPT RVF d g 4PMP SFTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF g d Z
QBSB MPHSBSMP VTBNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO QBSB OJDPT FOUFSPT q
Z r DPO 0 r < g, UFOFNPT RVF
a = gq + r = q(ax0 + by0 ) + r r = a(1 qx0 ) + b(qy0 ).
4J r > 0 FOUPODFT TF JOFSF RVF r S Z DPNP g FT FM NOJNP EF S

FOUPODFT g r MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF RVF r < g. &O DPOTFDVFODJB r = 0
Z BT a = gq FT EFDJS g | a %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF DPODMVZF RVF g | b Z
DPNP d FT FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS EF a Z b FOUPODFT g d. %F FTUB
GPSNB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJO J
-PT FOUFSPT x, y RVF QFSNJUFO FYQSFTBS FM NYJNP DP
NO EJWJTPS DPNP DPNCJOBDJO MJOFBM OP TPO OJDPT QVFT TJ
(a, b) = ax + by

FOUPODFT (a, b) = a(x + bt) + b(y at) QBSB DVBMRVJFS FOUFSP t.

JJ
4J b = 0 Z b | a FOUPODFT (a, b) = |b|. &O FGFDUP MMBNFNPT
d = (a, b). -VFHP |b| d Z DPNP d | b DPO b = 0 FOUPODFT d |b| 1PS
UBOUP d = |b|.
JJJ
4J d0 = ax + by QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT x, y FTUP OP JNQMJDB RVF
d0 = (a, b) 1PS FKFNQMP 4 = 8(1) + 6(2) QFSP (8, 6) = 4. -P OJDP
RVF TF QVFEF BSNBS FO HFOFSBM FT RVF (a, b) | d0 . 4JO FNCBSHP DPNP
TF QSVFCB B DPOUJOVBDJO MB BSNBDJO T FT DJFSUB DVBOEP d0 = 1.
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP 4J FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF ax + by = 1 FOUPODFT (a, b) = 1.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB d = (a, b). &OUPODFT d | a Z d | b Z QPS UBOUP
d | (ax + by) FT EFDJS d | 1. -VFHP d 1 Z BT d = 1.
0CTFSWBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF d = (a, b). &OUPODFT d | a Z d | b -VFHP

FYJTUFO FOUFSPT ta Z tb UBMFT RVF a = dta Z b = dtb . 5BNCJO FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF d = ax + by Z EF FTUB NBOFSB PCUFOFNPT RVF
d = xdta + ydtb MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF 1 = xta + ytb 1PS MB QSPQPTJDJO
QSFWJB DPODMVJNPT RVF (ta , tb ) = 1.
&M MUJNP UFPSFNB UBNCJO TF UJFOF QBSB VOB DPMFDDJO OJUB EF FO
UFSPT NT QSFDJTBNFOUF
5FPSFNB 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP UPEPT JHVBMFT B DFSP 4J
d := (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) FOUPODFT
d = NO {a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn : ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn Z)
(a1 x1 + a2 x2 + + an xn > 0)}.
%FNPTUSBDJO -B JEFB EF MB QSVFCB FT MB NJTNB RVF QBSB FM DBTP EF EPT

FOUFSPT Z QBSB CFOFDJP EFM MFDUPS MB QSFTFOUBNPT
4FBO
S = {z N : ( x1 , x2 , . . . , xn Z) (z = a1 x1 +a2 x2 + +an xn > 0)}
Z d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ). 1SPCFNPT RVF d = NO S. $PNP BOUFT FM 1#0

FT MB DMBWF 7FNPT RVF S = QVFTUP RVF z = a21 + a22 + + a2n > 0
Z QPS UBOUP z S. 1PS FM 1#0 FYJTUF g S UBM RVF g = NO S Z BT
FYJTUFO FOUFSPT q1 , q2 , . . . , qn UBMFT RVF
g = a1 q1 + a2 q2 + + an qn .
1SPCFNPT RVF g = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) 1VFTUP RVF d | ai QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , n

QPS
PCUFOFNPT RVF d | g ( d g) 4FB aj EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP Z

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
BQMJRVFNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO -VFHP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT qj Z rj UB

MFT RVF aj = g qj + rj DPO 0 rj < g. $PNP FO MB QSVFCB EFM DBTP n = 2
TF DPODMVZF WB DPOUSBEJDDJO RVF rj = 0 &O DPOTFDVFODJB aj = g qj
FT EFDJS g | aj QBSB UPEP j = 1, 2, . . . , n JODMVTP MPT aj RVF TFBO DFSP

%BEP RVF d FT FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS EF MPT ai FOUPODFT g d Z BT
g = d %F FTUB GPSNB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

0USB GPSNB EF DBSBDUFSJ[BS FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS TF QSFTFOUB B

DPOUJOVBDJO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP BNCPT JHVBMFT B DFSP &OUPODFT

d = (a, b) TJ Z TPMP TJ d TBUJTGBDF
(1) d > 0 (2) d | a d | b (3) d | a d | b d | d.
$PO FM QSYJNP SFTVMUBEP JMVTUSBSFNPT VO BMHPSJUNP RVF QFSNJUF DBM

DVMBS FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS
1SPQPTJDJO 4J a = qb + r FOUPODFT (a, b) = (b, r).
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO d = (a, b) Z g = (b, r) "T MBT DPTBT d | a Z d | b

QPS UBOUP DPNP a = qb + r FOUPODFT d | r Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB DPNP g FT
FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS EF b Z r FOUPODFT d g "TJNJTNP TF UJFOF
RVF g | b Z g | r Z QPS FOEF g | (bq + r) FT EFDJS g | a EF MP DVBM TF
TJHVF g d. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF d = g.

$PNP VOB BQMJDBDJO EF MB QSPQPTJDJO BOUFSJPS QSFTFOUBNPT FM BM

HPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT FM DVBM QFSNJUF IBMMBS FM NYJNP DPNO EJWJTPS EF
EPT FOUFSPT
4FBO a Z b EPT FOUFSPT MPT DVBMFT QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF TBUJTGBDFO
0 < b < a ZB RVF
(a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b).
1PS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO UFOFNPT RVF a = bq1 +r1 DPO 0 r1 < b

4J r1 = 0 FOUPODFT b | a Z BT QPS JJ
FO MB PCTFSWBDJO EF MB QHJOB
(a, b) = b. &O FM DBTP r1 = 0 BQMJDBNPT OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF
MB EJWJTJO QBSB PCUFOFS
b = q 2 r1 + r 2 DPO 0 r2 < r1 .
/VFWBNFOUF DPOTJEFSBNPT MBT QPTJCJMJEBEFT r2 = 0 P r2 = 0. %FM QSJNFS

DBTP TF JOFSF RVF r1 | b Z BT QPS MB QSPQPTJDJO QSFWJB
(a, b) = (b, r1 ) = r1 .

4J r2 = 0 OVFWBNFOUF UFOFNPT RVF r1 = q3 r2 + r3 DPO 0 r3 < r2 .

4J r3 = 0 FOUPODFT r2 | r1 Z QPS UBOUP (r2 , r1 ) = r2 1FSP (r1 , r2 ) =
(b, r1 ) = (a, b) JNQMJDB RVF (a, b) = r2 4J r3 = 0 SFQFUJNPT FM QSPDFTP
VO ONFSP OJUP EF QBTPT
IBTUB PCUFOFS VO SFTUP JHVBM B DFSP FTUP FT
QPTJCMF ZB RVF MPT SFTJEVPT WBO EJTNJOVZFOEP Z TPO QPTJUJWPT
&O FTF
QVOUP TF UJFOF ZB JOGPSNBDJO QBSB DPODMVJS FM WBMPS EF (a, b) FM DVBM FT
FM SFTUP OP OVMP PCUFOJEP FO FM QBTP QSFWJP 3FTVNJNPT MP FYQVFTUP EF
MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
a = bq1 + r1 , 0 <r1 < b
b = r1 q2 + r2 , 0 <r2 < r1
r1 = r2 q3 + r3 , 0 <r3 < r2

rk3 = rk2 qk1 + rk1 , 0 <rk1 < rk2
rk2 = rk1 qk + rk , 0 <rk < rk1
rk1 = rk qk+1 .
&TUP Z VOB BQMJDBDJO SFQFUJEB VO ONFSP OJUP EF WFDFT EF MB MUJNB
QSPQPTJDJO OPT QFSNJUF PCUFOFS MBT JHVBMEBEFT
(a, b) = (b, r1 ) = (r1 , r2 ) = (r2 , r3 ) = = (rk3 , rk2 =
(rk2 , rk1 ) = (rk1 , rk ) = rk ,
ZB RVF rk | rk1 .
*MVTUSBNPT FM BMHPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT DPO VO FKFNQMP DPODSFUP
&KFNQMP $BMDVMFNPT (726, 275).
&M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO JNQMJDB RVF
726 = 275(2) + 176
275 = 176(1) + 99
176 = 99(1) + 77
99 = 77(1) + 22
77 = 22(3) +

22 = 11(2) + 0.
1PS UBOUP (726, 275) = 11.
%FOJDJO 4FB p > 1 VO ONFSP FOUFSP %FDJNPT RVF p FT VO
ONFSP QSJNP TJ TVT OJDPT EJWJTPSFT QPTJUJWPT TPO 1 Z p. 4J p > 1 QPTFF
NT EF EPT EJWJTPSFT QPTJUJWPT MP MMBNBNPT ONFSP DPNQVFTUP

&M FOUFSP 1 OP FT OJ QSJNP OJ DPNQVFTUP

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
%FDJNPT RVF EPT FOUFSPT a Z b TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT P DPQSJNPT TJ

(a, b) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF EPT FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF TPO QSJNPT
SFMBUJWPT
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF EPT FOUFSPT JNQBSFT DPOTFDVUJWPT TJFNQSF TPO
QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
" DPOUJOVBDJO QSFTFOUBNPT VOPT DVBOUPT SFTVMUBEPT CTJDPT TPCSF
ONFSPT QSJNPT
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO a, b, c Z UBMFT RVF a Z b TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
Z a | bc &OUPODFT a | c.
%FNPTUSBDJO &YJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y, q UBMFT RVF bc = aq Z 1 = ax + by
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF c = cax + cby = cax + aqy = a(cx + qy) MP DVBM
TJHOJDB RVF a | c.

$PSPMBSJP 4J p FT QSJNP Z p | ab FOUPODFT p | a P p | b.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF p a p OP EJWJEF B a
/FDFTBSJBNFOUF
TF UJFOF RVF FM NBZPS EJWJTPS DPNO FT VOP FT EFDJS (a, p) = 1 Z QPS FM
SFTVMUBEP QSFWJP TF UJFOF RVF p | b.
0CTFSWBDJO &M DPSPMBSJP OP FT DJFSUP TJ p OP FT QSJNP DPNP MP JMVTUSB

FM TJHVJFOUF DBTP 4 | 2 6 QFSP 4 2 Z 4 6.
6TBOEP JOEVDDJO TPCSF FM ONFSP EF FOUFSPT TF QVFEF EFNPTUSBS
TF EFKB DPNP FKFSDJDJP
MPT TJHVJFOUFT
$PSPMBSJP 4J p FT QSJNP Z p | (a1 a2 an ) FOUPODFT p | ai QBSB
BMHO i
$PSPMBSJP 4FBO p, p1 , p2 , . . . , pn ONFSPT QSJNPT UBMFT RVF
p | (p1 p2 pn ) &OUPODFT p = pi QBSB BMHO i
5FPSFNB 4FBO a, b, c FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 Z (a, c) = 1.
&OUPODFT (a, bc) = 1. &O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF (a, bn ) = 1 QBSB UPEP
FOUFSP n 1 Z EF FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF (am , bn ) = 1 QBSB UPEP QBS EF
FOUFSPT m, n 1.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB d = (a, bc) -VFHP d | a Z d | bc $PNP (a, c) = 1
FOUPODFT QBSB BMHVOPT FOUFSPT x, y PCUFOFNPT RVF 1 = ax+cy EF MP DVBM
TF EFEVDF RVF bax + bcy = b Z QPS UBOUP d | b 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUFO
FOUFSPT r, s UBMFT RVF ar + bs = 1 Z DPNP d | ar Z d | bs FOUPODFT
d | 1. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF d = 1 MP RVF RVFSBNPT EFNPTUSBS UBNCJO
QVFEF VTBSTF FM &KFSDJDJP
-B TFHVOEB QBSUF TF QSVFCB GDJMNFOUF
QPS JOEVDDJO

2VFEB DPNP FKFSDJDJP EFNPTUSBS QPS JOEVDDJO FM SFTVMUBEP QBSB VOB

DPMFDDJO NBZPS EF FOUFSPT
&KFNQMP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 1SPCFNPT RVF

(a + b, a2 + b2 ) FT P %FOPUFNPT d = (a + b, a2 + b2 ) &OUPODFT
d | a + b Z d | a2 + b2 5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF d | (a + b)(a b) FT EFDJS
RVF d | a2 b2 DPODMVJNPT RVF d | 2a2 Z d | 2b2 1PS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS
PCUFOFNPT RVF (a2 , b2 ) = 1 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF
a2 x + b2 y = 1 NT BO 2a2 x + 2b2 y = 2 1VFTUP RVF d | 2a2 x Z
d | 2b2 y FOUPODFT d EJWJEF B TV TVNB FTUP FT d | 2, EF EPOEF TF DPODMVZF
FM SFTVMUBEP
$PSPMBSJP 4J (a, bi ) = 1 QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , n FOUPODFT
(a, b1 b2 bn ) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 1SVFCF RVF

(2a + b, a + 2b) FT
&KFSDJDJP 4FB n Z BSCJUSBSJP %FNVFTUSF RVF (4, n2 +1) {1, 2}.
5FPSFNB 4FB k VO FOUFSP EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP &OUPODFT
(ka, kb) = |k|(a, b).
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP (ka, kb) = (ka, kb) QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF

k > 0 4FBO d = (a, b) Z g = (ka, kb) 7FBNPT RVF kd = g. 5FOFNPT MPT
TJHVJFOUFT IFDIPT

&T FWJEFOUF RVF d | a Z d | b. -VFHP dk | ak Z dk | bk MP RVF
JNQMJDB kd g.

&T FWJEFOUF RVF g | ka Z g | kb. "EFNT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT
RVF d = ax + by Z BT kd = kax + kby &O DPOTFDVFODJB g | kd
FOUPODFT g kd.
%F MBT DPODMVTJPOFT FO
Z
TF PCUJFOF MB JHVBMEBE kd = g.

*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB PUSP UFNB JNQPSUBOUF
%FOJDJO 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &M NOJNP DPNO NMUJQMP

.$.
EF a Z b EFOPUBEP QPS [a, b] TF EFOF DPNP FM NFOPS FOUFSP
QPTJUJWP RVF FT NMUJQMP DPNO EF a Z b &T EFDJS
[a, b] = NO{m N : a | m b | m}.

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
0CTFSWBDJO &M DPOKVOUP EF NMUJQMPT QPTJUJWPT DPNVOFT FT OP WBDP

QVFT ab Z ab TPO NMUJQMPT DPNVOFT EF a Z b QPS UBOUP |ab| FT NMUJQMP
DPNO EF a Z b -VFHP QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF FM .$. EF a Z b
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF [a, b] = [a, b] = [a, b] = [a, b].
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB DBSBDUFSJ[B FM .$.
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT m = [a, b] TJ Z

TPMP TJ
(i) m > 0 (ii) a | m b | m (iii) a | n b | n m | n.
%FNPTUSBDJO 1SPCFNPT MB DPOEJDJO OFDFTBSJB J

Z JJ
TF TJHVFO JO
NFEJBUBNFOUF 7FBNPT RVF TF UJFOF JJJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF n Z FT UBM
RVF a | n b | n -VFHP n FT NMUJQMP DPNO EF a Z b Z QPS UBOUP
m |n| 1PS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO |n| = mq + r QBSB BMHVOPT
FOUFSPT q, r DPO 0 r < m. -B JEFB FT QSPCBS RVF r = 0. 4VQPOHBNPT
FOUPODFT RVF r > 0 5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB MB QSJNFSB BSNBDJO FO JJ
Z
RVF a | n PCUFOFNPT RVF a | r %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TF DPODMVZF RVF b | r
Z QPS UBOUP r FT VO NMUJQMP DPNO EF a Z b Z DPNP m FT FM .$. TF
UJFOF RVF m r MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF RVF r < m "T RVFEB QSPCBEP RVF
r = 0 Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB m | n. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB DPOEJDJO TVDJFOUF
TFB M = [a, b] Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF M = m. 1PS EFOJDJO a | M Z
b | M 1PS JJJ
m | M Z BT MMFHBNPT B RVF m M 1PS PUSP MBEP
PCUFOFNPT EF JJ
RVF M m MP DVBM OPT EB MB JHVBMEBE M = m. $PO
FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[a, b] (a, b) = |ab|.
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP (a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b) = (a, b) Z
[a, b] = [a, b] = [a, b] = [a, b]
QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF a > 0 Z b > 0. 4FBO m = [a, b] Z d = (a, b).

%F FTUP MUJNP TBMF RVF d | a Z d | b Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT ta Z
tb UBMFT RVF a = dta Z b = dtb 1PS MB PCTFSWBDJO IFDIB FO MB QHJOB
UFOFNPT RVF (ta , tb ) = 1 $PNP ab = d2 ta tb QBSB QSPCBS FM UFPSFNB
CBTUB WFS RVF m = dta tb . 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B BQMJDBS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS
EFOPUFNPT m = dta tb . &T DMBSP RVF J
m > 0 7FBNPT JJ
FT EFDJS RVF
m FT NMUJQMP DPNO EF a Z b Z JJJ
RVF m FT FM NFOPS EF MPT NMUJ
QMPT DPNVOFT -B QSJNFSB QBSUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT m = dta tb = atb Z

m = bta . 'JOBMNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF a | n Z b | n WFBNPT RVF m | n

&O FGFDUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT r Z s UBMFT RVF n = ar = bs P FRVJWBMFOUF
NFOUF rdta = sdtb EF MP DVBM TF JOFSF RVF tb | rta Z DPNP (ta , tb ) = 1
FOUPODFT tb | r BT QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS r = utb QBSB BMHO FOUFSP u -VFHP
n = ar = autb = udta tb = um MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF m | n %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT a Z b TPO QSJNPT

SFMBUJWPT TJ Z TPMP TJ [a, b] = |ab|.
$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a, b Z k FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[ka, kb] = |k|[a, b].
%FNPTUSBDJO %F MBT JHVBMEBEFT TJHVJFOUFT TF EFEVDF FM DPSPMBSJP
|k|[ka, kb](a, b) = [ka, kb](ka, kb) = k 2 |ab| = k 2 [a, b](a, b).

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB TFBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FO

UFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) TJ Z TPMP TJ
J
d > 0
JJ
d | a1 , d | a2 , . . . , d | an
JJJ
g | a1 , g | a2 , . . . , g | an g | d.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an FO
UFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT m = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] TJ Z TPMP TJ
J
m > 0
JJ
a1 | m, a2 | m, . . . , an | m
JJJ
a1 | k, a2 | k, . . . , an | k m | k.
5FPSFNB 4FBO n 3 Z a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = ((a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ), an ).
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), d = ((a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ), an )

Z d = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ) -VFHP d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1
Z BT d | d Z DPNP d | an FOUPODFT d | d 1PS PUSB QBSUF d | d Z
d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1 Z QVFTUP RVF d | an PCUFOFNPT RVF
d | ai QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n. &O DPOTFDVFODJB d | d Z QPS UBOUP
d = d .

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO n 3 Z a1 , a2 , . . . , an FOUFSPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
[a1 , a2 , . . . , an ] = [[a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 ], an ].

-PT ONFSPT FOUFSPT
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF [a, b] = (a, b).
1SVFCF RVF a = b.
&KFNQMP 4FBO a, b Z c FOUFSPT 1SPCFNPT RVF MB FDVBDJO
ax + by = c
UJFOF TPMVDJPOFT FOUFSBT x, y TJ Z TPMP TJ (a, b) | c.

-B OFDFTJEBE FT JONFEJBUB QVFTUP RVF (a, b) | a Z (a, b) | b FOUPODFT
QPS MB IJQUFTJT (a, b) | c. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB DPOEJDJO TVDJFOUF TFB
g = (a, b). &OUPODFT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x0 , y0 UBMFT RVF g = ax0 + by0
"EFNT DPNP g | c FOUPODFT c = gt QBSB BMHO FOUFSP t Z QPS UBOUP
c = gt = a(x0 t) + b(y0 t) MP DVBM UFSNJOB MB EFNPTUSBDJO
&KFSDJDJP 4FB p > 5 VO FOUFSP QSJNP 1SVFCF RVF OP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT
x, y UBMFT RVF x + y = 200 DPO (x, y) = p.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b Z d FOUFSPT UBMFT RVF (a, b) = 1 Z d | a 1SVFCF
RVF (d, b) = 1.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVNB EF MPT DVBESBEPT EF EPT FOUFSPT
JNQBSFT OP QVFEF TFS VO DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF OP FYJTUF VO FOUFSP N UBM RVF N 2 + 2 FT
NMUJQMP EF
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT
B
%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP FOUFSP m TF DVNQMF RVF m5 m FT
NMUJQMP EF
C
1SVFCF RVF UPEP FOUFSP RVF FT DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP FT EFDJS DBEB VOP
EF MPT FOUFSPT 0, 1, 4, 9, 16, , n2 ,
FT EF MB GPSNB 4m P CJFO
4m + 1 QBSB BMHO m Z.
D
%FNVFTUSF RVF BM NFOPT VOP EF m FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT FT EJWJTJCMF
QPS m (m 1).
E
4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT KPT 1SVFCF RVF 3 | (a2 + b2 ) 3 | a 3 | b.
F
4FB m Z 1SVFCF RVF (3m + 2, 5m + 3) = 1.
G
4FBO p Z q ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT UBMFT p q = 40000 Z OJOHVOP EF FMMPT
FT NMUJQMP EF )BMMF MB TVNB p + q.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b FOUFSPT Z m Z, m > 0 %FDJNPT RVF a
FT DPOHSVFOUF DPO b NEVMP m MP DVBM TF EFOPUB a b (NE m) TJ
m | a b. %FNVFTUSF

B
-B SFMBDJO EF DPOHSVFODJB EFOJEB FO Z FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJ
WBMFODJB -BT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB HFOFSBEBT TF MMBNBO DMBTFT
SFTJEVBMFT
C
4J a Z b TPO DPOHSVFOUFT NEVMP m FOUPODFT a Z b EFKBO FM NJTNP
SFTUP BM EJWJEJSMPT QPS m.
D
4J a b (NE m) FOUPODFT m | a TJ Z TPMP TJ m | b.
/PUB BMHVOPT FKFSDJDJPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FTUF DBQUVMP GVFSPO FYUSB

EPT EFM UFYUP i 5FPSB EF ONFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFT u
'BDVMUBE
EF $JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB EF MPT BVUPSFT - 3 +JN
OF[ #FDFSSB + & (PSEJMMP "SEJMB Z ( / 3VCJBOP 0SUFHO %F MB NJTNB
NBOFSB BMHVOBT JEFBT Z EFNPTUSBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEBT TF FYUSBDUBSPO EF
BMM PCWJBNFOUF DPO MB BVUPSJ[BDJO EF MPT BVUPSFT
JBMBT`Qv2+iQ $POTVMUF TPCSF FM UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EF MB BSJU
NUJDB FOVODJBEP QSVFCB BQMJDBDJPOFT FUD

$BQUVMP
-PT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT
5SBUBNPT FO FTUF DBQUVMP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EFTEF

TV DPOTUSVDDJO IBTUB WFS RVF DPOTUJUVZFO VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z BS
RVJNFEJBOP 6TBNPT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Z MB FTUSVDUVSB EF Z QBSB
MB DPOTUSVDDJO EF EJDIPT ONFSPT &TUVEJBNPT UBNCJO MBT TVDFTJPOFT
EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT MP DVBM TFS JNQPSUBOUF FO FM TJHVJFOUF DBQUVMP
QBSB MB DPOTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT &O QSJODJQJP IBSFNPT VOB
QSFTFOUBDJO EFM DPODFQUP EF DBNQP P DVFSQP
&M DPODFQUP EF DBNQP

&YJTUFO PUSBT FTUSVDUVSBT BMHFCSBJDBT DPNP BOJMMPT NEVMPT FUD RVF OP
TPO PCKFUP EF FTUVEJP FO FTUF UFYUP Z RVF IBDFO QBSUF EF MBT BTJHOBUVSBT
QPTUFSJPSFT EF MHFCSB BCTUSBDUB 4JO FNCBSHP DPNP MPT ONFSPT SBDJP
OBMFT Z MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT VOP EF MPT PCKFUJWPT QSJODJQBMFT EF FTUVEJP
FO FTUF MJCSP
DPOTUJUVZFO VO FKFNQMP QBSUJDVMBS EF FTUSVDUVSB BMHFCSBJDB
MMBNBEB DBNQP JOUSPEVDJNPT FTUB OPDJO FO FTUF QVOUP "MHVOPT EFUB
MMFT BEJDJPOBMFT TPCSF DBNQPT TF QSFTFOUBO FO FM BQOEJDF
%FOJDJO 6O DBNQP P VO DVFSQP FT VO DPOKVOUP F OP WBDP EPUBEP

EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT TVNB (+) Z QSPEVDUP () UBMFT RVF TF DVNQMFO
MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT MMBNBEPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP P BMHFCSBJDPT
4"
"TPDJBUJWJEBE EF + QBSB UPEP a, b, c F TF UJFOF RVF
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).
4/
&YJTUFODJB EF OFVUSP QBSB + ( 0 F) ( a F) (a + 0 = a)
4 *
&YJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB +
( a F) ( (a) F) (a + (a) = 0).

4$
$PONVUBUJWJEBE EF + QBSB UPEP QBS a, b F TF DVNQMF RVF
a + b = b + a
1"
"TPDJBUJWJEBE EF i u QBSB UPEP a, b, c F TF UJFOF RVF
(a b) c = a (b c).
1/
&YJTUFODJB EF OFVUSP QBSB i u
( 1 F {0}) ( a F) (a 1 = a).
1 *
&YJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB i u
( a F {0}) ( (a1 ) F) (a a1 = 1).
1$
$PONVUBUJWJEBE EF i u QBSB UPEP QBS a, b F TF DVNQMF RVF
a b = b a
%
%JTUSJCVUJWB QBSB UPEP a, b, c F TF DVNQMF RVF
a (b + c) = a b + a c.
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
-PT FMFNFOUPT 0 Z 1 TPO OJDPT TVQPOHBNPT RVF
FYJTUF 1 F UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x F, x 1 = x &O QBSUJDVMBS QBSB
x = 1 TF UJFOF RVF 1 1 = 1. 1PS PUSB QBSUF 1 1 = 1 Z QPS TFS i u VOB
PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB TF UJFOF RVF 1 = 1 -B VOJDJEBE EF 0 TF EFNVFTUSB EF
NBOFSB TJNJMBS FKFSDJDJP
1PS UBOUP FTUPT FMFNFOUPT TF MMBNBO DFSP Z
VOJEBE EF F SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
JJ
-PT JOWFSTPT UBNCJO TPO OJDPT WFS &KFSDJDJP
&M FMFNFOUP
a F TF MMBNB JOWFSTP BEJUJWP EF a Z FM FMFNFOUP a1 F DPO a = 0
RVF TF EFOPUB UBNCJO QPS 1/a TF MMBNB SFDQSPDP P JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDB
UJWP EF a.
JJJ
/UFTF RVF 1$
Z %
JNQMJDBO MB EJTUSJCVUJWB B EFSFDIB FT EFDJS
(b + c) a = a b + a c.
JW
%F BIPSB FO BEFMBOUF TF PNJUJS FM QVOUP FTUP FT TFHVJSFNPT FTDSJ
CJFOEP ab FO MVHBS EF a b 4F BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB OPUBDJO F, +,
QBSB FTQFDJDBS RVF F FT VO DBNQP DPO MB TVNB i u Z FM QSPEVDUP i u
&O DBTP EF OP IBCFS BNCJHFEBE FTDSJCJSFNPT TJNQMFNFOUF F
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MB VOJDJEBE EFM OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB VOJ
DJEBE EF MPT FMFNFOUPT JOWFSTPT FO VO DBNQP F

" DPOUJOVBDJO TF KVTUJDBO NVDIBT EF MBT NBOJQVMBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJ

DBT RVF BDPTUVNCSBNPT SFBMJ[BS FO VO DBNQP 4F EFNVFTUSBO BMHVOBT
FM SFTUP DPOTUJUVZF VO FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS
5FPSFNB $POTFDVFODJBT EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP

4FBO F, +,
VO DBNQP Z a, b, c F &OUPODFT
$
$BODFMBUJWB QBSB + TJ a + b = a + c FOUPODFT b = c
$
a + b = 0 a = b
$
a0 = 0
$
/P IBZ EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FT EFDJS TJ ab = 0 FOUPODFT a = 0
b = 0
$
a = (a)
$
$BODFMBUJWB EFM QSPEVDUP TJ ab = ac Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = c
$
4J ab = a Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = 1
$
4J ab = 1 Z a = 0 FOUPODFT b = a1
$
1BSB a = 0 (a1 )1 = a
$
-FZ EF TJHOPT (ab) = (a)b = a(b).
$
-FZ EF TJHOPT (a)(b) = ab.
%FNPTUSBDJO $
"M BQMJDBS MPT BYJPNBT 4/
4*
4"
4$
Z MB
IJQUFTJT TF PCUJFOF
b = b + 0 = b + [a + (a)] = (b + a) + (a) = (a + b) + (a)

= (a + c) + (a) = (a) + (a + c)
= [a + a] + c = 0 + c = c.
$
a + b = 0 = b + b $
Z 4$
JNQMJDBO a = b
$
6TBOEP 4/
Z %
TF UJFOF RVF a0 + 0 = a0 = a (0 + 0) = a0 + a0
1PS $
TF DPODMVZF RVF a0 = 0
$
4VQPOHBNPT a = 0 Z WFBNPT RVF b = 0. 1PS 1*
FYJTUF a1 F
DPO a1 = 0 Z UBM RVF aa1 = 1. -VFHP VTBOEP MB IJQUFTJT 1$
Z 1"
UFOFNPT
0 = 0 a1 = (ab)a1 = (ba)a1 = b[aa1 ] = b 1 = b.
$
1PS $
DPNP a + (a) = 0 TF UJFOF RVF a = (a)
$
&M DNQVUP 0 = a0 = a[b + (b)] = ab + a(b) Z $
JNQMJDBO

a(b) = (ab) "TJNJTNP TF QSVFCB MB PUSB JHVBMEBE

$
$BNCJBOEP a QPS a FO MB TFHVOEB JHVBMEBE EF $
Z VTBOEP
$
TF UJFOF MP EFTFBEP

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT DPOTFDVFODJBT $

$
$
Z $
EFM
5FPSFNB
0CTFSWBDJO &T GDJM WFS RVF FO VO DBNQP F MB FDVBDJO a+x = b UJFOF

QPS TPMVDJO OJDB BM FMFNFOUP b + (a) &TUP OPT QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MB
EFOJDJO EF EJGFSFODJB FOUSF a Z b B TBCFS a b := a + (b) QBSB UPEP
QBS a, b FO F
%FOJDJO 4FB F VO DBNQP %FDJNPT RVF F FT PSEFOBEP TJ FYJTUF

VO TVCDPOKVOUP QSPQJP P EF F MMBNBEP EF MPT FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT RVF
TBUJTGBDF MPT TJHVJFOUFT BYJPNBT EF PSEFO
5SJDPUPNB QBSB DBEB a F FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BS
NBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF
a = 0, a P, a P.
$FSSBEVSB TJ a, b P FOUPODFT a + b P Z ab P
0CTFSWBDJO 4J F FT PSEFOBEP FM DPOKVOUP P EF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT

RVFEB KP /PUFNPT BEFNT RVF FM BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNB JNQMJDB RVF
0/ P 4J a P EFDJNPT RVF a FT OFHBUJWP Z VTBNPT MB OPUBDJO P
QBSB EFTDSJCJS FM DPOKVOUP EF FMFNFOUPT OFHBUJWPT 'JOBMNFOUF OPUFNPT
RVF F FT VOJO EJTKVOUB EF P, P Z {0}
*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJO QBSB a F EFOPUBNPT
a a = a2 Z a0 := 1, TJ a = 0.
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z a F, a = 0 &OUPODFT

a2 P &O QBSUJDVMBS 1 P
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP a = 0 Z F FT PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT a P P CJFO

a P &O FM QSJNFS DBTP FM BYJPNB EF DFSSBEVSB JNQMJDB RVF a2 P
Z FO FM TFHVOEP FM NJTNP BYJPNB Z MB DPOTFDVFODJB $
HBSBOUJ[BO
RVF a2 P 'JOBMNFOUF DPNP 1 = 1 1 TF UJFOF RVF 1 P.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF TJ MB FDVBDJO x2 + 1 = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJO FO FM

DBNQP F FOUPODFT F OP QVFEF TFS PSEFOBEP

%FOJDJO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z P FM TVCDPOKVOUP EF

FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT 4F EFOFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFMBDJPOFT QBSB a, b F
B
a b : b < a a b P -BTF a NBZPS RVF b
D
a b : ( a 0 a 0 P a P &TUP FT a > 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a FT
QPTJUJWP
JJ
a < 0 0 a P a P &TUP FT a < 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a FT
OFHBUJWP
JJJ
a > b TJ Z TPMP TJ a b > 0 &TUP FT DJFSUP QPSRVF a > b TJ Z TPMP
TJ a b P TJ Z TPMP TJ a b > 0 %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TF EFEVDF
a TF TVTUJ
UVZFO QPS Z SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
JW
a < 0 0 a = a P a > 0
W
&M BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNB TF QVFEF FOVODJBS BT QBSB UPEP a F P
CJFO a = 0 P CJFO a > 0 P CJFO a < 0
WJ
&M BYJPNB EF USJDPUPNB JNQMJDB RVF
a 0 a 0 Z a 0 a < 0.
1SPQPTJDJO &O VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F TF DVNQMF MP TJHVJFOUF

B
4J QBSB UPEP e > 0 TF UJFOF RVF x < e FOUPODFT x 0
C
1BSB UPEP a F a < a + 1.
D
4J a 0 FOUPODFT ac < bc
E
4J a bc &O QBSUJDVMBS
a b.
F
4J a > 0 FOUPODFT a1 > 0

G
4J a < 0 FOUPODFT a1 < 0
H
a = 0 TJ Z TPMP TJ a 0 Z a 0

I
ab < 0 ( a > 0 b < 0 ) ( a < 0 b>0)
J
a < b a + c < b + c
K
-B SFMBDJO i < u FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MB TVNB i + u EFOJEB FO F FTUP
FT a < b Z c < d JNQMJDB a + c < b + d
L
-B SFMBDJO i < u FT USBOTJUJWB a 0 "QMJDBOEP MB IJQUFTJT DPO e = x TF PCUJFOF MB
DPOUSBEJDDJO x < x -VFHP x 0
D
/PUFNPT RVF QPS EFOJDJO ac < bc TJ Z TPMP TJ
bc ac = (b a)c P.
"IPSB CJFO MB IJQUFTJT JNQMJDB b a P Z c P 'JOBMNFOUF FM

BYJPNB EF DFSSBEVSB HBSBOUJ[B RVF (b a)c P
F
&T FWJEFOUF RVF a1 FYJTUF Z FT EJGFSFOUF EF DFSP 4J a1 < 0 FOUPODFT
QPS D
TF UFOESB a1 a < a 0 Z MVFHP 1 < 0 $PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EF
FTUB DPOUSBEJDDJO EFCF TFS a1 > 0
H
4J a = 0 QPS USJDPUPNB MBT PUSBT EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT OP TF DVNQMFO FT
EFDJS a 0 Z a 0. 6TBOEP OVFWBNFOUF MB PCTFSWBDJO WJ
TF DPODMVZF
a 0 Z a 0 3FDQSPDBNFOUF TJ PDVSSF a 0 Z a 0 WJ
JNQMJDB
RVF a = 0
I
4J ab < 0 FOUPODFT a = 0 )BZ EPT DBTPT a > 0 P CJFO a < 0 4J
TF UJFOF FM QSJNFSP VTBOEP F
Z D
TF DPODMVZF RVF b < 0 4J PDVSSF FM
TFHVOEP VTBOEP G
Z E
TF UJFOF RVF b > 0 &TUP QSVFCB MB DPOEJDJO
OFDFTBSJB 3FDQSPDBNFOUF DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT TJUVBDJPOFT JNQMJDB RVF
ab P FTUP FT ab < 0.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP Z a, b F %FNVFTUSF

B
0 < a < 1 a2 < a
C
a > 1 a2 > a
D
4J a > 0 Z b > 0 FOUPODFT a 0 b > 0) (a + b)1 < a1 .

F
1BSB UPEP a, b TF DVNQMF RVF a2 ab + b2 0.
G
a2 + b2 = 0 a = b = 0
%FOJDJO 4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z A F

J
%FDJNPT RVF A FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF
TJ FYJTUF b F UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x A TF UJFOF x b
SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF x b
VO FMFNFOUP b F DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE TF MMB
NB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A
A FT BDPUBEP TJ FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF F JOGFSJPSNFOUF
/UFTF RVF TJ A = UPEP FMFNFOUP EF F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS SFTQFDUJWB
NFOUF DPUB JOGFSJPS
EF A &TUF DBTP OP PGSFDF JOUFST FO FTUF MJCSP
JJ
&YUSFNP TVQFSJPS P TVQSFNP EF A FT VO FMFNFOUP s F RVF FT DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF A Z UBM RVF TJ s F FT DVBMRVJFS DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FOUPO
DFT s s FT EFDJS s FT MB NFOPS EF MBT DPUBT TVQFSJPSFT -P EFOPUBNPT
QPS TVQ A "IPSB CJFO TJ TVQ A A TF MMBNB NYJNP EF A Z MP EFOP
UBNPT QPS NY A
JJJ
&YUSFNP JOGFSJPS P ONP EF A FT VO FMFNFOUP y F RVF FT DPUB
JOGFSJPS EF A UBM RVF TJ y F FT DVBMRVJFS DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A FOUPODFT
y y FTUP FT y FT MB NBZPS EF MBT DPUBT JOGFSJPSFT &TDSJCJNPT OG A
Z FO FM DBTP EF RVF OG A A MP MMBNBNPT NOJNP EF A Z TF SFQSFTFOUB
QPS NO A
0CTSWFTF RVF VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F OP UJFOF TVQSFNP FO F

QVFTUP
RVF TJ s F MP GVFSB FOUPODFT s + 1 s MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF C
EF MB
1SPQPTJDJO 6O SB[POBNJFOUP TJNJMBS KVTUJDB RVF F OP UJFOF ONP
0CTFSWBNPT UBNCJO RVF OP UJFOF TVQSFNP OJ ONP FO F
&KFNQMP 4J F FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP P EF

FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT FTU BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF QPS DFSP 5BNCJO FM DPO
KVOUP P EF FMFNFOUPT OFHBUJWPT FTU BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS DFSP
)BTUB BIPSB QBSB RVF VO DPOKVOUP F = EPUBEP EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT

CJOBSJBT TFB VO DBNQP EFCFO DVNQMJSTF MPT BYJPNBT BMHFCSBJDPT Z TJ
BEFNT TF DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT EF PSEFO FM DBNQP FT PSEFOBEP )BZ
VO UFSDFS UJQP EF BYJPNB MMBNBEP BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ RVF DBSBDUFSJ[B
MPT DBNQPT MMBNBEPT DPNQMFUPT
%FOJDJO 4FB F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP %FDJNPT RVF F FT DPNQMFUP

TJ UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDP EF F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF UJFOF TVQSFNP
FO F

" DPOUJOVBDJO TF EFNVFTUSB VO UFPSFNB RVF FYQSFTB PUSB GPSNB

FRVJWBMFOUF QBSB FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ &O MPT FKFSDJDJPT QSPQVFTUPT
TF FODPOUSBS PUSB FRVJWBMFODJB
5FPSFNB 4FB F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP &OUPODFT F FT DPNQMFUP TJ
Z TPMP TJ UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDP EF F BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF UJFOF
ONP FO F
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT DPNQMFUP Z TFB A F OP WBDP
Z BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF 7FBNPT RVF A UJFOF ONP FO F 1BSB FMMP TF
DPOTUSVZF FM DPOKVOUP EF PQVFTUPT EF A FT EFDJS
B = A := {x : x A}.
$PNP A = FOUPODFT B = 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF y F DPUB JOGFSJPS
EF A -VFHP TJ b B FOUPODFT b A Z QPS UBOUP y b Z BT
b y &TUP QSVFCB RVF B FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS y -B DPN
QMFUF[ EF F HBSBOUJ[B RVF FYJTUF s F UBM RVF s = TVQ B 1SPCFNPT RVF
s FT FM ONP EF A &O FGFDUP TJ x A FOUPODFT x B Z QPS FOEF
s x FTUP FT s FT DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A "IPSB CJFO TJ y FT DVBMRVJFS
DPUB JOGFSJPS EF A FOUPODFT y b QBSB UPEP b B MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS
RVF y FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF B $PNP s FT FM TVQSFNP EF B FOUPODFT
s y . 1PS UBOUP y s MP DVBM HBSBOUJ[B RVF s FT MB NBZPS EF
MBT DPUBT JOGFSJPSFT EF A 2VFEB QSPCBEP RVF s = OG A 1BSB QSPCBS
FM SFDQSPDP TF QSPDFEF EF NBOFSB BOMPHB
0CTFSWBDJO %F MB EFNPTUSBDJO BOUFSJPS TF SFTBMUB FM TJHVJFOUF IFDIP

TJ A = FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP UBM RVF OG A FYJTUF FO VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP
F FOUPODFT TVQ(A) FYJTUF Z BEFNT
OG A = TVQ(A).
1SPQPTJDJO 4J FM TVQSFNP Z FM ONP EF VO DPOKVOUP A FYJTUFO
FOUPODFT TPO OJDPT
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF TVQ A FYJTUF FO VO DBNQP F 4J s F
FT UBNCJO TVQSFNP EF A FOUPODFT FO QBSUJDVMBS FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z
QPS UBOUP s TVQ A %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TVQ A s -VFHP s = TVQ A
1BSB MB VOJDJEBE EFM ONP CBTUB VTBS MB PCTFSWBDJO BOUFSJPS

5FPSFNB $BSBDUFSJ[BDJO EFM TVQSFNP F ONP
4FBO F VO DBNQP
PSEFOBEP = A F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO F Z = B F BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF FO F &OUPODFT

(i) s F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A
s = TVQ A
(ii) ( e > 0) ( a A) (s e < a)


(i) y F FT DPUB JOGFSJPS EF B
y = OG B
(ii) ( e > 0) ( b B) (y + e > b).
%FNPTUSBDJO &T TVDJFOUF QSPCBS

ZB RVF VOB WF[ IFDIP FTUP MB
BSNBDJO
TF PCUJFOF GDJMNFOUF DPNP TF EFUBMMB B DPOUJOVBDJO
y = OG B y = TVQ(B) y = TVQ(B)

(i) y F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF B

(ii) ( e > 0) ( b (B)) (y e < b)


(ii) ( e > 0) ( b B) (y + e > b).
( ) J
TF EFTQSFOEF JONFEJBUBNFOUF EF MB EFOJDJO EF TVQSFNP
1SPCFNPT JJ
QPS FM BCTVSEP 4J FYJTUJFSB e > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP a A
TF DVNQMJFSB s e a FOUPODFT s e TFSB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS
UBOUP s s e $POUSBEJDDJO
( ) 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF DPOUBNPT DPO FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

7FBNPT RVF s FT MB NFOPS EF MBT DPUBT TVQFSJPSFT EF A 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
FYJTUF s DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A DPO s < s &OUPODFT BQMJDBOEP MB IJQUFTJT
DPO e = s s > 0 FYJTUJSB a A DPO s < a MP DVBM FT BCTVSEP -VFHP
s s QBSB UPEB s DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS UBOUP s = TVQ A.
&KFSDJDJP %FNPTUSBS RVF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS TF QVFEF SFEBDUBS EF

NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF BT
4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP = A F BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO F Z
= B F BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF FO F &OUPODFT

(i) s F FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A
s = TVQ A
(ii) ( x < s) ( a A) (x < a)

y = OG B
(ii) ( x > y) ( b B) (x > b).
'JOBMJ[BNPT FTUB TFDDJO SFTBMUBOEP PUSBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM FYUSFNP

TVQFSJPS Z EFM FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS

1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F

&OUPODFT
J
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z A B FOUPODFT
TVQ A TVQ B
JJ
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F Z A B FOUPODFT
OG A OG B
JJJ
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS F JOGFSJPS FO F Z A B FOUPODFT
OG B OG A TVQ A TVQ B.
%FNPTUSBDJO J
4FB x A 1PS MB IJQUFTJT SFTVMUB RVF x B $PNP
TVQ B FYJTUF x TVQ B -VFHP TVQ B FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A Z QPS UBOUP
TVQ A TVQ B
JJ
&T TJNJMBS B MB QSVFCB EF J

JJJ
1BSB x A TF UJFOF OG A x TVQ A %F JJ
Z J
TF DPODMVZF
*OUSPEVDJNPT BIPSB MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJO QBSB a F Z n N
a1 := a Z QBSB n > 1, an := an1 a.
5BNCJO an := (a1 )n Z a0 := 1 TJ a = 0.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF TJ F FT VO DBNQP Z a, b F FOUPODFT
QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m 1 Z n 1 TF DVNQMF
B
an am = an+m
C
(an )m = anm
D
(ab)n = an bn
E
am an = amn Z (an )m = anm TJFNQSF RVF a = 0
"OBMJDF MB WBMJEF[ EF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT BOUFSJPSFT TJ m, n Z.
&KFSDJDJPT TPCSF DBNQPT

1SVFCF RVF MB FDVBDJO cx = d DPO c = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJO OJDB FO
VO DBNQP F &TUP QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MB OPUBDJO QBSB c = 0
d
:= d c1 .
c
4FB F VO DBNQP Z TVQOHBTF RVF FYJTUF a F, a = 0 UBM RVF
a + a = 0 1SVFCF RVF 1 + 1 = 0

4FBO F, +, VO DBNQP Z = S F %FNVFTUSF RVF S, +, FT

VO DBNQP TVCDBNQP EF F
TJ Z TPMP TJ
(i) 1 S
(ii) a, b S a b S
(iii) a, b S b = 0 a b1 S
4FBO F VO DVFSQP PSEFOBEP Z a F OP OVMP %FNVFTUSF
a + a1 1 + 1, P CJFO a + a1 1 + (1).
4FBO F VO DBNQP Z a, b, c, d, , F DPO ad bc = 0 3FTVFMWB

FM TJTUFNB
ax + by =
cx + dy = ,
QBSB x Z QBSB y FO F.
4FB a F 6OB SB[ DVBESBEB EF a FT VO FMFNFOUP b F UBM RVF

b2 = a
B
y$VOUBT SBDFT DVBESBEBT UJFOF DFSP
C
4VQOHBTF RVF a = 0. 1SVFCF RVF TJ 1 + 1 = 0 FOUPODFT a
QPTFF B MP TVNP VOB SB[ DVBESBEB Z RVF TJ 1 + 1 = 0 FOUPODFT
FO DBTP EF RVF a UFOHB SB[ DVBESBEB UJFOF FYBDUBNFOUF EPT
4FBO F, +, VO DVFSQP Z a F VO FMFNFOUP RVF DBSFDF EF SB[

DVBESBEB FO F &TUF QSPCMFNB JOEJDB DPNP TF DPOTUSVZF VO DBNQP
NT BNQMJP F RVF DPOUJFOF B F FO FM DVBM a UJFOF SB[ DVBESBEB
4FB F = F F EPUBEP EF MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z EFOJEBT QPS
(x, y)(z, w) = (x+z, y+w), (x, y)(z, w) = (xz+ayw, xw+yz).
J
%FNVFTUSF RVF F , , FT VO DBNQP
JJ
%FNPTUSBS RVF (x, 0) (y, 0) = (x + y, 0) Z RVF
(x, 0) (y, 0) = (xy, 0).
&TUP OPT QFSNJUF JEFOUJDBS x DPO (x, 0) FT EFDJS TJ
:= {(x, 0) : x F}
Z TF EFOF : F QPS (x) = (x, 0) FOUPODFT FT VO

JTPNPSTNP &TUB BQMJDBDJO OPT QFSNJUF UBNCJO BSNBS RVF F

DPOUJFOF B F FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF F DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP

FM DVBM FT JTPNPSGP B F
JJJ
)BMMF VOB SB[ DVBESBEB EF (a, 0) FO F
"YJPNB EF DPOUJOVJEBE TFBO F VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP Z A, B F
OP WBDPT UBMFT RVF a A Z b B TF UJFOF RVF a b
&OUPODFT FYJTUF c F UBM RVF a A Z b B, a c b
%FNVFTUSF RVF FM BYJPNB EF DPOUJOVJEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF BM BYJPNB
EF DPNQMFUF[
4FB A VO TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDP EF P DPO P FM DPOKVOUP EF FMF
NFOUPT QPTJUJWPT EF VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP F 4J A FT BDPUBEP TVQF
SJPSNFOUF QSVFCF RVF TVQ A > 0 &O DBTP EF RVF A TFB BDPUBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF EFNVFTUSF RVF OG A 0
4FBO F VO DBNQP DPNQMFUP Z A F OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP 4J OG
A = TVQ A EFNVFTUSF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS FT EFDJS
VOJUBSJP
&TUF FKFSDJDJP KVTUJDB MB JEFOUJDBDJO RVF TF BDPTUVNCSB SFBMJ[BS
DVBOEP EPT FTUSVDUVSBT TPO JTPNPSGBT 4FBO F1 Z F2 EPT DBNQPT
Z : F1 F2 VO JTPNPSTNP FOUSF FTUPT DBNQPT FT EFDJS FT
CJZFDUJWP Z BEFNT (a + b) = (a) + (b), (ab) = (a)(b)
%FNPTUSBS
B
(0) = 0
C
(1) = 1
D
(a) = (a)
1
E
4J a = 0 FOUPODFT (a1 ) = (a)
F
4J MB FDVBDJO x2 +1 = 0 UJFOF TPMVDJO FO FM DBNQP F1 UBNCJO
UJFOF TPMVDJO FO FM DBNQP F2
G
4J F1 FT PSEFOBEP UBNCJO MP FT F2 "EFNT a < b FO F1
JNQMJDB (a) < (b) FO F2
H
4J F1 FT DPNQMFUP UBNCJO MP FT F2
4FBO F VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT OP WBDPT EF F
Z c F KP 4F EFOFO MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
A + B := {a + b : a A b B};
AB := {ab : a A b B};
cA := {ca : a A};
c + A := {c + a : a A}.

%FNVFTUSF
B
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT A + B UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT TVQ(A + B) = TVQ A + TVQ B
C
4J c > 0 Z A UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT cA UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT TVQ(cA) = c TVQ A
D
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F Z c < 0 FOUPODFT cA UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT TVQ(cA) = c OG A
E
4J A Z B DPOUJFOFO TPMBNFOUF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT Z UJFOFO
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT AB UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F
Z BEFNT TVQ(AB) = (TVQ A)(TVQ B)
F
4J A Z B UJFOFO FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT A B UJFOF
FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT TVQ(AB) = NY{TVQ A, TVQ B}
G
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP TVQFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT c + A UJFOF FYUSFNP
TVQFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT TVQ(c + A) = c + TVQ A.
H
4J A UJFOF FYUSFNP JOGFSJPS FO F FOUPODFT c + A UJFOF FYUSFNP
JOGFSJPS FO F Z BEFNT OG(c + A) = c+ OG A.
$POTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT

SBDJPOBMFT
%FOJDJO 4FB B := Z Z := {(m, n) : m, n Z, n = 0}.
%FOJNPT FO B MB SFMBDJO , QPS (m, n) (p, q) mq = np
&T GDJM WFS RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO B %FOPUBSFNPT

QPS [(m, n)] MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB DVZP SFQSFTFOUBOUF FT (m, n)
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO B
%FOJDJO &O B TF EFOFO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z EF MB TJHVJFOUF

NBOFSB
(m, n) (p, q) := (mq + np, nq), (m, n) (p, q) := (mp, nq).
1SPQPTJDJO -B SFMBDJO EFOJEB FO B FT DPNQBUJCMF DPO MBT

PQFSBDJPOFT Z
%FNPTUSBDJO 7FBNPT RVF Z TPO DPNQBUJCMFT

4FBO (m, n), (m , n ), (p, q), (p , q ) B UBMFT RVF (m, n) (p, q) Z
(m , n ) (p , q ) -VFHP
(m, n) (m , n ) (p, q) (p , q )

(mn + nm , nn ) (pq + qp , qq )
qq (mn + nm ) = nn (pq + qp )
qq mn + qq nm = nn pq + nn qp .
"IPSB CJFO MB IJQUFTJT JNQMJDB RVF mq = np Z m q = n p .VM

UJQMJDBOEP MB QSJNFSB EF FTUBT JHVBMEBEFT QPS q n MB TFHVOEB QPS qn
Z TVNBOEP FTUPT SFTVMUBEPT TF PCUJFOF MB JHVBMEBE RVF BQBSFDF FO MB
MUJNB FRVJWBMFODJB &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z 6O
SB[POBNJFOUP TJNJMBS QSVFCB MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z .

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF Z TPO DPNQBUJCMFT

%FOJDJO &M DPOKVOUP EF MBT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB B MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS Q
FT EFDJS
Q := B .
%FDJS RVF q Q TJHOJDB RVF q FT VOB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB FT EFDJS

RVF FYJTUF (m, n) B UBM RVF q = [(m, n)]
" DPOUJOVBDJO EPUBSFNPT B Q EF EPT PQFSBDJPOFT RVF TFHVJSFNPT TJN
CPMJ[BOEP QPS i + u Z i u QBSB OP IBDFS QFTBEB MB FTDSJUVSB Z QPS UBOUP
FM DPOUFYUP JOEJDBS TJ FM TNCPMP + SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
FT MB TVNB MB
NVMUJQMJDBDJO
FO FM DPOKVOUP Z P FO FM DPOKVOUP Q -VFHP OPT PDVQB
SFNPT EF QSPCBS RVF Q, +, FT VO DBNQP
%FOJDJO %BEPT MPT SBDJPOBMFT [(m, n)] Z [(p, q)] EFOJNPT MB
TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO FOUSF FMMPT BT
[(m, n)]+[(p, q)] := [(m, n)(p, q)], [(m, n)][(p, q)] := [(m, n)(p, q)].
-B DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z OPT QFSNJUFO EF

NPTUSBS RVF MB TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO EFOJEBT FO Q TPO PQFSBDJPOFT
CJOBSJBT Z NT BO OP EFQFOEFO EFM SFQSFTFOUBOUF EF DMBTF FTDPHJEP
&O FGFDUP TJ [(m, n)] = [(m , n )] Z [(p, q)] = [(p , q )] FTUP FT
(m, n) (m , n ) Z (p, q) (p , q ),
QPS MB DPNQBUJCJMJEBE EF Z PCUFOFNPT RVF
(m, n) (p, q) (m , n ) (p , q )

Z FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF [(m, n) (p, q)] = [(m , n ) (p , q )] 1PS UBOUP
[(m, n)] + [(p, q)] = [(m , n )] + [(p , q )].
-VFHP MB TVNB i + u FT VOB PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB FO Q %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS

TF WF RVF i u FT VOB PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB FO Q
5FPSFNB Q, +, FT VO DBNQP
%FNPTUSBDJO -B QSVFCB EF RVF TF DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT 4"

4$

1"
1$
Z %
FT NVZ TJNQMF QVFT CBTUB VTBS MB EFOJDJO EF i + u Z
EF i u EFOJEBT FO Q Z MBT SFTQFDUJWBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO Z 7FBNPT MPT
PUSPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP 4/
4*
1/
Z 1*
TFB [(m, n)] Q /UFTF
RVF
[(m, n)] + [(0, 1)] = [(m, n)].
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF [(0, 1)] FT OFVUSP EF MB TVNB 5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF
[(m, n)] + [(m, n)] = [(0, n2 )] = [(0, 1)],
EPOEF MB MUJNB JHVBMEBE TF KVTUJDB QPSRVF (0, n2 ) (0, 1) -VFHP

DBEB ONFSP SBDJPOBM [(m, n)] QPTFF VO PQVFTUP BEJUJWP FO Q B TBCFS
[(m, n)] &M FMFNFOUP [(1, 1)] Q FT OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP QVFT
[(m, n)] [(1, 1)] = [(m, n)] 'JOBMNFOUF EBEP [(m, n)] Q {[(0, 1)]}
FM SBDJPOBM [(n, m)] FT UBM RVF [(m, n)] [(n, m)] = [(1, 1)] 1PS UBOUP TF
DVNQMF FM BYJPNB 1*
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB
0CTFSWBDJO -BT DPOTFDVFODJBT $

$
FOVODJBEBT FO FM 5FPSF
NB TPO WMJEBT FO DVBMRVJFS DBNQP F Z FO QBSUJDVMBS FO FM DBNQP
Q, +, *HVBM WBMJEF[ UJFOFO MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT IFDIBT EFTQVT EF MB
EFOJDJO EF DBNQP 1PS FMMP MPT FMFNFOUPT [(0, 1)] Z [(1, 1)] FOVODJBEPT
FO MB EFNPTUSBDJO BOUFSJPS MPT MMBNBNPT FM DFSP Z FM VOP SFTQFDUJWB
NFOUF EF Q, +, &T CVFOP FOGBUJ[BS UBNCJO RVF QBSB [(m, n)] Q
FODPOUSBNPT RVF TV PQVFTUP BEJUJWP FT [(m, n)] QFSP MB OPUBDJO DM
TJDB RVF TF IB WFOJEP VTBOEP FO VO DBNQP F QBSB EFOPUBS FM PQVFTUP
BEJUJWP EF VO FMFNFOUP a F IB TJEP a -VFHP QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS
[(m, n)] := [(m, n)].
'JOBMNFOUF TJ [(m, n)] Q {[(0, 1)]}, TV SFDQSPDP RVF EFOPUBNPT QPS

[(m, n)]1 FT [(n, m)] Z FTUP TJHOJDB RVF
[(m, n)]1 = [(n, m)].

" DPOUJOVBDJO WFSFNPT PUSPT IFDIPT JNQPSUBOUFT TPCSF Q &M QSJNFSP

EF FMMPT FT RVF Q Z NT FYBDUBNFOUF Q DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP
QSPQJP RVF FT JTPNPSGP B Z 1BSB WFS FTUP EFOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP

Z := [(m, 1)] : m Z
QPS j(m) := [(m, 1)] &TUB BQMJDBDJO SFTVMUB

Z MB BQMJDBDJO j : Z Z
TFS VO JTPNPSTNP FO FGFDUP TJ j(m) = j(n) FOUPODFT
[(m, 1)] = [(n, 1)] (m, 1) (n, 1) m = n,
FT EFDJS j FT VOP B VOP -B TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE FT DMBSB 1PS PUSB QBSUF
j(m + n) = [(m + n, 1)] = [(m, 1) (n, 1)]
= [(m, 1)] + [(n, 1)] = j(m) + j(n).
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF WF RVF j(mn) = j(m)j(n)
&TUF JTPNPSTNP OPT QFSNJUF JEFOUJDBS Z DPO Z Q FTUP FT FM FOUFSP
m MP JEFOUJDBNPT DPO FM SBDJPOBM [(m, 1)] Z TPMP TF EJGFSFODJBO
FO MB FTDSJUVSB Z FTUP OPT GBDVMUB QBSB BCVTBS EF MB OPUBDJO Z FTDSJCJS
[(m, 1)] = m "IPSB CJFO DPO FTUB JEFOUJDBDJO FO NFOUF EBEP m Z
1
OP OVMP UJFOF TFOUJEP IBCMBS FO Q EF TV SFDQSPDP m1 = m FM DVBM
1
FT VO FMFNFOUP EF Q RVF JEFOUJDBSFNPT DPO [(m, 1)] Z BCVTBOEP
OVFWBNFOUF EF MB OPUBDJO FTDSJCJNPT
[(m, 1)]1 = m1 .
$PO UPEP FTUP MMFHBNPT B MP TJHVJFOUF QBSB DVBMRVJFS SBDJPOBM [(m, n)]
TF UJFOF
[(m, n)] = [(m, 1) (1, n)] = [(m, 1)] [(1, n)]
= [(m, 1)] [(n, 1)]1 = m n1 ,
EPOEF MB MUJNB JHVBMEBE FT SFTVMUBEP EF MB JEFOUJDBDJO EF [(m, 1)]
Z [(n, 1)]1 DPO m Z n1 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF &O DPODMVTJO VO ONFSP
SBDJPOBM [(m, n)] MP JEFOUJDBNPT DPO MB GSBDDJO m n Z EF BIPSB FO
BEFMBOUF MP QPEFNPT TFHVJS FTDSJCJFOEP EF FTUB GPSNB P UBNCJO DPNP
m n1 DPO n = 0 &O QBSUJDVMBS TJ m Z, m = [(m, 1)] = m 1 . &O
PUSPT USNJOPT FM DPOKVOUP EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVFEB EFTDSJUP EF MB
TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB

Q= m n : m, n Z, n =
0 .
-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO FYQSFTB RVF VO ONFSP SBDJPOBM TF QVFEF TV

QPOFS TJFNQSF DPO EFOPNJOBEPS QPTJUJWP

1SPQPTJDJO %BEP [(m, n)] Q FYJTUF [(p, q)] Q DPO q > 0 UBM
RVF
[(m, n)] = [(p, q)].
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP n FT VO FOUFSP EJTUJOUP EF DFSP MB QSPQJFEBE EF

USJDPUPNB FO Z JNQMJDB RVF n > 0 P CJFO n < 0 &O FM QSJNFS DBTP
UPNBNPT p = m Z q = n 4J n < 0 TF FTDPHF p = m Z q = n Z FT
DMBSP RVF [(m, n)] = [(m, n)].

/PT PDVQBSFNPT BIPSB EF WFS RVF Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP

p
%FOJDJO 4FBO m n Z q ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT DPO n Z q FOUFSPT
QPTJUJWPT %FOJNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFMBDJPOFT EF DPNQBSBDJO
m p
J
< : mq < np EPOEF MB SFMBDJO mq < np FT MB EF Z
n q
m p p m
JJ
> : < np < mq
n q q n
m p m p m p
JJJ
: < = ;
n q n q n q
m p p m
JW
: .
n q q n
7BMF BOPUBS RVF DVBOEP MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT B DPNQBSBS TPO FO
UFSPT MB SFMBDJO < EFOJEB FO Q DPJODJEF DPO MB EF Z &O FGFDUP TJ
m, n Z Z TJ EFOPUBNPT NPNFOUOFBNFOUF QPS <Q Z QPS <Z MBT SF
MBDJPOFT EF DPNQBSBDJO FO Q Z FO Z SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF FOUPODFT
m n
m <Q n <Q m 1 <Z n 1 m <Z n.
1 1
/PUFNPT UBNCJO RVF TJ q N FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP FOUFSP m Z QBSB
UPEP OBUVSBM n 1 TF DVNQMF RVF
m < n mq < nq.

m q m 1
&GFDUJWBNFOUF mq < nq < < m < n.
n q n 1
%FOJDJO 4F EFOF FM DPOKVOUP
Q+ := {m/n Q : mn > 0}.
&T DMBSP RVF Q+ Q Z FT OP WBDP QVFT 1 = 1/1 Q+ "EFNT

Q+ FT DFSSBEP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO FTUP FT TJ r, s Q+
FOUPODFT r + s, rs Q+ 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB QSJNFSB BSNBDJO TFBO

m, n, k Z l ONFSPT FOUFSPT DPO n Z l OP OVMPT UBMFT RVF r = m/n Z

s = k/l -VFHP
m k ml + nk
r+s= + =
n l nl
Z DPNP mn > 0 Z kl > 0 FOUPODFT nl(ml + nk) = mnl2 + kln2 > 0
MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF r + s Q+ %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF KVTUJDB RVF
rs Q+
1SPQPTJDJO Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FNPTUSBDJO 1PS MP IFDIP QSFWJBNFOUF QPEFNPT UPNBS P := Q+ Z
TPMP SFTUB QSPCBS RVF FO Q TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE EF USJDPUPNB FT
EFDJS EBEP DVBMRVJFS r = m/n Q DPO n N, n > 0, TF WFSJDB
FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BSNBDJPOFT
r = 0, r Q+ , r Q+ .
$PNP FO Z TF DVNQMF MB USJDPUPNB FOUPODFT FYBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT

TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF mn = 0, mn > 0, mn < 0 1SFDJTB

NFOUF FTUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF r = 0 P CJFO r Q+ P CJFO r Q+ .
&M DPOKVOUP Q+ TF MMBNB FM DPOKVOUP EF SBDJPOBMFT QPTJUJWPT

1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO r, s Z q ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT &OUPODFT

-B SFMBDJO i u EFOJEB FO Q FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO UPUBM

r < s r + q < s + q

r < s Z q > 0 JNQMJDB rq < sq

r < s Z q < 0 JNQMJDB rq > sq
%FNPTUSBDJO
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF
PSEFO UPUBM FO Z

&YJTUFO m, n, m , n , k, l FO Z DPO n, n Z l QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF
m m k
r= , s= Z q= .
n n l
)BDJFOEP VTP EFM DPNFOUBSJP QSFWJP B MB %FOJDJO TF PCUJFOF
r < s mn < nm mn l2 < nm l2

mn l2 + nn kl < nm l2 + nn kl
ml + nk m l + n k m k m k
< + < +
nl n l n l n l
r + q < s + q.


4FBO r, s Z q DPNP FO
1VFTUP RVF q > 0 FOUPODFT kl > 0 Z BT
mn < nm JNQMJDB mn kl < nm kl FT EFDJS
mk m k
< ,
nl nl
MP DVBM FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB EFTJHVBMEBE rq < sq.

#BTUB BQMJDBS
B q Z VTBS QSPQJFEBEFT WMJEBT FO FM
DPOKVOUP Z.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF FOUSF EPT SBDJPOBMFT EJTUJOUPT TJFNQSF IBZ
PUSP SBDJPOBM
" DPOUJOVBDJO QSFTFOUBNPT EPT MFNBT RVF OPT TFSO EF VUJMJEBE
QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF Q OP FT DPNQMFUP
-FNB 4FBO r, s Q KPT UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP n N, n 1 TF
DVNQMF RVF r < s + 1/n &OUPODFT r s.
%FNPTUSBDJO &YJTUFO FOUFSPT m, k, m , k DPO k Z k QPTJUJWPT UBMFT RVF
r = m/k Z s = m /k . -VFHP
1 m m n + k
r <s+ < mnk < m nk + k k
n k k n
(mk m k)n < k k.
$PNP FTUP FT WMJEP QBSB UPEP n N, n 1 FO QBSUJDVMBS TJ IBDFNPT
n = k k Z SFFNQMB[BNPT FO MB MUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE PCUFOFNPT
mk m k < 1.
%F BRV TF JOFSF RVF mk m k 0 FT EFDJS m
m
r s.
k k
-FNB /P FYJTUF q Q UBM RVF q 2 = 2.

%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM q = m/n OP OVMP
DPO m Z n QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT UBM RVF q 2 = 2. -VFHP m2 = 2n2 MP RVF JN
QMJDB RVF m2 FT QBS Z QPS UBOUP m FT QBS &TUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF m = 2k
QBSB BMHO FOUFSP k 4VTUJUVZFOEP FO MB JHVBMEBE BOUFSJPS FODPOUSBNPT
RVF n2 = 2k 2 Z BT n UBNCJO FT QBS MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF RVF m Z n
OP UJFOFO EJWJTPSFT DPNVOFT EJGFSFOUFT EF MB VOJEBE &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO
QSVFCB FM MFNB

4JO QSEJEB EF HFOFSBMJEBE TF QVFEF TVQPOFS RVF (m, n) = 1 ZB RVF TJ (m, n) =
d > 1 FOUPODFT FYJTUFO FOUFSPT tm Z tn QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT WFS MB PCTFSWBDJO QPTUFSJPS
B MB 1SPQPTJDJO QHJOB
UBMFT RVF m = dtm Z n = dtn -VFHP q = m/n =
tm /tn Z BT MB QSVFCB GVODJPOB DPO MPT FOUFSPT tm Z tn

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MB FDVBDJO x2 = 8 OP UJFOF TPMVDJO

FO Q
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB NVFTUSB RVF FYJTUFO TVCDPOKVOUPT EF Q BDP
UBEPT TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q RVF OP UJFOFO TVQSFNP FO FM DBNQP EF MPT
SBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB Q OP FT DPNQMFUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJO Z DPOTJEFSFNPT FM
DPOKVOUP
S := q Q+ : q 2 < 2 .
&T FWJEFOUF RVF S Q Z FT OP WBDP QVFT 1 S "EFNT S FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF ZB RVF TJ q S FOUPODFT q 2 < 2 < 22 MP RVF JNQMJDB
(q 2)(q + 2) < 0 Z DPNP q + 2 > 0 FOUPODFT q < 2. 4J Q GVFSB
DPNQMFUP FYJTUJSB r Q UBM RVF r = TVQ S 1 > 0. "IPSB CJFO QPS MB
DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EFM TVQSFNP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n 1 FYJTUF qn S UBM
RVF r 1/n < qn Z QPS PUSB QBSUF FT DMBSP RVF QBSB DBEB n 1 TF UJFOF
RVF 1/n2 1/n 1 < 2 QPS UBOUP 1/n S -VFHP 0 r 1/n < qn
Z QPS FOEF (r 1/n)2 < 2 n 1. %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
2r 2r 1
r2 < r2 + 2 <2
n n n
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB DPNP 2r > 0 QBSB UPEP n 1 TF UJFOF RVF
r2 2 1
< .
2r n
r2 2
"QMJDBOEP FM -FNB DPO s = 0 MMFHBNPT B RVF 0 EF EPOEF
2r
TF TJHVF RVF r2 2.
&M TJHVJFOUF SB[POBNJFOUP NVFTUSB RVF r2 2 DPNP r FT FM TVQSFNP EF
1
S FOUPODFT QBSB DBEB n N, r +
/ S Z QPS UBOUP
n+1
1 2
r+ 2,
n+1
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF QBSB UPEP n 1
2r 1 2r 1 2r + 1
2 r2 + + 2
< r2 + + < r2 + ,
n + 1 (n + 1) n+1 n+1 n
Z EF FTUP TF UJFOF QBSB UPEP n 1
2 r2 1
<
2r + 1 n

&M NJTNP -FNB HBSBOUJ[B RVF r2 2. )FNPT EFNPTUSBEP BT RVF

r2 = 2 MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF FM -FNB &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO QSVFCB RVF
Q OP FT DPNQMFUP

5FSNJOBNPT FTUB TFDDJO DPO PUSB DBSBDUFSTUJDB NVZ JNQPSUBOUF EF
MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT MB MMBNBEB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB RVF TF EF
OF FO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
1SPQPTJDJO 1BSB UPEP r Q+ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N 1 RVF
EFQFOEF EF r
UBM RVF
1
< r.
N
%FNPTUSBDJO 3B[POFNPT QPS FM BCTVSEP 4J UBM BSNBDJO OP GVFSB
DJFSUB FYJTUJSBO OBUVSBMFT m0 Z n0 UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP n 1 TF DVN
QMJSB RVF
m0 1
r0 := .
n0 n
1 m0
1BSUJDVMBSNFOUF QBSB n = n0 + 1 UFOESBNPT RVF Z QPS
n0 + 1 n0
UBOUP
1 1
1 1+ > 1,
m0 n0
MP DVBM FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO -VFHP Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP

&O HFOFSBM VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP F TF MMBNB BSRVJNFEJBOP TJ QBSB
DBEB r P, FM DPOKVOUP EF FMFNFOUPT QPTJUJWPT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF (N 1)1 < r, EPOEF N 1 := 1 + 1 +
+ 1
N WFDFT
&M SFTVMUBEP QSFTFOUBEP B DPOUJOVBDJO QSPQPSDJPOB PUSBT GPSNBT EF
DBSBDUFSJ[BS B Q DPNP BSRVJNFEJBOP
5FPSFNB -BT TJHVJFOUFT BSNBDJPOFT TPO FRVJWBMFOUFT
B
Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP
C
1BSB UPEP r Q Z QBSB UPEP s Q+ FYJTUF N N UBM RVF r < N s
D
( r Q )( N N )( r < N ).
E
N OP FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q
%FNPTUSBDJO &M UFPSFNB RVFEBS EFNPTUSBEP TJ QSPCBNPT MBT JNQMJ
DBDJPOFT
(a) (b) (c) (d) (a).
(a) (b) 4FBO r Q Z s Q+ KPT 4J r 0 CBTUB FMFHJS N = 1.
4J r > 0 MB IJQUFTJT HBSBOUJ[B MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF
1/N < s/r

(b) (c) #BTUB IBDFS s = 1 FO C

(c) (d) 4J N GVFSB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q FYJTUJSB q0 Q
UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N, n q0 1FSP D
EJDF RVF FYJTUJSB N N
UBM RVF q0 < N MP DVBM FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO -VFHP N OP FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q
(d) (a) /VFWBNFOUF FM NUPEP JOEJSFDUP FT FM NT BQSPQJBEP 4J
FYJTUJFTF r0 Q+ UBM RVF n 1, 1/n r0 FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP N
TFSB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO Q QPS FM SBDJPOBM 1/r0

0CTFSWBDJO J
-B BSNBDJO C
EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FO USNJOPT
HFPNUSJDPT TF JOUFSQSFUB BSNBOEP RVF DVBMRVJFS MPOHJUVE r QPS NVZ
HSBOEF RVF TFB TF QVFEF TPCSFQBTBS DPO VO ONFSP OJUP N EF MPOHJ
UVEFT JHVBMFT B s
JJ
&M UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FT WMJEP FO DVBMRVJFS DBNQP PSEFOBEP F FO
FTF DBTP FM DPOKVOUP RVF EFTFNQFB FM QBQFM EFM DPOKVOUP EF ONFSPT
OBUVSBMFT FT
N := {n 1 : n N}.
&KFSDJDJP
4FB r Q KP 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUFO FOUFSPT m Z n UBMFT RVF
m < r < n.
1SVFCF EJSFDUBNFOUF RVF TJ r, s Q FOUPODFT

r > s r s Q+ .
4FBO p Z q SBDJPOBMFT KPT UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r > 1 TF

UJFOF RVF p < rq 1SVFCF RVF p q.
4FB k N, k > 1 KP %FNVFTUSF
1
Q+ N N :< .
kN
BZVEB QSVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP n N, k n > n
%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 1
n
1 n
B
= .
k(k + 1) n+1
k=1
n
1 n
C
= .
(2k 1)(2k + 1) 2n + 1
k=1
n
k n+2
D
=2 n .
2k 2
k=1

4FB A := {x Q+ : x2 > 2} %FNVFTUSF RVF A OP UJFOF ONP

FO Q
)BMMF FM TVQSFNP Z FM ONP EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT TJ FYJTUFO
Z EFNVFTUSF TV SFTQVFTUB
A = {1/n : n N }, B = {1/n : n Z, n = 0},
C = {1/n + (1)n : n N }.
4FB A Q BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS s Q Z BDPUBEP JOGFSJPS

NFOUF QPS y Q 4J UBOUP s DPNP y QFSUFOFDFO BM DPOKVOUP A
QSVFCF RVF y = OG A Z RVF s = TVQ A
1 1 1
4FB A = {a2 + b2 + c2 + a2
+ b2
+ c2
: a, b, c Q } 1SVFCF RVF
OG A = 6.
4VDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT

6O DPODFQUP EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE FO NBUFNUJDBT FT FM EF TVDFTJO &T
UVEJBSFNPT FTUF DPODFQUP Z BMHVOBT OPDJPOFT SFMBDJPOBEBT DPNP DPO
WFSHFODJB Z BDPUBNJFOUP 5BNCJO FTUVEJBSFNPT VOB DMBTF EF TVDFTJP
OFT MMBNBEBT EF $BVDIZ RVF TFSO VTBEBT FO FM DBQUVMP TJHVJFOUF QBSB
DPOTUSVJS FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FOJDJO 4FB m VO ONFSP OBUVSBM KP 6OB TVDFTJO EF O

NFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT VOB GVODJO EFM DPOKVOUP {n N : n m} BM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Q FT EFDJS VOB BQMJDBDJO RVF
BTJHOB B DBEB OBUVSBM n m VO ONFSP SBDJPOBM rn . &O TNCPMPT
f : {n N : n m} Q UBM RVF f (n) := rn Q TF MMBNB VOB
TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT P TVDFTJO FO Q
&O HFOFSBM VOB GVODJO f : {n N : n m} X TF MMBNB VOB
TVDFTJO FO FM DPOKVOUP X.
&T QSFDJTP IBDFS VO DPNFOUBSJP SFTQFDUP B FTUF DPODFQUP &O MB QSD

UJDB FOUFOEFNPT Z IBDFNPT VTP EFM DPODFQUP EF TVDFTJO DPNP FM SBOHP
EF MB GVODJO f FT EFDJS TJ f (n) := rn IBCMBNPT EF {rn : n m} DP
NP MB TVDFTJO $PO FTUF BDVFSEP FT OBUVSBM EFOPUBS MBT TVDFTJPOFT QPS
{rn }
n=m &O FM DBTP FO FM RVF m = 0 TJNQMFNFOUF QPEFNPT FTDSJCJS
{rn } BMHVOBT WFDFT TF VTB UBNCJO MB FTDSJUVSB {rn }nN
&O MP RVF TJHVF EF FTUF UFYUP FO DVBOUP B TVDFTJPOFT TF SFFSF TV
QPOESFNPT RVF m = 0 P m = 1.
&KFNQMP 4FB q Q KP -B TVDFTJO {q}nN FT EFDJS rn = q QBSB

UPEP n N TF MMBNB TVDFTJO DPOTUBOUF

&KFNQMP " WFDFT TF BDPTUVNCSB EFOJS VOB TVDFTJO QPS SFDVSSFO
DJB -B TJHVJFOUF TVDFTJO FT VOB NVFTUSB EF FMMP Z TF MMBNB TVDFTJO EF
'JCPOBDDJ {fn }
n=1 EFOJEB QPS
f1 = f2 = 1, fn+2 = fn+1 + fn .
&TUB TVDFTJO NPEFMB FM GBNPTP QSPCMFNB EF MPT DPOFKPT QSPQVFTUP QPS
'JCPOBDDJ i&O VO QBUJP DFSSBEP TF DPMPDB VOB QBSFKB EF DPOFKPT SFDJO
OBDJEPT QBSB WFS DVOUPT EFTDFOEJFOUFT QSPEVDF FO FM DVSTP EF VO BP
Z TF TVQPOF RVF DBEB NFT B QBSUJS EFM TFHVOEP NFT EF TV WJEB DBEB
QBSFKB EF DPOFKPT EB PSJHFO B VOB OVFWBu 1BSB SFTPMWFS FTUF QSPCMFNB
TF TVQPOF BEJDJPOBMNFOUF RVF FO FTUF QFSJPEP EF UJFNQP OJOHO DPOFKP
NVFSF Z RVF MB IFNCSB TJFNQSF QSPEVDF VOB OVFWB QBSFKB GPSNBEB QPS
VO NBDIP Z VOB IFNCSB
%FOJDJO 4FBO {rn } Z {sn } TVDFTJPOFT FO Q %FOJNPT MB TVNB
Z FM QSPEVDUP EF FMMBT EF MB NBOFSB OBUVSBM FT EFDJS
{rn } + {sn } := {rn + sn } , {rn } {sn } := {rn sn }.
%FCFNPT FOGBUJ[BS RVF IFNPT VTBEP FM NJTNP TNCPMP i + u QBSB
EFOPUBS TVNBT EF PCKFUPT EJGFSFOUFT QPS FKFNQMP FO MB FYQSFTJO rn +sn
FM TNCPMP DPSSFTQPOEF B VOB TVNB FOUSF SBDJPOBMFT &M DPNFOUBSJP UBN
CJO FT WMJEP QBSB MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO /UFTF RVF TJ SQ SFQSFTFOUB FM DPO
KVOUP EF TVDFTJPOFT FO Q FOUPODFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EFOJEPT FO
FTUF DPOKVOUP TPO PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT QVFT MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF
GVODJPOFT UBNCJO MP TPO "EFNT QPS TFS Q VO DBNQP FTUBT PQFSBDJP
OFT TPO BTPDJBUJWBT DPONVUBUJWBT MB TVDFTJO DPOTUBOUF {0}nN FT FM
OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB Z MB TVDFTJO DPOTUBOUF {1}nN FT FM OFVUSP QBSB FM
QSPEVDUP TF DVNQMF UBNCJO MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB Z DBEB FMFNFOUP
{rn } SQ UJFOF VO OJDP PQVFTUP BEJUJWP {rn } 1FSP DVJEBEP SQ
EPUBEP EF FTUBT PQFSBDJPOFT OP FT VO DBNQP y2V FT MP RVF GBMMB
%FOJDJO 4FBO {rn } Z {sn } TVDFTJPOFT FO Q %FDJNPT RVF
{rn } = {sn } TJ rn = sn QBSB UPEP n N
%FOJDJO 4FB r Q %FOJNPT FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF r EFOPUBEP
QPS |r| DPNP
|r| := NY{r, r}.
/PUFNPT RVF |r| FTU CJFO EFOJEP QVFT Q FTU EPUBEP EF MB SFMBDJO
MB DVBM FT EF PSEFO UPUBM Z QPS UBOUP r r P CJFO r r 5BNCJO

IUUQBNGBMFYCMPHTQPUDPN@@@BSDIJWFIUNM

QVFEF VTBSTF FM &KFSDJDJP 1 BM OBM EFM DBQUVMP QBSB KVTUJDBS MB CVFOB

EFOJDJO EF |r| 0CTFSWFNPT BEFNT RVF EF MB EFOJDJO TF EFTQSFOEF
RVF QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r, |r| 0
&T GDJM WFS RVF MB EFOJDJO EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB
USBEJDJPOBMNFOUF QSFTFOUBEB FTUP FT

r TJ r 0
|r| =
r TJ r 0 .
-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO SFTVNF MBT QSPQJFEBEFT NT VTBEBT EFM WBMPS

BCTPMVUP
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO r, s Z ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT &OUPODFT

B
|r| = 0 r = 0
C
| r| = |r| 1BSJEBE EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP

D
|r| r |r|
E
4FB > 0 &OUPODFT |s| = (s = s = ).
F
r2 = s2 |r| = |s|
G
|r s| |r| + |s| %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

H
|r| |s| |r s|.
I
|r| < < r <
J
|r| > ( r > r < )

K
|r| |s| |r s|.
L
|rs| = |r||s|
r |r|

M
4J s = 0 FOUPODFT =
s |s|
%FNPTUSBDJO %FNPTUSBSFNPT BMHVOBT TJNQMFNFOUF DPO FM PCKFUJWP EF
JMVTUSBS PUSB NBOFSB EJTUJOUB EF QSPCBS FTUBT QSPQJFEBEFT -BT EFNT
DPOTUJUVZFO VO GDJM FKFSDJDJP
B
4J |r| = 0 FOUPODFT EF MB EFOJDJO TF TJHVF RVF r |r| = 0 Z
r |r| = 0 -VFHP r 0 r r = 0 -B PUSB JNQMJDBDJO FT
USJWJBM
C
Z D
TPO DPOTFDVFODJB JONFEJBUB EF MB EFOJDJO EF WBMPS
BCTPMVUP
F
r2 = s2 (rs)(r+s) = 0 r = s r = s &O DVBMRVJFS DBTP

TF UJFOF RVF |r| = |s| 1BSB FM SFDQSPDP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF UBOUP r
DPNP s TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP MB DPODMVTJO TF UJFOF
USJWJBMNFOUF "QMJDBOEP E
DPO = |r| PCUFOFNPT RVF s2 = |r|2 = |s|2
Z OVFWBNFOUF E
DPO = |s| OPT QSPQPSDJPOB r2 = |s|2 -VFHP r2 = s2
G
6TBOEP MB EFOJDJO UFOFNPT RVF

r |r| r |r|
(r + s) |r| + |s| (r + s) |r| + |s| ,
s |s| s |s|
Z QPS UBOUP |r| + |s| FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EFM DPOKVOUP {r + s, (r + s)} MP

DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF
|r + s| |r| + |s|.
'JOBMNFOUF PCTFSWFNPT RVF |r s| = |r +(s)| |r| + | s| = |r| + |s|.
H
4F TJHVF EF G
QVFTUP RVF |r| = |(r s) s| |r s| + |s|
I
/PUFNPT RVF TJ 0 BNCPT MBEPT EF MB FRVJWBMFODJB TPO GBMTPT Z
QPS UBOUP MB BSNBDJO FT MHJDBNFOUF WFSEBEFSB 1FSP FTUF DBTP TPMP
PGSFDF WBMPS UFSJDP QPS MP RVF MB QSPQJFEBE UJFOF WBMPS QSDUJDP DVBOEP
> 0 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF > 0 -B QSPQJFEBE D
EFNVFTUSB MB
JNQMJDBDJO |r| < < r < %F MB EFOJDJO TF TJHVF MB
PUSB JNQMJDBDJO 7BMF PCTFSWBS RVF MB QSPQJFEBE UBNCJO TF UJFOF TJ
DBNCJBNPT < QPS
L
4J s = 0 MB BSNBDJO FT USJWJBMNFOUF DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT
RVF s = 0 -VFHP s > 0 P CJFO s < 0 FO DPOTFDVFODJB TF UJFOF RVF
{rs, rs} = {r|s|, r|s|} = |s|{r, r} WFS &KFSDJDJP EF MB QHJOB

&TUF NJTNP FKFSDJDJP JNQMJDB RVF |rs| = |s||r|

&KFSDJDJP 4FB Q+ . 4J r, s, p Q FODVFOUSF VO q Q+ UBM RVF

|r s| < q |p s| < q |r p| < .
&M DPODFQUP EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP OPT QFSNJUF FTUVEJBS QSPQJFEBEFT JN

QPSUBOUFT EF TVDFTJPOFT DPNP FM BDPUBNJFOUP Z MB DPOWFSHFODJB
%FOJDJO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO FO Q %FDJNPT RVF MB TVDF

TJO FT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF
TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M Q, JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF n UBM RVF QBSB UPEP

n N, rn M SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF rn M
-B TVDFTJO TF EJDF BDPUBEB
TJ MP FT TVQFSJPSNFOUF F JOGFSJPSNFOUF
0CTFSWBDJO &O MB QSDUJDB VTBNPT MB TJHVJFOUF DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO QBSB

TVDFTJPOFT BDPUBEBT {rn } FT BDPUBEB TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF

M Q, M 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N, |rn | M &O FGFDUP TJ {rn }

FT BDPUBEB FOUPODFT FYJTUFO DPOTUBOUFT q Z q FO Q UBMFT RVF QBSB UPEP
n N TF UJFOF RVF q rn q -VFHP TJ M := NY{|q |, |q|} FOUPODFT
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n
M |q | q rn q |q| M,
FTUP FT |rn | M QBSB UPEP n N &M SFDQSPDP FT JONFEJBUP

&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJO {1 + (1)n } FT BDPUBEB QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF MB
DPOTUBOUF 2 Q UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N TF UJFOF RVF
|1 + (1)n | 1 + |(1)n | = 2.
*HVBMNFOUF MB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT EFOJEB QPS

n
1
sn := ,
(k + 1)(k + 2)
k=0
FT BDPUBEB QVFTUP RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n

n n
1 1 1 1
0 < sn = = = 1 < 1.
(k + 1)(k + 2) k+1 k+2 n+2
k=0 k=0
"OUFT EF FOVODJBS MB EFOJDJO EF DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJO

QSFTFOUBSFNPT VO FKFNQMP RVF OPT BZVEF B BTJNJMBS NVZ CJFO EJDIB
EFOJDJO
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJO EBEB QPS
2n
qn :=
3n + 5
B
)BMMBS VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF |qn 23 | < 103 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM
n N
&O PUSBT QBMBCSBT RVFSFNPT FODPOUSBS VO OEJDF N B QBSUJS EFM DVBM
UPEPT MPT USNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJO EJTUBO EF 2/3 NFOPT RVF 103 1BSB
FMMP CBTUB PCTFSWBS RVF
2 10 9985

qn < 103 < 103 n > .
3 3(3n + 5) 9
-VFHP VO OEJDF RVF TJSWF FT N = 1110 &O FGFDUP TJ n 1110 FOUPODFT
9n + 15 10005 Z BT
2 10

qn = < 103 .
3 9n + 15

C
%BEP Q+ BSCJUSBSJP QFSP KP FODPOUSBS N N UBM RVF
2
|qn | < ,
3
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n N
&TUP FT MB HFOFSBMJ[BDJO EFM DBTP BOUFSJPS FT EFDJS FODPOUSFNPT VO
OEJDF N B QBSUJS EFM DVBM UPEPT MPT USNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJO EJTUBO EF 2/3
NFOPT RVF VO Q+ DVBMRVJFSB QSFWJBNFOUF FTDPHJEP "RV QPEFNPT
1 9
VTBS MB BSRVJNFEJBOB QBSB > 0 EBEP FYJTUF N N UBM RVF <
N 10
NT BEFMBOUF FM DNQVUP EFKBS DMBSB MB SB[O EF FTUB FTDPHFODJB

-VFHP TJ n N FOUPODFT 9n + 15 9N + 15 > 9N MP DVBM JNQMJDB
RVF
2 10 10 10
n
q = < < .
3 9n + 15 9N + 15 9N
/PUBNPT EFM FKFNQMP RVF FM OBUVSBM N EFQFOEF EFM ; TJ FO B
FT
DPHFNPT VO = 103 FM OBUVSBM N FODPOUSBEP OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF FT

%FOJDJO 6OB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT {rn } TF EJDF RVF
DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ FYJTUF VO ONFSP SBDJPOBM r UBM RVF QBSB DBEB Q+
FT QPTJCMF FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N RVF QVFEF EFQFOEFS EF
DPO MB
QSPQJFEBE EF RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT |rn r| < . 4JNCMJDBNFOUF MB
EFOJDJO TF FYQSFTB BT {rn } DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ
( r Q)( Q+ )(N N)( n)(n N |rn r| < ).
$VBOEP FTUP PDVSSF EFDJNPT RVF r FT FM MNJUF EF {rn } Z FTDSJCJNPT

MNn rn = r P TJ OP IBZ BNCJHFEBE rn r.
/FHBOEP MB EFOJDJO TF TJHVF RVF VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn }
OP DPOWFSHF FO Q TJ
( r Q)( 0 Q+ )(N N)( n)(n N |rn r| 0 ).
&KFNQMP -B QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB HBSBOUJ[B RVF MB TVDFTJO

{(1)n /n} DPOWFSHF Z TV MNJUF FT DFSP -BT TVDFTJPOFT {n} Z {1+(1)n }
OP DPOWFSHFO FO Q &O FGFDUP TJ {n} GVFSB DPOWFSHFOUF FYJTUJSB r Q
UBM RVF QBSB = 1 FODPOUSBSBNPT VO N N DPO MB QSPQJFEBE EF RVF TJ
n N FOUPODFT |n r| < 1 %F BRV TF TJHVF WB MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBO
HVMBS RVF n < 1+|r| QBSB UPEP n N -VFHP TJ M := NY{N, 1+|r|}
QPESBNPT DPODMVJS RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n n M MP DVBM FRVJWBMF
B EFDJS RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT OBUVSBMFT FT BDPUBEP FO Q. &TUB DPOUSB
EJDDJO NVFTUSB RVF {n} OP DPOWFSHF FO Q %F MB NJTNB NBOFSB TJ MB

TVDFTJO {1 + (1)n } GVFSB DPOWFSHFOUF FYJTUJSB q Q UBM RVF QBSB

= 1/2 FODPOUSBSBNPT VO N UBM RVF
n N |1 + (1)n q| < 1/2.
&O QBSUJDVMBS QBSB n = 2N Z n = 2N + 1, MP BOUFSJPS BSSPKBSB RVF

|2 q| < 1/2 Z |q| < 1/2 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF -B EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS
JNQMJDBSB RVF 2 < 1 QVFT
2 = |2 q + q| |2 q| + |q| < 1.
&TUF BCTVSEP QSVFCB RVF MB TVDFTJO OP QVFEF TFS DPOWFSHFOUF
5FPSFNB 6OJDJEBE EFM MNJUF

4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT
SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF &OUPODFT TV MNJUF FT OJDP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO q1 Z q2 MNJUFT EF {rn } 4FB Q+ BSCJUSBSJP 1PS

MB DPOWFSHFODJB FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF

n N1 |rn q1 | < Z n N2 |rn q2 | < .
2 2
-VFHP TJ EFOJNPT N := NY{N1 , N2 } Z n N FOUPODFT QPS MB
EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS
|q1 q2 | |q1 rn | + |rn q2 | < .
&O DPODMVTJO IFNPT EFNPTUSBEP RVF Q+ , |q1 q2 | < 6TBOEP

FM MJUFSBM B
EF MB 1SPQPTJDJO TF TJHVF RVF q1 = q2 . 1PS UBOUP FM
MNJUF FT OJDP
)BTUB FTUF QVOUP TPMP UFOFNPT B EJTQPTJDJO MB EFOJDJO QBSB QSPCBS

MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJO $PO FM TJHVJFOUF FKFNQMP TF JMVTUSBO
GPSNBT EF FMBCPSBS DVFOUBT RVF QFSNJUFO VOB QSVFCB FYJUPTB
4n3 7
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJO qn = Z QSPCFNPT
3n3 9n 5
RVF DPOWFSHF B 4/3. 3FDPSEFNPT RVF MB JEFB FT DPOUSPMBS MB EJGFSFODJB
FOUSF qn Z 4/3 DPO > 0 EBEP BSCJUSBSJBNFOUF Z QBSB n NBZPS RVF
DJFSUP N N. 1PS FMMP JOJDJBNPT BT

4n3 7 4 36n 1

|qn 4/3| = 3 = .
3n 9n 5 3 3(3n 9n 5)
3
1BSB FMJNJOBS MBT CBSSBT EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP EFCFNPT BTFHVSBSOPT EFM TJHOP
EF MB FYQSFTJO RVF FTU FOUSF MBT CBSSBT &M OVNFSBEPS FT QPTJUJWP QBSB

UPEP OBUVSBM n 1 NJFOUSBT RVF FM EFOPNJOBEPS MP FT QBSB n 2

1BSB KVTUJDBS FTUP MUJNP OPUFNPT RVF 3n3 9n 5 > 0 TJ Z TPMP
TJ 2n3 + n3 > 9n + 5 QBSB MP DVBM CBTUB RVF 2n3 > 9n Z n3 > 5
"NCBT TF TBUJTGBDFO QBSB UPEP n 3 QFSP MP RVF FTUBNPT KVTUJDBOEP
TF DVNQMF UBNCJO QBSB n = 2 BT RVF QPEFNPT FMJNJOBS MBT CBSSBT EFM
WBMPS BCTPMVUP TJFNQSF RVF n 2. 5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF QBSB n 2,
1 36n 1
|qn 4/3| =
3 3n3 9n 5
"IPSB JOUSPEVDJNPT VO SB[POBNJFOUP RVF OPT BZVEB B BDPUBS FTUF DP
DJFOUF -B DMBWF DPOTJTUF FO RVFEBSOPT DPO MPT USNJOPT iNBZPSFTu MPT
DVBMFT TPO MPT RVF EPNJOBO UPEB MB FYQSFTJO &O FM OVNFSBEPS FT 36n
Z FO FM EFOPNJOBEPS FT 3n3 MVFHP PMWJEOEPOPT EFM GBDUPS DPOTUBOUF
36n
1/3 FTUF DPDJFOUF TF DPNQPSUB DPNP = 12/n2 . &M QBTP B TFHVJS FT
3n3
WFSJDBS RVF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP OBUVSBM
36n 1 12
2
3n3 9n 5 n
&TUB EFTJHVBMEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF 108n + 60 n2 QBSB MP

DVBM FT TVDJFOUF RVF 108n n2 /2 Z RVF 60 n2 /2 $PO n 216 TF
DVNQMFO BNCBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT Z BT TF UJFOF RVF
1 36n 1 4
|qn 4/3| = 3
2,
3 3n 9n 5 n
TJFNQSF RVF n 216.
'JOBMNFOUF FMBCPSBNPT OVFTUSP BSHVNFOUP EFOJUJWP EF MB TJHVJFO
UF NBOFSB TFB Q+ EBEP 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJT
UF M N UBM RVF 1/M < /4 &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ n N EPOEF
N := NY{M, 216} FOUPODFT
4 4 4 4
|qn 4/3| 2
< < ,
n n N M
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF qn 4/3 DVBOEP n .
n2 n 1
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF VTBOEP MB EFOJDJO RVF 2
Z
4n 1 4
n2 n2 + 1
1.
n+1 n
4F EFNVFTUSB GDJMNFOUF RVF VOB TVDFTJO DPOTUBOUF DPOWFSHF Z TV
MNJUF FT MB NJTNB DPOTUBOUF RVF MB EFOF

5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF FT

BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF Z r
Q TV MNJUF 6TBOEP MB EFOJDJO EF DPOWFSHFODJB DPO = 1 FODPOUSB
NPT VO OBUVSBM N 1 UBM RVF
n N |rn r| < 1.
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF QBSB UPEP n N, |rn | < 1 + |r| %FOJFOEP
M := NY{|r0 |, |r1 |, |r2 |, . . . , |rN 1 |, 1 + |r|} > 0,
WFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP n N, |rn | M. 1PS UBOUP MB TVDFTJO {rn } FT

BDPUBEB

&KFSDJDJP 4FB {qn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT RVF DPOWFSHF B q

%FNVFTUSF VTBOEP BSHVNFOUPT N, RVF |qn | |q| Z qn2 q 2 . "OBMJDF
MPT SFDQSPDPT
%FOJDJO 6OB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF DPO MNJUF DFSP
FT MMBNBEB TVDFTJO OVMB
&O MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO SFTVNJNPT BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TV
DFTJPOFT OVMBT
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO {qn } Z {rn } TVDFTJPOFT EF SBDJPOBMFT
B
4J {qn } FT OVMB FOUPODFT {qn } UBNCJO FT OVMB
C
4J {qn } Z {rn } TPO OVMBT FOUPODFT {qn + rn } FT OVMB
D
4J {qn } FT BDPUBEB Z {rn } FT OVMB FOUPODFT {qn rn } FT OVMB &O
QBSUJDVMBS FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT TVDFTJPOFT OVMBT UBNCJO FT OVMB
%FNPTUSBDJO B
&T JONFEJBUP QVFTUP RVF | qn | = |qn |.
C
4FB Q+ &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF

n N |qn | < |rn | < .
2 2
&O SFBMJEBE FTUF N TF PCUJFOF DPNP VO NYJNP FOUSF PUSPT EPT OBUVSBMFT
N1 Z N2 UBM DVBM TF IJ[P FO MB QSVFCB EFM 5FPSFNB
-B EFTJHVBMEBE
USJBOHVMBS JNQMJDB RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT |qn +rn | < . 1PS UBOUP RVFEB
QSPCBEB MB BSNBDJO
D
4FB M Q+ UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N, |qn | M 4FB Q+ $PNP
rn 0 FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT |rn | < /M. -VFHP TJ
n N TF UJFOF RVF |qn rn | < Z FTUP QSVFCB RVF {qn rn } FT OVMB


n2
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJO FT OVMB QVFTUP RVF QBSB DBEB
n3 + 2 n=1
n 1
n2 1 n3
= ,
n3 + 2 n n3 + 2

1 n3
EPOEF FT OVMB Z QBSB DBEB n 1 3 < 1
n n=1 n + 2
0CTFSWBDJO &T JONFEJBUP WFS RVF VOB TVDFTJO {rn } EF SBDJPOBMFT

DPOWFSHF BM SBDJPOBM r TJ Z TPMP TJ MB TVDFTJO {rn r} FT VOB TVDFTJO
OVMB $PO FTUP Z DPO MB QSPQPTJDJO BOUFSJPS TF EFEVDFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
QSPQJFEBEFT
4J {rn } DPOWFSHF B r Z {qn } DPOWFSHF B q FOUPODFT {rn +qn } Z {rn qn }
TPO DPOWFSHFOUFT Z UJFOFO QPS MNJUF B r + q Z rq SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF -B
TFHVOEB BSNBDJO QPS FKFNQMP TF EFEVDF EF MB EFTJHVBMEBE
|rn qn rq| |rn ||qn q| + |q||rn r|
Z EFM IFDIP EF RVF {rn } FT BDPUBEB

4J q = 0 FOUPODFT 1/qn 1/q QSJNFSP WFBNPT RVF B QBSUJS EF
DJFSUP OEJDF MPT USNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJO TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP Z NT
BO FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF QPTJUJWB C UBM RVF |qn | > C QBSB UPEP n B
QBSUJS EF EJDIP OEJDF $PNP |q| > 0 MB EFOJDJO EF DPOWFSHFODJB OPT
|q|
QFSNJUF IBMMBS VO OBUVSBM N DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B = UBM RVF
2
|q|
n N |q qn | < .
2
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF |q| |qn | |q qn | < |q|

2 TJFNQSF RVF n N Z
QPS UBOUP |qn | > |q|/2 := C QBSB UPEP n N FT EFDJS MPT USNJOPT EF
MB TVDFTJO TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP QPS MP NFOPT B QBSUJS EFM USNJOP EF
MVHBS N 4FB Q+ /VFWBNFOUF MB DPOWFSHFODJB OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO
OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT
1
|qn q| < q 2 .
2
-VFHP TJ n NY{N, N } TF UJFOF RVF

1
1 = |q qn | < .
qn q |q||qn |


rn
1BSUJDVMBSNFOUF TF EFEVDF RVF TJ q = 0 FOUPODFT MB TVDFTJO
qn
r
DPOWFSHF Z UJFOF QPS MNJUF BM SBDJPOBM
q
0CTFSWFNPT UBNCJO RVF DPO FTUBT QSPQJFEBEFT Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFO
UB RVF 1/n 0, 1/n2 0 Z 1/n3 0 DVBOEP n , FKFSDJDJPT DPNP
FM JMVTUSBEP FO FM &KFNQMP TF QVFEFO SFTPMWFS EF GPSNB NT TFODJMMB
QPS FKFNQMP
4n3 7 4 7/n3 4
MNn 3
= MN n 2 3
= .
3n 9n 5 3 9/n 5/n 3
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI QBSB TVDFTJPOFT FO Q
TFBO {rn }, {sn } Z {qn } TVDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF
N0 DPO rn sn qn n N0 . 4J rn L Q Z qn L, FOUPODFT
sn L.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MBT TJHVJFOUFT TVDFTJPOFT TPO OVMBT
(1)n n
B
pn :=
n2 + 2

n
1
C
r0 = 0 Z TJ n 1 rn :=
(n + i)2
i=0
1
D
qn :=
n!
"ZVEB VTF FM 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI QBSB C
Z D

" DPOUJOVBDJO TF JOUSPEVDF VOB DMBTF FTQFDJBM EF TVDFTJO &TUB TF
EJTUJOHVF EF MBT EFNT TVDFTJPOFT QPSRVF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP OEJDF FO
BEFMBOUF MB EJGFSFODJB FOUSF EPT EF TVT USNJOPT FT UBO QFRVFB DPNP
VOP EFTFF
%FOJDJO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT %FDJNPT
RVF {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ TJ QBSB DBEB Q+ FT QPTJCMF
FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N RVF QVFEF EFQFOEFS EF
UBM RVF QBSB DBEB
QBS EF OBUVSBMFT m Z n DPO n > N Z m > N TF UJFOF RVF |rn rm | < .
&O TNCPMPT MB EFOJDJO TF FTDSJCF {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ TJ
( Q+ ) ( N N) ( n)( m) (n > N m > N |rn rm | < ).
4F EFEVDF FOUPODFT RVF VOB TVDFTJO {rn } OP FT EF $BVDIZ TJ
( 0 Q+ ) (N N) ( n)( m) (n > N m > N |rn rm | 0 ),
FT EFDJS FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWB 0 UBM RVF EBEP DVBMRVJFS
OBUVSBM N FT QPTJCMF IBMMBS PUSPT OBUVSBMFT n Z m NBZPSFT RVF N DPO

MB QSPQJFEBE |rn rm | 0 EBEP VO OBUVSBM N FYJTUFO EPT USNJOPT EF

MB TVDFTJO DPO OEJDFT NBZPSFT RVF N TVDJFOUFNFOUF BMFKBEPT

2n
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJO {rn } = FT EF $BVDIZ &M TJHVJFOUF
n+1
DMDVMP OPT EJDF DNP DPOTUSVJS FM BSHVNFOUP QBSB DVBMRVJFS QBS EF
OBUVSBMFT n Z m TF UJFOF RVF

2n 2m 2|n m| 2(n + m)

n + 1 m + 1 = (n + 1)(m + 1) (n + 1)(m + 1)
2(n + m + 2)
<
(n + 1)(m + 1)

n+1 m+1
=2 +
(n + 1)(m + 1) (n + 1)(m + 1)
2 2
= +
m+1 n+1
"IPSB CJFO EBEP DVBMRVJFS Q+ MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB OPT

1
QSPWFF VO OBUVSBM N 1 UBM RVF < Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB TJ n > N
N 4
Z m > N FOUPODFT
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
+ < + < + = < .
m+1 n+1 m n N N N
3FTVNJFOEP IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF EBEP Q+ FYJTUF N N DPOTFHVJEP
QPS MB BSRVJNFEJBOB
UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT |rn rm | <
MP DVBM QSVFCB RVF EJDIB TVDFTJO FT EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP 6TBOEP MB EFOJDJO EFNVFTUSF RVF MBT TVDFTJPOFT
2
n
n 1 1
2
Z {qn } EPOEF q n := , TPO EF $BVDIZ TVHFSFODJB
n +1 k!
k=0
k N TF WFSJDB RVF k! 2k1

&KFSDJDJP 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ DPO rn Z QBSB UPEP
n 1SVFCF RVF {rn } FT DPOTUBOUF FO MUJNB JOTUBODJB FT EFDJS FYJTUFO
DPOTUBOUFT C Z Z VO OBUVSBM N UBMFT RVF rn = C QBSB UPEP n N.
&YJTUF VO HSBO ONFSP EF TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ DPNP TF KVTUJDB B

DPOUJOVBDJO
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF FT VOB TVDFTJO

EF $BVDIZ

%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT DPOWFSHFOUF DPO

MNJUF r Q Z TFB Q+ 1PS MB DPOWFSHFODJB FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ
n N FOUPODFT |rn r| < 2 -VFHP TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT

|rn rm | |rn r| + |r rm | < + = .
2 2
&TUP EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

6O QBS EF UFPSFNBT NT TFSO QSFTFOUBEPT BOUFT EF FOUSBS FO MPT

EFUBMMFT EF MB DPOTUSVDDJO EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT

BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT

1BSB = 1 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT
|rm rn | < 1 &O QBSUJDVMBS KBOEP VOB EF MBT WBSJBCMFT QPS FKFNQMP
m = N + 1 Z VTBOEP MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS PCUFOFNPT RVF QBSB
DBEB n > N, |rn | < 1 + |rN +1 | := M 1BSB DPOUSPMBS UPEPT MPT USNJOPT
rn CBTUB UPNBS C := NY{|r0 |, |r1 |, . . . , |rN |, M } Z BT TF DPODMVZF RVF
|rn | C QBSB UPEP n N.

5FPSFNB 4FBO {rn } Z {qn } TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ FO Q &OUPODFT

{rn + qn } Z {rn qn } TPO TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ FO Q
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB Q+ $PNP {rn } Z {qn } TPO EF $BVDIZ FYJTUFO

OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF

n > N1 m > N1 |rn rm | < /2
n > N2 m > N2 |qn qm | < /2.
-VFHP TJ n, m > NY{N1 , N2 } FOUPODFT
|(rn + qn ) (rm + qm )| |rn rm | + |qn qm | < .
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EFM UFPSFNB 1PS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS

FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M Q+ UBM RVF |rn | M Z |qn | M QBSB UPEP
n 3B[POBOEP DPNP BOUFT QPEFNPT FODPOUSBS VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF

n > N m > N |rn rm | < /2M
n > N m > N |qn qm | < /2M,
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB

|rn qn rm qm | |rn qn rn qm | + |rn qm rm qm |

= |rn ||qn qm | + |qm ||rn rm |

<M +M = ,
2M 2M
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB TFHVOEB BSNBDJO

&KFSDJDJPT
4FB A VO DPOKVOUP OJUP Z OP WBDP EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT %F
NVFTUSF RVF A UJFOF NOJNP Z NYJNP
x+1
+
4FB A := : x Q . %FNVFTUSF RVF A FT BDPUBEP FO
x2 + 3
Q. "EFNT QSVFCF RVF TVQ A = 1/2 Z RVF OG A = 0
%FNVFTUSF RVF |r + s| = |r| + |s| rs 0.
4FBO p Z q SBDJPOBMFT
B
1SVFCF RVF NY{p, q} = 12 (p + q + |p q|).
C
1SVFCF RVF NO {p, q} = 12 (p + q |p q|).
D
4J q + := NY{q, 0} Z q := q + q, QSVFCF q + + q = |q|.
4FB A Q OP WBDP UBM RVF OG A Z TVQ A FYJTUFO FO Q. %FNVFTUSF

RVF FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT {rn } Z {sn } FO A UBMFT RVF rn TVQ A Z
sn OG A.
4FB {rn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT UBM RVF |rn rn+1 | < 3n .
1SVFCF RVF {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ
4FBO {rn }, {sn } TVDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVF DPOWFS

HFO B r Z s SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF 4VQPOHB RVF FYJTUF N0 N DPO
rn sn QBSB UPEP n N0 . %FNVFTUSF RVF r s.

$BQUVMP
-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
*OJDJBNPT FTUF DBQUVMP DPO MB DPOTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT &YJT

UFO WBSJBT GPSNBT EF SFBMJ[BS UBM DPOTUSVDDJO MB RVF TFS QSFTFOUBEB B
DPOUJOVBDJO FT WB TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ -BT SB[POFT QPS MBT DVBMFT
TF FMJHF FTUF DBNJOP TPO CTJDBNFOUF EPT QSJNFSP FT NFOPT BCTUSBDUP
RVF VTBS DPSUBEVSBT Z TFHVOEP FT FM NUPEP FTUOEBS QBSB DPNQMFUBS
FTQBDJPT NUSJDPT UFNB RVF TF FTUVEJB FO VO DVSTP EF BOMJTJT FMFNFOUBM
QPTUFSJPS B FTUF
$POTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT

&O FTUB TFDDJO VTBSFNPT MB TJHVJFOUF OPUBDJO Q EFOPUBS FM DPOKVOUP
EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT Z DPO Q0 SFQSFTFO
UBSFNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT RVF TPO
OVMBT /UFTF RVF Q0 Q
&O FM DPOKVOUP Q EFOJNPT MB SFMBDJO = BT
{rn }
= {qn } : {rn qn } Q0 .
&T GDJM WFS RVF FTUB FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FO FM DPOKVOUP Q
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB SFMBDJO

= EFOJEB FO Q FT VOB SFMBDJO
EF FRVJWBMFODJB

%FOJDJO &M DPOKVOUP DPDJFOUF EF DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB Q = MP
MMBNBNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT Z MP EFOPUBNPT TJNQMFNFOUF
QPS R FT EFDJS
R := Q =.
6TBSFNPT QPS BIPSB MFUSBT HSJFHBT DPNP , , , . . . QBSB EFOPUBS

MPT FMFNFOUPT EF R.

&KFNQMP 4J

1 1 2n
= 1 Z =
n+1 2(n + 1)
FOUPODFT = . &O FGFDUP SFDPSEFNPT RVF EPT DMBTFT EF FRVJWBMFODJB
TPO JHVBMFT TJ Z TPMP TJ TVT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT TPO FRVJWBMFOUFT Z QPS UBOUP

n 1 2n n 1 2n
= = Q0
n+1 2(n + 1) n + 1 2(n + 1)

1
Q0 .
2(n + 1)

n n2
&KFSDJDJP -B TVDFTJO , yRV ONFSP SFBM SFQSFTFOUB
2n2
%FOJDJO 4FBO = [{rn }] Z = [{qn }] ONFSPT SFBMFT 4F EFOF
+ := [{rn + qn }] Z := [{rn qn }] .
$PNP MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ UBNCJO FT VOB

TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ FOUPODFT + R Z R 7FBNPT RVF FTUB
TVNB FO R FT JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT FTDPHJEPT 1BSB FMMP
FTDPKBNPT PUSPT SFQSFTFOUBOUFT FO MBT DMBTFT RVF EFOFO B MPT SFBMFT
Z EJHBNPT {rn } Z {qn } . -VFHP rn rn 0 Z qn qn 0
Z QPS UBOUP TV TVNB UBNCJO UJFOEF B DFSP FT {rn + qn } {rn + qn }
MP RVF FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF [{rn + qn }] = [{rn + qn }] . %FKBNPT
DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS MB QSVFCB EF RVF MB NVMUJQMJDBDJO FO R
FTU CJFO EFOJEB
" DPOUJOVBDJO EFNPTUSBNPT RVF R, +, FT VO DBNQP -B QBSUF EF
MJDBEB FT QSPCBS MB FYJTUFODJB EFM JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
4FBO = [{rn }] , = [{qn }] Z = [{pn }] ONFSPT SFBMFT &OUPODFT
+ ( + ) = [{rn }] + [{qn + pn }] = [{rn + (qn + pn )}]

= [{(rn + qn ) + pn }]
= [{rn + qn }] + [{pn }] = ( + ) + .
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVNB FO R FT BTPDJBUJWB %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF WF

RVF MB TVNB EF SFBMFT FT DPONVUBUJWB RVF FM QSPEVDUP FT BTPDJBUJWP Z
DPONVUBUJWP Z RVF TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE EJTUSJCVUJWB -BT TVDFTJPOFT
DPOTUBOUFT {0} Z {1} DPO 0 Z 1 EF Q PSJHJOBO MPT SFBMFT OFVUSPT FT EFDJS
+[{0}] = [{rn + 0}] = [{rn }] = Z [{1}] = [{rn 1}] = [{rn }] = .

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FOPUBNPT FTUPT FMFNFOUPT QPS [{0}] := 0 Z [{1}] := 1 NT BEFMBOUF FT

UB JEFOUJDBDJO RVFEBS QMFOBNFOUF KVTUJDBEB
$BEB SFBM = [{rn }]
QPTFF JOWFSTP BEJUJWP B TBCFS [{rn }] , FM DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS . 'J
OBMNFOUF FM TJHVJFOUF MFNB OPT QFSNJUJS QSPCBS RVF UPEP SFBM = 0
UJFOF JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
-FNB 4FB = [{rn }] = 0 &YJTUFO N N Z 0 Q+ UBMFT RVF

|rn | > 0 QBSB DBEB n > N.
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP = 0 FOUPODFT {rn } OP DPOWFSHF B DFSP -VFHP

FYJTUF Q+ DPO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQJFEBE QBSB UPEP M N FYJTUF k
N DPO k M Z |rk | . 1VFTUP RVF {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ
FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ n > N Z m > N FOUPODFT |rn rm | < /2. -P
BOUFSJPS OPT QSPWFF VO k N DPO k > N Z |rk | . &O DPOTFDVFODJB
TJ n > N
|rk | |rk rn | + |rn | < /2 + |rn |.
&TDPHJFOEP 0 = /2 RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM MFNB

$POUJOVFNPT DPO MB OPUBDJO VTBEB FO MB QSVFCB EFM MFNB Z EFOB

NPT MB TVDFTJO {qn } BT

1 TJ n N
qn :=
1/rn TJ n > N.
7FBNPT RVF MB TVDFTJO {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ 4FB Q+ $PNP {rn }

FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF N1 N UBM RVF TJ n > N1 Z m > N1 FOUPODFT
|rn rm | < . -VFHP TJ N2 := NY{N, N1 } n > N2 Z m > N2
FOUPODFT
|rn rm |
|qn qm | = < < 2.
|rn ||rm | |rn ||rm | 0
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ Z QPS UBOUP EFOF VO ONFSP
SFBM EJHBNPT /PUFNPT RVF

rn 1 TJ n N
rn qn 1 =
0 TJ n > N,
MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF {rn qn 1} FT VOB TVDFTJO OVMB Z BT {rn qn } {1}

FTUP FT [{rn qn }] = 1. 1PS UBOUP = 1. 5PEP FTUP RVFEB SFTVNJEP FO
FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB R, +, FT VO DBNQP

&T JNQPSUBOUF FOGBUJ[BS VOB WF[ NT RVF MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT Z DPO

TFDVFODJBT EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP NFODJPOBEBT FO MB 4FDDJO TF
DVNQMFO UBNCJO QBSB R. $PODSFUBNFOUF MB VOJDJEBE EF MPT FMFNFOUPT
OFVUSPT F JOWFSTPT Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT (C1) (C11) EFM 5FPSFNB
" DPOUJOVBDJO JOUSPEVDJNPT VOB SFMBDJO RVF QFSNJUF PSEFOBS FM DPO
KVOUP R
%FOJDJO 4FB = [{rn }] R %FDJNPT RVF FT QPTJUJWP TJ

FYJTUFO VO OBUVSBM N Z s Q+ UBMFT RVF rn > s QBSB UPEP n N.
%FDJNPT RVF FT OFHBUJWP TJ TV PQVFTUP FT QPTJUJWP
%FOPUBNPT QPS R+ Z R FM DPOKVOUP EF ONFSPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT Z

OFHBUJWPT SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF $PO FTUB OPUBDJO MB EFOJDJO BOUFSJPS TF
FOVODJB BT = [{rn }] R+ TJJ
( s Q+ )( N N)(n N)(n N rn > s).
"IPSB CJFO
/ R+ (s Q+ )(N N)( m N)(m N rm s).

-B EFOJDJO EF ONFSP SFBM QPTJUJWP OP EFQFOEF EF MB TVDFTJO RVF

TF UPNF DPNP SFQSFTFOUBOUF EFM SFBM . &O FGFDUP TJ FT QPTJUJWP Z
{rn } FOUPODFT rn rn 0 Z FYJTUFO N N Z s Q+ UBMFT RVF
rn > s TJFNQSF RVF n N 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF N1 UBM RVF TJ n N1
FOUPODFT |rn rn | < s/2. -VFHP QBSB n N0 := NY{N, N1 } UFOFNPT
RVF
s < rn = (rn rn ) + rn < s/2 + rn ,
FTUP FT rn > s/2 TJFNQSF RVF n N0 . &TUP QSVFCB RVF MB EFOJDJO
TF DVNQMF DPO DVBMRVJFS PUSP FMFNFOUP EF MB DMBTF Z QPS UBOUP FTU CJFO
IFDIB
1SPQPTJDJO -B TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT FT PUSP

SFBM QPTJUJWP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO = [{rn }] Z = [{qn }] SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT &YJTUFO

SBDJPOBMFT QPTJUJWPT s1 Z s2 Z OBUVSBMFT N1 Z N2 UBMFT RVF
(n N1 rn > s1 ) (n N2 qn > s2 ) .
)BDJFOEP r := s1 + s2 , s := s1 s2 Z N := NY{N1 , N2 } UFOFNPT RVF

rn + qn > r Z rn qn > s QBSB n N. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF + Z
TPO QPTJUJWPT

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
&KFSDJDJP 1SPCBS RVF R+ R = R+ {0} = R {0} = .
1BSB DPODMVJS RVF R FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP TPMP OPT SFTUB QSPCBS

RVF R FT USJDPUNJDP
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB R &YBDUBNFOUF VOB EF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BS

NBDJPOFT TF DVNQMF
R+ , R+ , = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJO &M &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDB RVF EPT EF MBT PQDJPOFT OP QVF
EFO PDVSSJS TJNVMUOFBNFOUF 1SPCFNPT BIPSB RVF BM NFOPT PDVSSF VOB
EF FMMBT 4VQPOHBNPT QPS FKFNQMP RVF / R+ Z / R+ Z WFBNPT
RVF = 0 TFBO > 0 SBDJPOBM Z = [{rn }] . $PNP {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ
FYJTUF N1 N UBM RVF TJ m, n > N1 FOUPODFT |rm rn | < . "IPSB
CJFO DPNP / R+ , FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M > N1 UBM RVF rM . -VFHP
TJ m > N1 ,
rm = (rm rM ) + rM < + rM < 2.
/ R+ , FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM k >
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS QVFTUP RVF
N1 DPO rk Z
rm = (rk rm ) rk < rk < 2,
QBSB m > N1 . 1PS UBOUP EBEP Q+ IFNPT IBMMBEP VO OBUVSBM N1 UBM

RVF TJ m N1 + 1 FOUPODFT |rm | < 2. &TUP QSVFCB RVF {rn } Q0
FTUP FT = 0.
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB R FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FOJDJO 4FBO Z ONFSPT SFBMFT 4F EFOF
< : R+ , > : <

: ( < = ) , : .
0CTFSWBDJO -B 1SPQPTJDJO Z MBT PCTFSWBDJPOFT RVF MB BOUFDFEFO

TPO WMJEBT FO R
&T TFODJMMP EFNPTUSBS MP TJHVJFOUF
1SPQPTJDJO -B SFMBDJO FT VOB SFMBDJO EF PSEFO UPUBM FO R.

" DPOUJOVBDJO QSPCBSFNPT RVF R DPOUJFOF B Q, DPODSFUBNFOUF R

DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP RVF TF QVFEF JEFOUJDBS DPO Q.
4FB R := {[{q}] : q Q}, FT EFDJS FM DPOKVOUP EF ONFSPT SFBMFT DV
ZP SFQSFTFOUBOUF FT VOB TVDFTJO DPOTUBOUF EF SBDJPOBMFT 4J EFOJNPT
j:QR QPS j(q) = [{q}] FOUPODFT FT DMBSP RVF j FT VO JTPNPSTNP
Z EF FTUB NBOFSB R DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP RVF FT JTPNPSGP B VOB
i DPQJB u EF
Q Z QPS UBOUP QPEFNPT JEFOUJDBS FM SBDJPOBM q DPO FM SFBM
[{q}] FT EFDJS UPEP SBDJPOBM q MP QPEFNPT WFS UBNCJO DPNP FMFNFOUP
EF R Z FTDSJCJS [{q}] = q.
7FBNPT BIPSB RVF MB SFMBDJO EF DPNQBSBDJO i < u EFOJEB FO R DPJO
DJEF DPO MB EFOJEB FO Q DVBOEP DPNQBSBNPT EPT FMFNFOUPT EF Q TFBO
q Z r SBDJPOBMFT -VFHP TJ [{q}] <R [{r}] FOUPODFT [{r}] [{q}] FT QP
TJUJWP Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM s Q+ UBM RVF r q >Q s
FO DPOTFDVFODJB r q >Q 0 FT EFDJS q <Q r. 3FDQSPDBNFOUF TJ
UFOFNPT RVF q <Q r QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FO Q FYJTUF VO
OBUVSBM N UBM RVF r q >Q 1/N QPS MP RVF FM SFBM [{r}] [{q}] FT
QPTJUJWP FT EFDJS [{q}] <R [{r}] . &TUP QSVFCB RVF <R DPJODJEF DPO <Q
DVBOEP DPNQBSBNPT SBDJPOBMFT FO R.
1SPCBSFNPT FOTFHVJEB RVF FM DBNQP R EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT FT BSRVJ
NFEJBOP $PNP VO QSJNFS QBTP FOVODJBNPT MP TJHVJFOUF
-FNB 4FBO = [{rn }] Z = [{qn }] SFBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF VO
OBUVSBM N0 DPO rn qn QBSB UPEP n N0 . &OUPODFT .
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT MP DPOUSBSJP -VFHP QPS USJDPUPNB TF UJFOF
RVF > Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP s Z N1 N UBMFT
RVF rn qn > s QBSB DBEB n N1 . %F BRV TF TJHVF RVF rn > qn
QBSB n N1 )BDJFOEP N = NY{N0 , N1 } TF PCUJFOF MB DPOUSBEJDDJO
rN > qN Z rN qN . &O DPOTFDVFODJB .

5FPSFNB &M DBNQP R FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FT EFDJS QBSB DBEB R

FYJTUF N N UBM RVF < N.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB = [{rn }] . $PNP {rn } FT BDPUBEB FO Q FYJTUF VOB
DPOTUBOUF SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWB M, UBM RVF rn M QBSB UPEP n. &M MFNB
BOUFSJPS JNQMJDB RVF [{M }] = M. $PNP Q FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FYJTUF
VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF M < N -VFHP < N.

1SPQPTJDJO 1BSB DBEB SFBM > 0 FYJTUF VO s Q+ UBM RVF s < .
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB = [{rn }] . -B QPTJUJWJEBE EF QSPQPSDJPOB VO SB
DJPOBM QPTJUJWP r Z VO OBUVSBM N0 UBMFT RVF rn > r QBSB n N0 . &M -FNB
JNQMJDB RVF r > 2r := s.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
0CTFSWBDJO -B QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FO R TF QVFEF BQMJDBS DPNP

DVBMRVJFSB EF MPT FOVODJBEPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FM 5FPSFNB TFHO MB
PCTFSWBDJO IFDIB EFTQVT EFM DJUBEP UFPSFNB
-PT NJTNPT DPODFQUPT RVF TF EFOJFSPO FO FM DBNQP EF MPT SBDJPOBMFT
SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO TVDFTJPOFT TFSO UBNCJO USBCBKBEPT FO FM DBNQP EF
MPT SFBMFT 1BSB IBCMBS QPS FKFNQMP EF TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ Z TVDFTJO
DPOWFSHFOUF FO R OFDFTJUBNPT QSJNFSP QSFTFOUBS MB OPDJO EF WBMPS
BCTPMVUP FO FTUF DBNQP
%FOJDJO 4FB R 4F EFOF FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF EFOPUBEP

QPS ||, DPNP
TJ 0
|| :=
TJ < 0.
&M TJHVJFOUF MFNB BEFNT EF TFS JNQPSUBOUF QPS TV QSPQJP DPOUFOJEP

FT UJM QBSB QSPCBS BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP
-FNB 4J = [{rn }] , FOUPODFT || = [{|rn |}] .

%FNPTUSBDJO -B EFTJHVBMEBE |rn | |rm | |rn rm | HBSBOUJ[B RVF MB
TVDFTJO {|rn |} FT EF $BVDIZ FT EFDJS {|rn |} Q. 1BSB QSPCBS FM MFNB
TVQPOHBNPT MPT DBTPT = 0, > 0 Z < 0. 4J TF EB FM QSJNFS DBTP
FOUPODFT rn 0 Z FWJEFOUFNFOUF |rn | 0 -VFHP || = 0 = [{|rn |}] .
4J PDVSSF FM TFHVOEP DBTP FOUPODFT || = Z BEFNT FYJTUFO s Q+
Z VO OBUVSBM N UBMFT RVF rn > s QBSB DBEB n N %F FTUP TF TJHVF
RVF MPT USNJOPT EF MB TVDFTJO {rn |rn |} TPO JHVBMFT B DFSP QBSB UPEP
n N. -VFHP [{rn }] = [{|rn |}] = ||. 'JOBMNFOUF TJ < 0, FOUPODFT
|| = Z rn > s QBSB BMHO SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP s Z QBSB UPEP n
TVDJFOUFNFOUF HSBOEF Z QPS MP UBOUP MB TVDFTJO {|rn | + rn } FT OVMB
&O DPOTFDVFODJB [{|rn |}] = [{rn }] = = ||.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB SFTVNF MBT QSJODJQBMFT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM WBMPS

BCTPMVUP
5FPSFNB 4FBO , Z ONFSPT SFBMFT &OUPODFT

B
|| 0.
C
|| = 0 = 0
D
| | = || 1BSJEBE EFM WBMPS BCTPMVUP

E
|| ||
F
4FB > 0 &OUPODFT || = ( = = ).

G
2 = 2 || = ||
H
| | || + || %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

I
|| || | |.
J
|| < < <
K
|| > ( > < )

L
|| || | |.
M
|| = ||||

||
N
0 FOUPODFT =
4J =
||
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO = [{rn }] Z = [{qn }]

B
$PNP FTUB QSPQJFEBE WBMF FO FM DBNQP Q FOUPODFT |rn | 0 QBSB
UPEP n Z QPS MPT -FNBT Z TF DPODMVZF RVF || 0.
C
D
Z F
TF TJHVFO EF MB EFOJDJO EF WBMPS BCTPMVUP
E
1VFTUP RVF |rn | rn |rn | n, OVFWBNFOUF MPT -FNBT Z
OPT EBO MB QSVFCB EF MB QSPQJFEBE
G
*HVBM B MB IFDIB FO F
EF MB 1SPQPTJDJO
H
6TBOEP MB EFTJHVBMEBE |rn qn | |rn |+|qn |, WMJEB FO MPT SBDJPOBMFT
Z MPT MFNBT DJUBEPT BOUFSJPSNFOUF TF DPODMVZF MB QSVFCB
I
4F TJHVF EF H
QVFTUP RVF || = |( ) | | | + ||
J
3FQFUJS MB EFNPTUSBDJO EF I
FO MB 1SPQPTJDJO
K
4F TJHVF EF J
ZB RVF (p q) ( p q). 6TBS UBNCJO
F

L
6TBS I
EPT WFDFT JOUFSDBNCJBOEP MPT SPMFT EF Z .
M
&T DPOTFDVFODJB EF MPT MFNBT Z EF MB JHVBMEBE |rn qn | = |rn ||qn |.
N
4F PCUJFOF EF M
ZB RVF || = |( )| = | |||.

4VDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SFBMFT

&O FTUB TFDDJO FYUFOEFNPT MPT DPODFQUPT QSFTFOUBEPT FO FM DBQUVMP
FO DVBOUP B TVDFTJPOFT TF SFFSF -BT NJTNBT EFOJDJPOFT EBEBT QB
SB OPDJPOFT SFMBDJPOBEBT DPO TVDFTJPOFT FO Q TF UJFOFO QBSB OPDJP
OFT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT FO FM DBNQP R CBTUB TJNQMFNFOUF QBSBGSBTFBS MB

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
SFTQFDUJWB EFOJDJO TVTUJUVZFOEP SBDJPOBMFT QPS SFBMFT 1PS FKFNQMP

VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT {n } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ TJ EB
EP R+ FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ m, n > N, FOUPODFT |n m | < .
4F EFKB DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS FTDSJCJS MBT EFNT EFOJDJPOFT -PT
UFPSFNBT QSPQPTJDJPOFT Z PCTFSWBDJPOFT QSFTFOUBEPT FO MB TFDDJO
UBNCJO UJFOFO WBMJEF[ DVBOEP MBT TVDFTJPOFT TPO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT MBT
QSVFCBT QSFTFSWBO FYBDUBNFOUF MBT NJTNBT JEFBT
0CTFSWBDJO :B TBCFNPT RVF TJ q FT VO SBDJPOBM QPEFNPT WFSMP UBN

CJO DPNP ONFSP SFBM B USBWT EFM JTPNPSTNP j : q [{q}] EFOJEP
FO MB TFDDJO BOUFSJPS *HVBM PDVSSF QBSB MBT TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ EF
SBDJPOBMFT FT EFDJS TJ {rn } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF SBDJPOBMFT
FOUPODFT UBNCJO FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF SFBMFT &O FGFDUP EBEP
> 0 QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJO FYJTUF s Q+ DPO s < "EFNT FYJTUF
N0 UBM RVF TJ m, n > N0 FOUPODFT |rn rm | < s. -VFHP QBSB m, n > N0
| [{rn }] [{rm }] | = |rn rm | < s < .
&M QSJNFS UFPSFNB EF FTUB TFDDJO OPT QFSNJUF DPOUJOVBS IBCMBOEP EF VO
ONFSP SFBM TJO UFOFS RVF VTBS SFQSFTFOUBOUFT EF DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB
NT QSFDJTBNFOUF DBEB SFBM TFS FM MNJUF EF UPEBT MBT TVDFTJPOFT FO Q
RVF FTUO FO TV DMBTF "EFNT DPOUJOVBSFNPT VTBOEP DVBMRVJFS UJQP EF
MFUSB QBSB EFOPUBS VO ONFSP SFBM
5FPSFNB 4FB VO SFBM 4J {rn } FOUPODFT rn FO R.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB > 0 1PS MB 1SPQPTJDJO FYJTUF s Q+ DPO
s < $PNP {rn } FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF n0 UBM RVF TJ m, n > n0 FOUPODFT
|rn rm | < s. &O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF
rn rm < s Z rm rn < s,
QBSB UPEP m, n > n0 "IPSB CJFO KBOEP MB WBSJBCMF n DPO n > n0 FT

DMBSP RVF
[{rn }] = [{rn rm }
m=0 ].
-VFHP VTBOEP MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE EF
Z FM -FNB TF JOFSF
RVF [{rn }] s MP DVBM FT WMJEP QBSB DBEB n > n0 . 3FQJUJFOEP
MPT NJTNPT BSHVNFOUPT QBSB MB TVDFTJO {rm rn } m=0 TF UJFOF RVF
[{rn }] s QBSB DBEB n > n0 . &TUBT EPT MUJNBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT EJDFO
RVF | [{rn }] | s n > n0 , MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF |rn | < n > n0
Z BT rn FO R.

0CTFSWBDJO /PUFNPT RVF EF FTUF UFPSFNB TF EFTQSFOEF RVF EBEP

R FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn } RVF DPOWFSHF B .

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF VTBOEP MB EFOJDJO RVF MBT TJHVJFOUFT TV

DFTJPOFT DPOWFSHFO

n
B
n6 5n3 2n 1

2n7 + 5n
C
3n7 5n2 + 12

5 2n 3n2
D
n2 4n + 8

2
n n+1
E
.
2n3 n2 1
1+22 +32 ++n2
&KFSDJDJP $BMDVMF MN n3

n
%FOJDJO 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT KPT DPO a < b. 4F EFOFO MPT TJ
HVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT MMBNBEPT JOUFSWBMPT EF ONFSPT SFBMFT
(a, b) := {x R : a < x < b} *OUFSWBMP BCJFSUP

[a, b] := {x R : a x b} *OUFSWBMP DFSSBEP

(a, b] := {x R : a < x b};
[a, b) := {x R : a x < b};
(a, a] = [a, a) = (a, a) := Z [a, a] := {a}.
&TUPT JOUFSWBMPT TF EJDFO BDPUBEPT Z EF MPOHJUVE b a.
'JKFNPT a R Z TFB A = {x R : x > a}. 1PS MB QSPQJFEBE

BSRVJNFEJBOB A = 'JKFNPT a0 A. "SNBNPT RVF A OP FT BDPUBEP
TVQFSJPSNFOUF QVFT EF MP DPOUSBSJP FYJTUJSB VOB DPOTUBOUF SFBM C UBM
RVF x C QBSB DBEB x A. $PNP C + 1 > C a0 > a FOUPODFT
C + 1 A Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB C + 1 C RVF FT VO BCTVSEP 4JNJMBSFT
BSNBDJPOFT QVFEFO EFDJSTF EFM DPOKVOUP {x R : x < a} &TUP OPT
QFSNJUF JOUSPEVDJS MPT TNCPMPT , + Z MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT
MMBNBEPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT
%FOJDJO 4FB a R KP

(a, +) := {x R : x > a};
[a, +) := {x R : x a};
(, a) := {x R : x < a};
(, a] := {x R : x a}.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%F FTUB EFOJDJO Z MB USJDPUPNB FO R TF EFEVDF RVF

(, a) [a, +) = R,
MP DVBM OPT JOEVDF B EFOJS (, +) := R.
%FOJDJO %FDJNPT RVF VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT {an } FT
DSFDJFOUF TJ QBSB DBEB n OBUVSBM TF UJFOF RVF an an+1 . 4J MB EFTJHVBM
EBE FT FTUSJDUB EFDJNPT RVF MB TVDFTJO FT FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF -B
MMBNBSFNPT EFDSFDJFOUF TJ an an+1 QBSB DBEB n Z NPOUPOB TJ P CJFO
FT DSFDJFOUF P CJFO EFDSFDJFOUF -BT OPDJPOFT FTUSJDUBNFOUF EFDSFDJFOUF Z
FTUSJDUBNFOUF NPOUPOB TF EFOFO EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS
" DPOUJOVBDJO QSFTFOUBNPT VO JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP TPCSF MPT O
NFSPT SFBMFT &TUF IFDIP EJTUJOHVF B MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT EF MPT ONFSPT
SBDJPOBMFT QVFT ZB TBCFNPT RVF BVORVF Q FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z
BSRVJNFEJBOP OP FT DPNQMFUP &TUB JODPNQMFUF[ TF USBEVDF FO USNJOPT
HFPNUSJDPT FO MP TJHVJFOUF TJ DBEB ONFSP SBDJPOBM TF JEFOUJDB DPO
VO OJDP QVOUP EF VOB NJTNB SFDUB FTUB RVFEB DPO i IVFDPT u RVF TPO
PSJHJOBEPT QPS MB OP FYJTUFODJB FO Q EF MPT TVQSFNPT EF BMHVOPT TVC
DPOKVOUPT EF SBDJPOBMFT OP WBDPT Z BDPUBEPT TVQFSJPSNFOUF &M QSYJNP
UFPSFNB EJDF RVF FTUP OP TVDFEF DPO MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT B DBEB ONFSP
SFBM MF DPSSFTQPOEF VO OJDP QVOUP FO MB SFDUB Z WJDFWFSTB OP RVFEBO
iIVFDPTu
5FPSFNB "YJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ EF R
&M DBNQP R EF MPT ONFSPT
SFBMFT FT DPNQMFUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB A R OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 1SPCFNPT
RVF A UJFOF TVQSFNP FO R. 7BNPT B DPOTFHVJS VO JOUFSWBMP FO FM DVBM
iDBQUVSBSFNPTu FM TVQSFNP -B JEFB EF MB QSVFCB FT DPOTUSVJS VOB TVDF
TJO EF SBDJPOBMFT MB DVBM TFS EF $BVDIZ Z QPS UBOUP EFUFSNJOBS VO
SFBM RVF SFTVMUBS TFS FM TVQSFNP CVTDBEP 4FB s R VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF A $PNP R FT BSRVJNFEJBOP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M 1 UBM RVF s < M
Z BT M FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 1PS PUSP MBEP FYJTUFO a A Z m N DPO
m 1 UBMFT RVF a < m. 1PS UBOUP m < M Z DPO FTUP DPOTFHVJNPT
FM JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP [m, M ]. "IPSB QBSB DBEB p N DPOTJEFSFNPT FO
USF m Z M MPT (M + m)2p + 1 ONFSPT SFBMFT EF MB GPSNB m + k 2p
DPO k = 0, 1, . . . , (M + m)2p 4FB rp FM NFOPS OBUVSBM UBM RVF
rp
ap := m + p
2
FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 5BM OBUVSBM FYJTUF QVFT DPO rp = (M + m)2p
PCUFOFNPT ap = M. /PUFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP p N
1 rp 1
ap = m +
2p 2p

OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A QVFT rp FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE

-B TVDFTJO {ap } SFTVMUB TFS EFDSFDJFOUF
rp+1 2rp
ap+1 ap =
2p+1
4J FM OVNFSBEPS FO MB BOUFSJPS JHVBMEBE GVFSB QPTJUJWP QBSB BMHO OBUVSBM
p FTUP FT rp+1 > 2rp FOUPODFT rp+1 1 2rp FTUP JNQMJDBSB RVF
1
ap+1 ap
2p+1
Z TFSB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A QVFT ap MP FT MP DVBM FT JNQPTJCMF 1PS UBOUP
EJDIP OVNFSBEPS FT OP QPTJUJWP QBSB UPEP p N Z EF FTUB NBOFSB TF
UJFOF RVF ap+1 ap .T BO UFOFNPT RVF TJ q > p, FOUPODFT aq ap
"EFNT DPNP ap 21p OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FYJTUF xp A UBM RVF
ap 21p < xp . -VFHP
1
ap p < aq ap ,
2
EF EPOEF FODPOUSBNPT RVF |aq ap | < 2p QBSB UPEP QBS EF OBUVSBMFT
p Z q DPO p < q. &TUB EFTJHVBMEBE OPT QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF MB TVDFTJO
{ap } FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q -VFHP FTUB TVDFTJO EFUFSNJOB VO ONFSP
SFBM EJHBNPT Z QPS FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS UFOFNPT RVF ap DVBOEP
p . )BDJFOEP RVF q PCUFOFNPT EF
Z FM -FNB
1
ap ap ,
2p
MP DVBM FT WMJEP QBSB UPEP p. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT RVF = TVQ A DPO
MP RVF UFSNJOBNPT MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB 7FBNPT QSJNFSP RVF FT DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF A TJ OP GVFSB BT FYJTUJSB a A UBM RVF a > $PNP R
FT BSRVJNFEJBOP UFOESBNPT VO OBUVSBM po UBM RVF 2p1o < a . $PO
FTUP TF TFHVJSB FO QBSUJDVMBS EF

1
a p0 < a ,
2 p0
Z TF DPODMVJSB RVF ap0 < a MP RVF OPT EJSB RVF ap0 OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF A &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO NVFTUSB RVF FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A 4VQPOHB
NPT BIPSB RVF FYJTUF VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS s EF A DPO s < . $PNP BOUFT
FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM p1 UBM RVF
1
< s .
2p1

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
1
"IPSB CJFO DPNP ap1 2 p1 OP FT DPUB TVQFSJPS EF A FYJTUF a A UBM
RVF
1
a > ap1
2 p1
Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB
1 1
ap1 < a + s + < ,
21
p 2p1
FTUP FT ap1 < DPOUSBEJDJFOEP
1PS UBOUP s QBSB UPEB DPUB
TVQFSJPS s EF A Z EF FTUB NBOFSB = TVQ A.

0CTFSWBDJO 4F QVFEF EFNPTUSBS RVF DVBMRVJFS DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z

DPNQMFUP FT JTPNPSGP B MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT QPS FKFNQMP <4>
1PS UBOUP
QPEFNPT BSNBS RVF FYJTUF VO OJDP DBNQP PSEFOBEP Z DPNQMFUP B
TBCFS FM DBNQP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT
-B TJHVJFOUF EFTJHVBMEBE EFTFNQFBS VO QBQFM JNQPSUBOUF FO QS
YJNBT EFNPTUSBDJPOFT TF MMBNB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB a R DPO a 1 KP &OUPODFT QBSB DBEB
OBUVSBM n 1 TF UJFOF RVF (1 + a)n 1 + na.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4J n = 1 MB BSNBDJO TF DVNQMF 4VQPOHBNPT RVF QBSB
n 1 TF WFSJDB MB EFTJHVBMEBE Z QSPCNPTMB QBSB n + 1.
(1 + a)n+1 = (1 + a)n (1 + a) (1 + na)(1 + a)

= 1 + (1 + n)a + na2 1 + (n + 1)a,
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB QSPQPTJDJO QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 1.

5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI

4FBO {xn }, {yn } Z {zn } TVDF
TJPOFT EF ONFSPT SFBMFT UBMFT RVF FYJTUF N0 N DPO
xn zn yn n N0 .
4J xn L R Z yn L, FOUPODFT zn L.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB > 0 1PS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT {xn } Z
{yn } FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N1 N0 UBM RVF
|xn L| < Z |yn L| < TJ n N1 .
"IPSB CJFO TJ n N1 FOUPODFT
zn L = (zn yn ) + (yn L) |yn L| < .

1PS PUSB QBSUF TJ n N1 FOUPODFT
zn L = (zn xn ) + (xn L) |xn L| > .
%F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF TJ n N1 FOUPODFT |zn L| < MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB

FM UFPSFNB

n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4FB qn = %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJO {qn }
k + n2
k=1
DPOWFSHF y2V TF QVFEF BSNBS EF {nqn }
&KFNQMP 4FB b R DPO |b| < 1 &OUPODFT MB TVDFTJO {bn }n=1 FT
UBM RVF bn 0. 1BSB b = 0 FT JONFEJBUB MB BSNBDJO BT RVF QPEFNPT
TVQPOFS RVF 0 n(1 b),
b b b
QBSB UPEP n N, n 1 Z QPS UBOUP
1
0 < bn <
n(1 b)
QBSB DBEB n 1 MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF bn 0.
5FPSFNB 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF
Z DSFDJFOUF FOUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF
%FNPTUSBDJO "QMJDBNPT FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ EF R FO FTUF DBTP BM
DPOKVOUP
A := {an : n N},
RVF DMBSBNFOUF FT OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 4FBO a := TVQ A Z
> 0 -VFHP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF a < aN Z QPS MB NPOPUPOB
EF {an }
a < aN an a < a + ,
QBSB UPEP n N. 1PS UBOUP an a.

/PUFNPT RVF FM UFPSFNB EJDF RVF VOB TVDFTJO {an } DSFDJFOUF Z BDP
UBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP SFBM TVQ{an : n N}.
$PSPMBSJP 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF
Z EFDSFDJFOUF FOUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF &O FTUF DBTP
an OG {an : n N}.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
$PSPMBSJP 5PEB TVDFTJO {an } EF SFBMFT NPOUPOB Z BDPUBEB DPO

WFSHF
%FOJDJO 6OB TVDFTJO EF JOUFSWBMPT {In } TF MMBNB TVDFTJO EF

JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT TJ In+1 In QBSB DBEB n N.
5FPSFNB %F MPT JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT

4FB In = [an , bn ] DPO
an < bn , VOB TVDFTJO EF JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT &OUPODFT

I := In = .
n=0
"EFNT TJ MB MPOHJUVE EF In = bn an 0, EJDIB JOUFSTFDDJO FT VO

DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP MPT JOUFSWBMPT TPO FODBKBEPT FOUPODFT an an+1

Z bn+1 bn QBSB UPEP n Z EF FTUP TF UJFOF RVF a0 an < bn b0
QBSB UPEP n 1PS MPT SFTVMUBEPT QSFWJPT MBT TVDFTJPOFT {an } Z {bn } TPO
DPOWFSHFOUFT DPO MNJUFT EJHBNPT a Z b UBMFT RVF an a Z b bn NT
BO a b &O DPOTFDVFODJB a, b I Z BEFNT an bn ab bn an
QBSB UPEP n EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF a = b TJ bn an 0 &TUP JNQMJDB
RVF a I 'JOBMNFOUF FT TFODJMMP WFS RVF I {a} Z DPO FTUP TF
EFNVFTUSB RVF I = {a}.

0CTFSWBDJO &O FTUF UFPSFNB FT DSVDJBM MB IJQUFTJT EF RVF MPT JOUFS

WBMPT FODBKBEPT In TFBO DFSSBEPT Z BDPUBEPT DPNP MP EFNVFTUSBO MBT
TJHVJFOUFT TVDFTJPOFT EF JOUFSWBMPT FODBKBEPT

1
0, Z { [n, ) } ,
n+1
QBSB MBT DVBMFT I = .
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {n } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT UBM RVF
1
|n n+1 | < n 1.
n(n + 1)
1SVFCF RVF {n } FT EF $BVDIZ

n
1
&KFNQMP 4F EFOF MB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT QPS an = . 1SPCFNPT
k2
k=1
RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ -B QSPQJFEBE EF MB TVNB UFMFTDQJDB

FT EF HSBO BZVEB FO FTUF FKFNQMP &M QBTP DMBWF FTU BM JOJDJP QBSB
n > m > 1 TF UJFOF RVF

n
1
n
1
|an am | = 2
<
k k(k 1)
k=m+1 k=m+1
n 1 1 1 1 1
= = <
k1 k m n m
k=m+1
"IPSB T EBEP > 0 FYJTUF N N UBM RVF 1/N < -VFHP TJ m >
n N FOUPODFT |an am | < MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJO EBEB
FT EF $BVDIZ
n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4F EFOF MB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT QPS an = . 1SVFCF
k3
k=1
RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJO {an } EBEB QPS

n
1
an = 2
DPOWFSHF Z IBMMF TV MNJUF
k + 2k
k=1
&KFSDJDJP $BMDVMF FM MNJUF EF MB TVDFTJO {(2n + 3n )1/n }.
5FPSFNB 5PEB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF ONFSPT SFBMFT DPOWFSHF

FO R
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {xn } VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ FO R -VFHP FYJTUF

VOB DPOTUBOUF M > 0 UBM RVF |xn | M Z QPS UBOUP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM
n UJFOF TFOUJEP EFOJS
yn := TVQ{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = TVQ{xk : k n}.
$PNP {xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} {xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} FOUPODFT yn+1 yn

SFTVMUBOEP BT RVF MB TVDFTJO {yn } FT EFDSFDJFOUF Z BEFNT FT BDPUBEB
JOGFSJPSNFOUF QVFTUP RVF yn xn M QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n. &O
DPOTFDVFODJB FYJTUF y R UBM RVF yn y "SNBNPT RVF xn y
&O FGFDUP TFB > 0 &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM No UBM RVF
|yn y| < /3, TJ n No .
1PS TFS {xn } EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF N1 N EF NBOFSB RVF
|xn xm | < /3 TJ n, m N1 .

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
4FB N2 = NY{No , N1 }. 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EF TVQSFNP FYJTUF VO OB

UVSBM N3 N2 UBM RVF yN2 /3 < xN3 yN2 , MP RVF JNQMJDB
|yN2 xN3 | < /3.
'JOBMNFOUF QBSB n N3 Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB

Z
PCUF
OFNPT RVF
|y xn | |y yN2 | + |yN2 xN3 | + |xN3 xn | < /3 + /3 + /3 = .
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB BSNBDJO Z FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJO -B TVDFTJO {yn } Z FM SFBM y QSFTFOUBEPT FO MB EFNPTUSB

DJO EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS EFOFO FM MNJUF TVQFSJPS EF MB TVDFTJO {xn }
.T QSFDJTBNFOUF FM MNJUF TVQFSJPS EF VOB TVDFTJO {xn } EFOPUBEP QPS
MN TVQ xn ,
n
TF EFOF DPNP MN yn EPOEF

n
yn := TVQ{xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = TVQ{xk : k n}.
4JNJMBSNFOUF TF EFOF FM MNJUF JOGFSJPS EF VOB TVDFTJO {xn } EFOPUBEP

QPS
MN JOG xn ,
n
DPNP MN zn EPOEF zn := OG {xn , xn+1 , xn+2 , . . .} = OG {xk : k n}

n
-PT 5FPSFNBT Z OPT QSPQPSDJPOBO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP

5FPSFNB R FT DPNQMFUP TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ EF
ONFSPT SFBMFT DPOWFSHF FO R.
4BCFNPT RVF FO R UPEB TVDFTJO FT DPOWFSHFOUF TJ Z TPMP TJ FT EF
$BVDIZ -B TVDJFODJB FT DJFSUB TPMBNFOUF FO MPT iFTQBDJPTu RVF TPO
DPNQMFUPT &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SBDJPOBMFT FT VO FKFNQMP FO FM
DVBM FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT EF $BVDIZ RVF OP TPO DPOWFSHFOUFT FO EJDIP
DPOKVOUP JODPNQMFUF[

&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT EFOJEB EF NB
OFSB SFDVSTJWB BT

q1 = 1
qn+1 = 12 (qn + q2n ), TJ n 1.

7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJO FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q QFSP OP DPOWFSHF FO Q

1BSB n 2 UFOFNPT RVF qn = 12 (qn1 + qn1
2
) EF MP DVBM TF EFTQSFOEF
RVF
0 (qn1 qn )2 = qn2 2.
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF qn2 2 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 2. 1PS PUSB QBSUF FT
JONFEJBUP RVF
q2 2
|qn+1 qn | = n .
2qn
$PNCJOBOEP
Z
PCUFOFNPT MB JHVBMEBE
1
|qn+1 qn | = |qn1 qn |2 , n 2.
2qn
"EFNT UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF
1 2 q2 + 2 q2 + 1 1 1
qn+1 = (qn + ) = n = n + 1+
2 qn 2qn 2qn 2qn 2qn
Z VO BSHVNFOUP EF JOEVDDJO TF NVFTUSB RVF qn 1 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM

n -MFWBOEP FTUB DPODMVTJO B
TF MMFHB B MB EFTJHVBMEBE
1
|qn+1 qn | |qn qn1 |2 , n 2,
2
MB DVBM OPT QFSNJUF EFNPTUSBS WB JOEVDDJO NBUFNUJDB FM TJHVJFOUF
FTUJNBUJWP
2n 1 2n 2n n
1 1 1 1
|qn+1 qn | =2 <2 =2 ,
2 2 2 4
FM DVBM FT DMBWF QBSB QSPCBS RVF MB TVDFTJO FT EF $BVDIZ &O FGFDUP

QBSB OBUVSBMFT m > n,

m1
m1
|qm qn | = | (qi+1 qi )| |qi+1 qi |
i=n i=n

m1
1 i
2 (QPS
)
4
i=n
mn
8 1 n 1
= 1
3 4 4
8
< .
3 4n

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
&TUBNPT ZB DBTJ MJTUPT QBSB MB DPODMVTJO 4FB Q DPO > 0. 1PS MB

QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 41N < 38 . %F FTUB
NBOFSB TJ m, n TPO OBUVSBMFT DPO m > n N FOUPODFT
8 8
|qm qn | < < ,
34n 3 4N
MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJO {qn } FT EF $BVDIZ FO Q. 'JOBMNFOUF
WFBNPT RVF EJDIB TVDFTJO OP DPOWFSHF FO Q 4VQPOHBNPT MP DPOUSBSJP
RVF FYJTUF q Q UBM RVF qn q. &T TFODJMMP WFS RVF qn+1 q. -VFHP
BM UPNBS MNJUF DVBOEP n FO MB JHVBMEBE RVF EFOF qn , PCUFOFNPT
RVF
1 2
q = (q + ) q 2 = 2,
2 q
MP RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO QVFT OP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM DVZP DVBESBEP
TFB
&KFSDJDJP 6OB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT {an } TF EJDF RVF FT
DPOUSBDUJWB TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF C < 1 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF
DVNQMF RVF
|an+2 an+1 | C |an+1 an |.
1SVFCF RVF UPEB TVDFTJO DPOUSBDUJWB FT EF $BVDIZ
&KFSDJDJP 4F EFOF MB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT EF NBOFSB SFDVSTJWB BT
1
x1 = 1, x2 = 2, xn = (xn1 + xn2 ) QBSB n 3.
2
1SVFCF RVF {xn } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ
4VHFSFODJB IBMMF VOB GSNVMB QBSB |xn xn+1 |.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO {an }, {bn } TVDFTJPOFT EF ONFSPT SFBMFT RVF DPO
WFSHFO B A Z B SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF 4VQPOHB RVF FYJTUF N0 N DPO an bn
QBSB UPEP n N0 . %FNVFTUSF RVF A B.
&O MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO QSFTFOUBNPT MB QBSUF FOUFSB EF VO O
NFSP SFBM DPODFQUP RVF FT EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE FO UFPSB EF ONFSPT 7FS
QPS FKFNQMP FM UFYUP <+(3>
1SPQPTJDJO %BEP x R FYJTUF VO OJDP FOUFSP Nx UBM RVF
Nx x < Nx + 1.
5BM FOUFSP TF MMBNB QBSUF FOUFSB EF x Z TF EFOPUB QPS [[ x ]], FT EFDJS
[[ x ]] x < [[ x ]] + 1.

%FNPTUSBDJO 4J x Z FT DMBSP RVF Nx = x TBUJTGBDF MB DPODMVTJO EFM

UFPSFNB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF x / Z Z BEFNT RVF x > 0 4FB
A Ax = {n N : x < n}.
1PS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB A = Z QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF
m mx = NO A 1.
$PNP m1 0 FT VO OBUVSBM Z x OP FT VO FOUFSP FOUPODFT QPS MB NJOJ

NBMJEBE UFOFNPT RVF m 1 < x < m DPODMVZOEPTF MB FYJTUFODJB DPO
Nx = m 1. 4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF x < 0 1PS FM SB[POBNJFOUP QSFWJP
BQMJDBEP B x FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM M 1 UBM RVF M 1 < x < M
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF M < x < M + 1 FT EFDJS UFOFNPT MB FYJT
UFODJB DPO Nx = M. 'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT MB VOJDJEBE TVQPOHBNPT
RVF FYJTUF PUSP FOUFSP Kx UBM RVF Kx x < Kx + 1. $PNCJOBOEP EF
TJHVBMEBEFT DPOTFHVJNPT Nx x < Kx + 1, EF EPOEF TF JOFSF RVF
Nx Kx ; Z DPNCJOBOEP MBT PUSBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT BOMPHBT JOGFSJNPT
RVF Kx Nx , FTUP FT Nx = Kx . &TUP QSVFCB MB VOJDJEBE Z FM UFPSFNB
RVFEB QSPCBEP

0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MP BOUFSJPS TF EFTQSFOEF RVF x 1 < [[ x ]] x.
&KFNQMP &T DMBSP RVF TJ x Z FOUPODFT [[ x ]] + [[ x ]] = x x = 0.

"IPSB CJFO TJ x
/ Z FOUPODFT BM TVNBS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
x 1 < [[ x ]] < x, Z x 1 < [[ x ]] < x.
PCUFOFNPT 2 < [[ x ]] + [[ x ]] < 0 %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
[[ x ]] + [[ x ]] = 1.
&O SFTVNFO IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF

0 TJ x Z
[[ x ]] + [[ x ]] =
1 TJ x
/ Z.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO x R KP Z A = {m Z : m x}. 1SVFCF

RVF NY A = [[ x ]]. $PODMVZB RVF TJ m Z FT UBM RVF m x FOUPODFT
m [[ x ]].
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF
B
m Z [[ x + m ]] = [[ x ]] + m.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
C
[[ x ]] + [[ y ]] [[ x + y ]] [[ x ]] + [[ y ]] + 1.
D
1BSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 1 TF DVNQMF RVF x R, [[ nx ]] [[ nx ]] . $PNP
DPOTFDVFODJB TF JOFSF RVF [[ nx ]] n[[ x ]] QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 1
Z QBSB UPEP x R.
E
4J x y FOUPODFT [[ x ]] [[ y ]].
F
4FBO x, y SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT .VFTUSF RVF [[ x ]] [[ y ]] [[ xy ]].
G
4FB n Z &OUPODFT [[ x ]] = n TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF z [0, 1) UBM RVF
x = n + z. &M ONFSP SFBM z FT MMBNBEP MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EF
x RVF EFOPUBNPT QPS ((x))
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF TJ n 1 FT OBUVSBM FOUPODFT
[[ nx ]] = [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
6OB FTUSBUFHJB RVF VTBSFNPT FT QSPCBS NVUVB EFTJHVBMEBE DPNP

[[ x ]] x FOUPODFT [[ x ]]/n x/n Z BT QPS FM MJUFSBM E
EFM &KFSDJDJP
DPODMVJNPT RVF [[ nx ]] [[ [[ x ]]/n ]]. 1BSB QSPCBS MB EFTJHVBMEBE JO
WFSTB TFB > 0 Z KFNPT UBOUP x DPNP n $PNP
[[ nx ]] = NY{m Z : m x/n}
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO FOUFSP k x/n UBM RVF [[ nx ]] < k. "IPSB CJFO

k [[ nx ]] Z MB QBSUF D
EFM &KFSDJDJP JNQMJDBO RVF k [[ nx ]] Z QPS
DPOTJHVJFOUF k [[ [[ x ]]/n ]]. &O DPOTFDVFODJB
[[ nx ]] < [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
1VFTUP RVF > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF [[ nx ]] [[ [[ x ]]/n ]].
&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ 2x ]]. 4FB
x = [[ x ]] + z
DPO 0 z < 1 WFS MJUFSBM G

EFM FKFSDJDJP BOUFSJPS
$POTJEFSFNPT EPT
DBTPT
$BTP 0 z < 1/2

5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF x + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + (z + 1/2) DPO
1/2 z + 1/2 < 1.

-VFHP QPS FM MJUFSBM DJUBEP [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ x ]] 5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF

2x = 2[[ x ]] + 2z DPO 0 2z < 1 Z QPS UBOUP [[ 2x ]] = 2[[ x ]]. &O DPOTF
DVFODJB [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ 2x ]].
$BTP 1/2 z < 1

#BKP FTUF TVQVFTUP TF UJFOF RVF
x + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + z + 1/2 = [[ x ]] + 1 + (z 1/2)
DPO 0 z 1/2 < 1/2. -VFHP [[ x + 1/2 ]] = [[ x ]] + 1. 1PS PUSB QBSUF

2x = 2[[ x ]] + 2z = 2[[ x ]] + 1 + (2z 1) DPO 0 2z 1 < 1 Z EF FTUB
NBOFSB [[ 2x ]] = 2[[ x ]] + 1. 1PS UBOUP
[[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/2 ]] = 2[[ x ]] + 1 = [[ 2x ]].
&KFSDJDJP
B
1SVFCF RVF [[ x ]] + [[ x + 1/3 ]] + [[ x + 2/3 ]] = [[ 3x ]].
C
1SVFCF RVF [[ x ]] 2[[ x/2 ]] {0, 1}.
D
.VFTUSF RVF FM ONFSP EF FOUFSPT m QBSB MPT DVBMFT x < m y
FT [[ y ]] [[ x ]].
E
1SVFCF RVF FM SFTUP BM EJWJEJS FM FOUFSP a QPS FM FOUFSP m > 0 FT
m((a/m)) EPOEF ((x)) = x [[ x ]] FT MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EFM SFBM
x.
F
4FBO m 1 VO OBUVSBM Z x > 0 %FNVFTUSF RVF FM ONFSP EF
NMUJQMPT QPTJUJWPT EF m RVF OP FYDFEFO B x FTU EBEP QPS [[ x/m ]].
6OB BQMJDBDJO JONFEJBUB EF FTUB BSNBDJO FT MB TJHVJFOUF TFBO
n Z a FOUFSPT QPTJUJWPT &OUPODFT FM ONFSP EF FOUFSPT EF MB TVDF
TJO 1, 2, . . . , n RVF TPO EJWJTJCMFT QPS a FT [[ n/a ]]. &O FGFDUP FTUP
FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS FM ONFSP EF NMUJQMPT EF a RVF OP FYDFEFO
B n QPS MP BSNBEP JOJDJBMNFOUF FTUF ONFSP FT [[ n/a ]].
" DPOUJOVBDJO QSFTFOUBNPT VO UFPSFNB RVF HBSBOUJ[B MB FYJTUFODJB

EF MB SB[ nTJNB EF VO ONFSP SFBM QPTJUJWP Z TV EFNPTUSBDJO FTU
TPQPSUBEB FO FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ %F FTUF SFTVMUBEP TF EFTQSFOEF
MB FYJTUFODJB EF SFBMFT RVF OP TPO SBDJPOBMFT &TUF IFDIP EB BM BYJPNB
EF DPNQMFUF[ VOB JNQPSUBODJB OPUBCMF FO NBUFNUJDBT QVFT QFSNJUF
EFNPTUSBS MB FYJTUFODJB EF MPT ONFSPT MMBNBEPT JSSBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO a R DPO a > 0 Z n 1 OBUVSBM KPT &OUPODFT
FYJTUF VO OJDP SFBM QPTJUJWP b UBM RVF bn = a.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJO %FOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
S := {x R+ : xn < a}.
S FT OP WBDP QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N DPO 1/N < a QFSP BEFNT
FT GDJM WFS QPS JOEVDDJO RVF N m N QBSB UPEP m N DPO m 1
Z QPS UBOUP 1/N n 1/N < a MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF 1/N S
&TUF DPOKVOUP SFTVMUB BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF TFB x S QPS USJDPUPNB
a > 1 P CJFO a 1 &O FM QSJNFS DBTP an a Z BT xn < a an . %F
FTUP TF JOFSF RVF
(x a)(xn1 + xn2 a + xn3 a2 + + an1 ) < 0,
FT EFDJS x < a. &O FM TFHVOEP DBTP TF EFEVDF JONFEJBUBNFOUF RVF x < 1

&O DPODMVTJO UFOFNPT RVF x NY{a, 1} 1PS MB DPNQMFUF[ EF R FYJTUF
b R UBM RVF b = TVQ S, DPO b 1/N > 0. 7BNPT B QSPCBS RVF bn = a.
1BSB m N UFOFNPT RVF 1/m S Z QPS UBOUP 0 b 1/m < xm
QBSB BMHO xm S -VFHP

1 n
b < xnm < a
m
TJFNQSF RVF m N ; FTUP DPNCJOBEP DPO FM &KFSDJDJP QSPEVDF RVF
1 1 n
bn a. 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP b + m
/ S TF UJFOF RVF (b + m ) a
QBSB UPEP m 1 OBUVSBM Z BT b a DPNP DPOTFDVFODJB DPODMVJNPT
n
MB JHVBMEBE bn = a. -B VOJDJEBE TF TJHVF EF

n
0 = bn1 bn2 = (b1 b2 ) bni i1
1 b2 ,
i=1

n
Z EF RVF bni i1
FT QPTJUJWP

1 b2
i=1
&O FM DBTP a = 0 FT DMBSP RVF b = 0.

%FOJDJO &M SFBM b FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS DVBOEP n 2 MP

MMBNBNPT SB[ nTJNB EF B Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS n a P UBNCJO QPS
a1/n .
5FOFNPT FOUPODFT RVF QBSB a R QPTJUJWP
1
n
a = TVQ{x R+ : xn < a} = a n = b bn = a.
4J FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPSn = a = 2 UFOFNPT RVF FYJTUF VO OJDP SFBM

QPTJUJWP b EFOPUBEP QPS 2, UBM RVF b2 = 2 ONFSP RVF OP FT SBDJPOBM

-VFHP FYJTUFO SFBMFT RVF OP TPO SBDJPOBMFT UBMFT ONFSPT TPO MMBNBEPT
JSSBDJPOBMFT Z EFOPUBNPT FM DPOKVOUP RVF MPT SFOF QPS I FT EFDJS
I := R Q.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO y I, r Q 1SVFCF RVF r + y I. 4J r = 0
FOUPODFT ry I.
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT DPO a < b &OUPODFT FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM
r VO JSSBDJPOBM y UBMFT RVF a < r < y < b.
%FNPTUSBDJO 'JKFNPT MPT SFBMFT a Z b 1SPCFNPT QSJNFSP FM UFPSFNB
TVQPOJFOEP RVF 0 < a 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N
UBM RVF 1/N < ba. %F OVFWP QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB TF EFEV
DF MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM K UBM RVF K/N > a. -VFHP FM DPOKVOUP
A := {n N : n > N a} FT OP WBDP Z QPS FM 1#0 FYJTUF m = NO A. &T
DMBSP RVF m 1 Z FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM FO A DPO MB QSPQJFEBE m/N > a.
-VFHP (m 1)/N a Z DPO FTP
m m1 1 1
a< = + a+ < b.
N N N N
$PO r = m/N RVFEB QSPCBEB MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO SBDJPOBM FOUSF EPT
SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT "QMJDBOEP FTUF SFTVMUBEP DPO r Z b PCUFOFNPT PUSP SB
DJPOBM s UBM RVF a < r < s < b. 1PS PUSB QBSUF
{x R+ : x2 < 2} {x R+ : x2 < 4}

JNQMJDB RVF 0 < 2 < 2 Z BT 0 < 2/2 < 1 RVF BEFNT FT JSSBDJPOBM
-VFHP
2
a<r<r+ (s r) < s < b,
2
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF MB TFHVOEB BSNBDJO EFM UFPSFNB FMJHJFOEP

2
y=r+ (s r) I.
2
&O FM DBTP a < b < 0 BQMJDBNPT MP EFNPTUSBEP DPO MPT SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT
b < a FT EFDJS FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT r1 , s1 Z VO JSSBDJPOBM y1 UBMFT RVF
b < r1 < y1 < s1 < a MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF a < s1 < y1 < b
'JOBMNFOUF FO FM DBTP a < 0 < b QPEFNPT SB[POBS BT DPNP 2a <
a < 0 FOUPODFT FYJTUFO VO SBDJPOBM r2 Z VO JSSBDJPOBM y2 UBMFT RVF
2a < r2 < y2 < a < b FT EFDJS
a < r2 /2 < y2 /2 < b/2 < b,
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF MB DPODMVTJO %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM
UFPSFNB

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
7PMWJFOEP B MB EJTDVTJO EF MB SB[ nTJNB WBNPT B BOBMJ[BS FTUB

QBSB a < 0. /PUFNPT QSJNFSPRVF DVBOEP n 2 FT VO OBUVSBM QBS
|a|n = |an | = an Z QPS UBOUP n an = |a| QBSB UPEP a R. 1VFTUP RVF

xn 0 QBSB UPEP x SFBM Z n 2 FT OBUVSBM QBS FOUPODFT n a OP FTU
EFOJEB FO R DVBOEP a < 0 Z n FT QBS FO FTUF DBTP MB FDVBDJO xn = a
OP UJFOF TPMVDJO
y2V QVFEF EFDJSTF EFM DBTP n JNQBS Z a < 0 -B
SB[ nTJNB QPEFNPT EFOJSMB Z QBSB WFSMP QPEFNPT SB[POBS BT DPNP
a > 0 FYJTUF VO OJDP SFBM QPTJUJWP x UBM RVF xn = a Z FTUP OPT

QFSNJUF EFOJS n a = x QVFTUP RVF
(x)n = (1)n xn = (1)n (a) = (1)n+1 a = a,

EPOEF IFNPT VTBEP RVF n + 1 FT QBS &O DPODMVTJO n a = n a
QBSB a OFHBUJWP Z n JNQBS -B VOJDJEBE TF PCUJFOF DPNP BOUFT HSBDJBT
B

0USPT IFDIPT SFMFWBOUFT TF EFUBMMBO B DPOUJOVBDJO

1BSB n a, n b Z n ab EFOJEPT TJ n ab = x, n a = z Z n b = y FOUPO
DFT xn = ab, z n = a Z y n = b
-VFHP (yz)n = y n z n = ab MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVFn ab = yzZ

QPS MB VOJDJEBE TF UJFOF RVF yz = x. &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF n ab = n a n b
DVBOEP DBEB SB[ nTJNB FTU EFOJEB %F NBOFSB BOMPHB FT TFODJMMP
QSPCBS RVF
n 1 1
= n
a a
Z MVFHP EFEVDJS
n
n a a
= n
,
b b
TJFNQSF RVF FYJTUBO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO x, y ONFSPT SFBMFT UBMFT RVF x y 0. 1SVFCF

RVF x y.
-B GVODJO FYQPOFODJBM

)BTUB FM NPNFOUP FTU EFOJEP a1/n DPO n 1 OBUVSBM Z FM QSPQTJUP
BIPSB FT EFOJS ax QBSB x SFBM DPO a > 0 Z a = 1 1BSB FMMP WBNPT B
EFOJS QSJNFSP ar QBSB r Q Z a > 0. 4J r = m/n DPO m Z Z n > 0
OBUVSBM EFOJNPT
ar = am/n := (am )1/n .
6O QSJNFS IFDIP B NFODJPOBS FT RVF ar > 0 ZB RVF am > 0 QBSB UPEP
m Z. 4FHVOEP WFBNPT RVF FTUB EFOJDJO FT JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF MB

SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFM SBDJPOBM r Z QPS UBOUP ar RVFEBS CJFO EFOJEP

4FBO m, n, p, q FOUFSPT DPO n > 0 Z q > 0 UBMFT RVF r = m/n = p/q Z
TFBO
(am )1/n = x, (ap )1/q = y.
&OUPODFT xnq = amq = anp = y nq BD IFNPT VTBEP QSPQJFEBEFT FYQSF
TBEBT FO FM &KFSDJDJP QH
MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF
x = (y nq )1/nq = y.
$PO FM OJNP EF QSFTFOUBS ax DPO x SFBM WBNPT B SFBMJ[BS VOB FMBCP

SBDJO TJTUFNUJDB Z FO FTB EJSFDDJO EFEVDJSFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF BMHVOPT
SFTVMUBEPT CTJDPT QBSB r, s Q, ar+s = ar as . &O FGFDUP TJ r = m/n Z
s = p/q DPO EFOPNJOBEPSFT QPTJUJWPT EF OVFWP QPS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT FO
FM &KFSDJDJP Z EF MB SB[ nqTJNB UFOFNPT RVF
mq + np
r+s=
nq
Z
1 1 1 1
ar+s = (amq+np ) nq = (amq anp ) nq = (amq ) nq (anp ) nq = ar as .
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF EFNVFTUSB RVF (ab)r = ar br 5BNCJO TJ a > 1

Z k N DPO k 1 FT GDJM WFS QPS JOEVDDJO RVF ak > 1 Z BEFNT
VTBOEP MB JEFOUJEBE

1
k
1 1
k1
1
a 1 = (a k 1) (a k )kj = (a k 1) (a k )kj + 1 ,
j=1 j=1
TF EFEVDF RVF a1/k > 1 QVFTUP RVF MB FYQSFTJO FOUSF MPT DPSDIFUFT FT
NBZPS RVF &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ t FT SBDJPOBM QPTJUJWP Z a > 1 FOUPODFT
at > 1. 5BNCJO 1 = a0 = at+t = at at JNQMJDB RVF at = 1/at QPS
MP RVF TF UJFOF RVF TJ t FT SBDJPOBM OFHBUJWP Z a > 1 OFDFTBSJBNFOUF
at < 1.
'JKFNPT x SFBM Z DPOTJEFSFNPT a > 1 EFOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
Br,x := {ar : r Q, r x}.
&TUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDP TJ x 0 FOUPODFT 1 Br,x QVFT 1 = a0

0 Q Z 0 x TJ x < 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM Nx UBM RVF Nx < x Z BT
aNx Br,x . &M DPOKVOUP Br,x SFTVMUB FTUBS BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF FO
R TFB ar Br,x . &YJTUF VO OBUVSBM Mx UBM RVF x < Mx Z QPS UBOUP
r < Mx QBSB UPEP r Q DPO r x Z BT aMx = aMx r ar > ar , MP

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF Br,x FTU BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF 1PS FM BYJPNB EF

DPNQMFUF[ UJFOF TFOUJEP EFOJS QBSB a > 1 Z x SFBM
ax := TVQ Br,x = TVQ{ar : r Q, r x}.
&O FM DBTP 0 < a < 1 EFOJNPT ax := 1/(a1 )x .

0CTFSWFNPT RVF DPNP ar > 0 QBSB UPEP SBDJPOBM r FOUPODFT ax > 0
QBSB UPEP x R.
0CTFSWBDJO /PUFNPT RVF TJ KBNPT t Q FOUPODFT at = TVQ Br,t .

&GFDUJWBNFOUF QBSB r SBDJPOBM DPO r t TF UJFOF RVF ar at MP RVF
QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF TVQ Br,t at 1PS PUSB QBSUF DPNP at Br,t
FOUPODFT at TVQ Br,t .
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT EJGFSFOUFT EF DPO ab = 1

Z TFB x R &OUPODFT (ab)x = ax bx .
%FNPTUSBDJO 'JKFNPT x R $POTJEFSFNPT QSJNFSP FM DBTP FO FM RVF

a > 1 Z b > 1 &OUPODFT UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF
{ar br : r Q, r x} {ar bs : r, s Q; r, s x},
TF UJFOF RVF
(ab)x = TVQ{(ab)r : r Q, r x} = TVQ{ar br : r Q, r x}

TVQ{ar bs : r, s Q, r, s x}
= (TVQ{ar : r Q, r x}) (TVQ{br : r Q, r x})
= a x bx .
&O MB QFOMUJNB JHVBMEBE QSFWJB IFNPT VTBEP FM &KFSDJDJP E

QHJOB
1SPCFNPT BIPSB MB PUSB EFTJHVBMEBE 4FB > 0 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO
EF TVQSFNP FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT r Z s UBMFT RVF r x s x Z BEFNT
a x < a r ax Z b x < b s bx .
-VFHP DPNCJOBOEP MBT QSJNFSBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT FO

PCUFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < 2 + (ar + bs ) + ar bs ,
Z FTUP QPS MBT TFHVOEBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT FO

FT NFOPS P JHVBM RVF
2 + (ax + bx ) + ar bs 1PS UBOUP UFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < 2 + (ax + bx ) + ar bs = (ax + bx + ) + ar bs .

"IPSB CJFO QPS USJDPUPNB r s P CJFO r > s 4J PDVSSF MP QSJNFSP

FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF ar bs = ars (ab)s (ab)s Z BT QPS

UFOFNPT RVF
ax bx < (ax + bx + ) + (ab)s (ax + bx + ) + (ab)x .
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TJ r > s FOUPODFT VTBOEP ar bs = bsr (ab)r < (ab)r

Z
DPODMVJNPT RVF
ax bx < (ax + bx + ) + (ab)r (ax + bx + ) + (ab)x .
%F

Z DPNP > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP TF UJFOF RVF ax bx (ab)x
DPO MP DVBM RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB JHVBMEBE ax bx = (ab)x FO FM DBTP a > 1
Z b > 1.
$POTJEFSFNPT BIPSB RVF 0 < a < 1 Z 0 < b < 1 &O FTUF DBTP
0 < ab < 1 Z UBOUP a1 DPNP b1 TPO NBZPSFT RVF VOP QPS UBOUP
BQMJDBNPT MP BOUFSJPS QBSB PCUFOFS RVF (a1 b1 )x = (a1 )x (b1 )x &M
BSHVNFOUP TF DPNQMFUB VTBOEP MB EFOJDJO EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB
1 1 1
(ab)x = = 1 1 x = 1 x 1 x
[(ab)1 ]x [a b ] (a ) (b )
1 1
= 1 x 1 x = ax bx .
(a ) (b )
"IPSB TVQPOHBNPT RVF 0 < a < 1 Z b > 1. &OUPODFT
bx = (baa1 )x = (ba)x (a1 )x TJ ab > 1

1 1
= (ba)x x ZB RVF ax = ).
a (a1 )x
%F BRV TF DPODMVZF MB JHVBMEBE EFTFBEB (ba)x = bx ax .

"IPSB CJFO TJ ab < 1 FOUPODFT
ax = (abb1 )x
= (ab)x (b1 )x ZB RVF FM SFTVMUBEP WBMF TJ ab < 1 Z b1 < 1)
1
= (ab)x x QPS EFOJDJO FO FM DBTP b1 < 1).
b
-B DPODMVTJO TF TJHVF EF FTUB JHVBMEBE Z BT RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFP
SFNB

$PSPMBSJP 4FBO a Z b SFBMFT QPTJUJWPT DPO a = b, a = 1 Z b = 1.

&OUPODFT (a/b)x = ax /bx .

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJO #BTUB OPUBS RVF ax = ( ab b)x = ( ab )x bx EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF

MB BTFWFSBDJO

1SPQPTJDJO 4FB a > 0, a = 1. &OUPODFT QBSB x, y SFBMFT
ax+y = ax ay .
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO x, y SFBMFT Z s, t SBDJPOBMFT DPO s x Z t y.

-VFHP s + t x + y Z EF FTUB NBOFSB as at = as+t ax+y . 5PNBOEP FM
TVQSFNP TPCSF UPEPT MPT SBDJPOBMFT s Z t DPO s x Z t y FODPOUSBNPT
RVF ax ay ax+y . 1SPCFNPT BIPSB MB EFTJHVBMEBE JOWFSTB TFB > 0.
&YJTUF VO SBDJPOBM r < x + y UBM RVF ax+y < ar . -VFHP TJ
:= x + y r > 0,
FYJTUFO SBDJPOBMFT s Z t DPO
x /2 < s < x Z y /2 < t < y,
MP DVBM OPT QSPEVDF x + y = r < s + t < x + y Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB
ax ay as at = as+t > ar > ax+y ,
FT EFDJS ax+y < ax ay + Z DPNP > 0 FT BSCJUSBSJP FOUPODFT
ax+y ax ay .
2VFEB BT QSPCBEB MB QSPQPTJDJO

)BTUB BIPSB IFNPT FTUVEJBEP Z QSFTFOUBEP QSPQJFEBEFT EF ax DPO

a > 0 Z a = 1 " DPOUJOVBDJO NPTUSBNPT FOUSF PUSBT DPTBT RVF
1x = 1 QBSB UPEP SFBM x FT QPS FTUP RVF FO MB QSFTFOUBDJO EF MB GVO
DJO FYQPOFODJBM x # ax TF FYDMVZF a = 1 QBSB OP DPOTJEFSBS FM DBTP
USJWJBM 1x
$PSPMBSJP 4FB a > 0, a = 1. &OUPODFT QBSB UPEP QBS EF SFBMFT
ax
x, y TF UJFOF RVF y = axy 5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF (a1 )x = ax Z
a
QBSB DVBMRVJFS SFBM x, 1x = 1.
%FNPTUSBDJO -B QSJNFSB BSNBDJO TF TJHVF EF MB JHVBMEBE
ax = axy+y = axy ay .
1BSB MB TFHVOEB OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF QBSB UPEP SFBM x
1 = a0 = axx = ax ax ,

EF MP RVF TF EFTQSFOEF MB SFMBDJO

1
ax = x R.
ax
4VQPOHBNPT RVF a < 1 &OUPODFT QPS EFOJDJO Z MVFHP VTBOEP

DBNCJBOEP a QPS a1 UFOFNPT RVF
1
ax = = (a1 )x .
(a1 )x
"IPSB TJ a > 1 FOUPODFT a1 < 1 Z BT QPS EFOJDJO Z QPS

(a1 )x = 1/ax = ax $PO FTUP RVFEB QSPCBEB MB TFHVOEB BSNBDJO
'JOBMNFOUF 1x = (aa1 )x = ax ax = a0 = 1.

7FSFNPT B DPOUJOVBDJO RVF MB GVODJO FYQPOFODJBM x # ax FT NP

OUPOB FTUSJDUB
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB a > 0, a = 1 4J x < y TPO ONFSPT SFBMFT
FOUPODFT
J
4J a > 1 TF UJFOF RVF ax < ay NPOUPOB DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB

JJ
4J a < 1 TF UJFOF RVF ax > ay NPOUPOB EFDSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB

%FNPTUSBDJO J
'JKFNPT x, y R. $PNP y x > 0 FYJTUF N N UBM
RVF 1/N < y x Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB QPS EFOJDJO ayx a1/N > 1
-VFHP ay = ayx ax > ax .
JJ
&O FTUF DBTP UFOFNPT RVF a1 > 1 Z QPS FM SB[POBNJFOUP IFDIP
FO FM MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF DVNQMF RVF (a1 )yx > 1 -VFHP MB EFOJDJO
JNQMJDB RVF ayx = (a11)yx < 1 Z DPO FTUP MMFHBNPT B MP EFTFBEP FTUP
FT ay = ayx ax < ax .

&M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP NVFTUSB RVF MB GVODJO FYQPOFODJBM x # ax

FT TPCSFZFDUJWB
5FPSFNB 4FBO y > 0 Z a > 0, a = 1 SFBMFT KPT &OUPODFT FYJTUF
VO OJDP SFBM z UBM RVF az = y.
%FNPTUSBDJO 7BNPT B VTBS DPNP BOUFT MB DPNQMFUF[ EF R QBSB EF
NPTUSBS MB FYJTUFODJB $POTJEFSFNPT QSJNFSP FM DBTP a > 1. 4F EFOF FM
DPOKVOUP
A := {x R : ax < y}.
-B BSRVJNFEJBOB HBSBOUJ[B RVF A FT OP WBDP QVFTUP RVF FYJTUF N OB
UVSBM DPO 1/N < y(a 1) Z BEFNT QPS MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ
N 1
aN = 1 + (a 1) 1 + N (a 1) > N (a 1) > ;
y

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
QPS UBOUP aN < y FT EFDJS N A. 7FBNPT BIPSB RVF A FT BDPUBEP

TVQFSJPSNFOUF TJ x A FOUPODFT ax < y Z EF OVFWP MB BSRVJNFEJBOB
OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO OBUVSBM M RVF OP EFQFOEF EF x UBM RVF
y/(a 1) < M.
&O DPOTFDVFODJB
M
aM = 1 + (a 1) 1 + M (a 1) > M (a 1) > y
Z DPO FTP ax < aM EF MP DVBM TF EFEVDF RVF x < M QBSB UPEP x A.

4FB z := TVQ A QSPCFNPT RVF az = y 1BSB FTUP WBNPT B EFTDBSUBS MBT
EFTJHVBMEBEFT az < y Z az > y 4J PDVSSJFSB MB QSJNFSB EF FMMBT FOUPODFT
yaz > 1 Z FYJTUJSB VO OBUVSBM n UBM RVF
1 yaz 1
<
n a1
$PNP BOUFT
a = (a1/n )n = [1 + (a1/n 1)]n 1 + n(a1/n 1),

a1
MP RVF JNQMJDBSB RVF a1/n 1 < yaz 1 Z BT az+1/n < y
n
MP RVF QFSNJUJSB EFDJS RVF z + 1/n A DPOUSBEJDJFOEP RVF z FT FM
TVQSFNP EF A %F NBOFSB BOMPHB TJ GVFSB az > y FODPOUSBSBNPT VO
OBUVSBM k DPO
1 az /y 1
< ;
k a1
Z SB[POBOEP WB MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ DPNP TF IJ[P PCUFOFNPT
RVF (a 1)/k a1/k 1 EF EPOEF PCUFOESBNPT a1/k 1 < az /y 1
FT EFDJS az1/k > y 1PS PUSB QBSUF TFSB QPTJCMF IBMMBS VO t A UBM RVF
z 1/k < t Z DPO FTP az1/k < at < y, VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO -B VOJDJEBE
TF EFTQSFOEF EF RVF az = aw z = w.
$POTJEFSFNPT BIPSB FM DBTP a < 1. &OUPODFT a1 > 1 Z QPS MP
EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF FYJTUF VO OJDP w R UBM RVF (a1 )w = y, FT
EFDJS aw = y.

$PNP MB GVODJO FYQPOFODJBM FT CJZFDUJWB FYJTUF TV JOWFSTB " DPO

UJOVBDJO MB JOUSPEVDJNPT
%FOJDJO &M ONFSP SFBM z UBM RVF az = y TF MMBNB FM MPHBSJUNP

EF y > 0 FO CBTF a Z TF EFOPUB QPS MPHa y &O PUSPT USNJOPT QBSB
y > 0
az = y : z = MPHa y.

&T TJNQMF WFS RVF TJ 0 < x < 1 FOUPODFT MPHa x < 0, TJ x > 1 Z
MPHa x > 0 BEFNT
MPHa (xy) = MPHa x + MPHa y.
1PS UBOUP MPHa y + MPHa y 1 = MPHa yy 1 = MPHa 1 = 0 JNQMJDB RVF
MPHa y 1 = MPHa y;
Z EF FTUBT EPT QSPQJFEBEFT TF JOFSF RVF MPHa (x/y) = MPHa x MPHa y.

-B TJHVJFOUF QSPQPTJDJO BEFNT EF TV WBMPS FO T NJTNB TFS EF VUJMJ
EBE QBSB EFNPTUSBS MB QSPQJFEBE (ax )y = axy QBSB SFBMFT x, y.
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB a VO SFBM QPTJUJWP 4J {xn } FT VOB TVDFTJO EF
SFBMFT UBM RVF xn 0, FOUPODFT axn 1.
%FNPTUSBDJO &M DBTP QBSUJDVMBS a = 1 FT JONFEJBUP 4VQPOHBNPT FO
UPODFT RVF a = 1. 4FBO > 0 Z yn := axn . -VFHP xn = MPHa yn Z QPS
MB EFOJDJO EF DPOWFSHFODJB UFOFNPT MB FYJTUFODJB EF VO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF
MPHa ( + 1) < MPHa yn < MPHa ( + 1)
QBSB DBEB n N MP DVBM FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
1
< yn < + 1,
+1
QBSB n N Z EF FTUP TF EFTQSFOEF RVF

< < yn 1 < , TJ n N,
+1
RVFEBOEP QSPCBEB MB QSPQPTJDJO

0CTFSWFNPT RVF TJ xn x FOUPODFT axn = axn x ax ax .

1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO x, y SFBMFT Z a R+ KP &OUPODFT
(ax )y = axy .
%FNPTUSBDJO &T DMBSP RVF QBSB y = 0 MB JHVBMEBE FT WMJEB Z FT GDJM
QSPCBS QPS JOEVDDJO RVF (ax )n = axn QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n 5BNCJO
QBSB n OBUVSBM
1
(ax )n = (ax )n(1) = [(ax )n ]1 = (anx )1 =
anx
a0
= = a0nx = axn ,
anx

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
RVFEBOEP EFNPTUSBEP RVF (ax )m = axm QBSB UPEP m Z Z QBSB UPEP

SFBM x "QMJDBOEP FTUF SFTVMUBEP UFOFNPT
ax = (ax/n )n (ax )1/n = ax/n ;
Z EF FTUB NBOFSB TJ r = m/n FT VO SBDJPOBM DPO n > 0

% &n
[(ax )r ]n = (ax )m/n = (ax )m = axm (axm )1/n = (ax )r .
1FSP (axm )1/n = axm/n MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB JHVBMEBE (ax )r = axr QBSB
UPEP SBDJPOBM r 'JOBMNFOUF VTBOEP MB QSPQPTJDJO BOUFSJPS QSPCBNPT
MB JHVBMEBE QBSB y SFBM BT FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO EF SBDJPOBMFT {rn } UBM
RVF rn y Z QPS UBOUP xrn xy Z axrn axy -VFHP
(ax )y = MNn (ax )rn = MNn axrn = axy .
$PO FTUP IFNPT QSPCBEP MB QSPQPTJDJO

%F FTUB QSPQJFEBE TF EFTQSFOEF QBSB x > 0, RVF MPHa xy = y MPHa x.

1SFTFOUBNPT BIPSB VO DBTP QBSUJDVMBS JNQPSUBOUF EF EJWFSHFODJB EF
VOB TVDFTJO
%FOJDJO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT %FDJNPT RVF
an + TJ EBEP DVBMRVJFS SFBM M > 0 FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF
n N JNQMJDB an M. %FDJNPT RVF an TJ an +
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF an + Z bn b DPO b = 0. %F
NVFTUSF RVF an bn + TJ b > 0 Z an bn TJ b < 0 y2V
QVFEF EFDJS EF an + bn
&KFNQMP 4FBO a > 0, a = 1 Z {bn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT UBM RVF
bn + DVBOEP n . 1SPCFNPT RVF
B
4J a > 1 FOUPODFT abn + DVBOEP n .
C
4J a < 1 FOUPODFT abn 0 DVBOEP n .
B
4FB M > 0 1PS MB IJQUFTJT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N0 UBM RVF TJ n N0
FOUPODFT bn > 1 + a1 M
$PNP QBSB MPT OBUVSBMFT n N0 , bn > 1
FOUPODFT [[ bn ]] FT VO OBUVSBM NBZPS P JHVBM RVF VOP "EFNT
[[ bn ]] + 1 > bn [[ bn ]]
Z MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ JNQMJDBO QBSB UPEP n N0
abn a[[ bn ]] = (1 + a 1)[[ bn ]] 1 + [[ bn ]](a 1) > [[ bn ]](a 1)

(bn 1)(a 1) > M,

DPO MP RVF TF QSVFCB FM MJUFSBM

C
1PS MB EFOJDJO EF FYQPOFODJBM DPO CBTF NFOPS RVF VOP UFOFNPT
RVF
1
abn = 1 bn 0, DVBOEP n ,
(a )
ZB RVF a1 > 1 Z QPS MP EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF
&KFSDJDJP 4FB x R DPO x = 0 Z x < 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM n 2 TF WFSJDB (1 x)n > 1 nx.
&KFNQMP 4FB {an }

n=1 MB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT EFOJEB QPS

1 n
an = 1 + .
n
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJO FT DSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB Z QPS FOEF FT DPOWFS

HFOUF 1SJNFSP OPUFNPT RVF QPS FM 5FPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP WFS "
QH

n
n
n 1 n!
an = = 2 +
k nk (n k)! k! nk
k=0 k=2
"IPSB FT GDJM QSPCBS QPS JOEVDDJO RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k k! 2k1
Z
n!
k N, k n TF UJFOF RVF 1.
(n k)! nk
-VFHP

n
1
n
1 1
2 an 2 + 2+ = 2 + 1 n1 < 3,
k! 2k1 2
k=2 k=2
MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF 2 an < 3 QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n Z QPS UBOUP MB

TVDFTJO FT BDPUBEB "IPSB CJFO
n n+1
an+1 n + 2 n+1 n n + 2 n+1 n n+1
= =
an n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1 n
n+1
1 n+1 1 n+1
= 1 2
> 1 = 1,
(n + 1) n n+1 n
EPOEF MB MUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE FT PCUFOJEB QPS MB EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ

&TUP QSVFCB RVF an < an+1 QPS UBOUP MB TVDFTJO FT DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB
/UFTF RVF BM BQMJDBS #FSOPVMMJ MB EFTJHVBMEBE SFTVMUB FTUSJDUB QVFTUP
RVF n + 1 2 Z (n + 1)2 < 1 WFS &KFSDJDJP

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
0CTFSWBDJO $PNP FM MNJUF EF MB TVDFTJO BOUFSJPS FYJTUF Z FO SFBMJ

EBE FT EF HSBO JNQPSUBODJB WBNPT B SFTBMUBSMP DPO FM OPNCSF EF
ONFSP e

1 n
e := MNn 1 + .
n
"EFNT DPNP e 2 QVFEF VTBSTF DPNP CBTF EF VO MPHBSJUNP FO SFBMJ
EBE FTUF MPHBSJUNP TF MMBNB MPHBSJUNP OBUVSBM Z TF BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB
OPUBDJO QBSB x > 0, MO x.
5FPSFNB 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT OP OVMPT UBM
RVF
an+1
l := MNn < 1.
an
&OUPODFT {an } DPOWFSHF B DFSP
%FNPTUSBDJO 6TBOEP MB EFOJDJO EF DPOWFSHFODJB DPO = 12 (1 l)

FODPOUSBNPT VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF QBSB n N,

an+1 1

an < l + = 2 (1 + l) := c < 1.
-VFHP |an+1 | < c|an | QBSB UPEP n N EF EPOEF TF EFEVDF RVF
|am | < cm |aN |cN ,
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM m > N. $PNP 0 < c < 1 FOUPODFT cm 0 Z FO

DPOTFDVFODJB am 0 DVBOEP m .

&KFNQMP -BT TVDFTJPOFT

(1)n n! n2
Z
nn n=1 n! n=1
DPOWFSHFO B DFSP QVFT TJ an EFOPUB FM SFTQFDUJWP USNJOP HFOFSBM

an+1
= n! (n + 1) n = 1 n 1/e < 1,
n

an (n + 1)n+1 n! 1 + n1
Z QBSB MB PUSB TVDFTJO

an+1 (n + 1)2 n! 1 1

an = n! (n + 1) n2 = n + n2 0 < 1.

&KFNQMP 4FB a > 1 -B EFTJHVBMEBE an > n OP FT DJFSUB QBSB UPEP

OBUVSBM n Z QBSB UPEP a > 1 DPNP TF QVFEF WFSJDBS QPS FKFNQMP DPO
a = 1, 01 1FSP T TF DVNQMF B QBSUJS EF DJFSUP N N. -B JEFB FO FTUF
FKFNQMP FT NPTUSBS RVF DJFSUPT MNJUFT TPO UJMFT QBSB EFNPTUSBS DJFSUBT
EFTJHVBMEBEFT 4J IBDFNPT bn = n/an FOUPODFT
bn+1 1n+1 1
= < 1.
bn a n a
1PS FM 5FPSFNB DPODMVJNPT RVF bn 0 Z QPS EFOJDJO EF DPO
WFSHFODJB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT bn < 1 FT
EFDJS an > n QBSB UPEP n N.
&KFSDJDJP
4VQPOHB RVF |a| < 1 %FNVFTUSF RVF MB TVDFTJO {nan } n=1 FT UBM
RVF nan 0 DVBOEP n .
n n!
n
%FUFSNJOF TJ MBT TVDFTJPOFT (1) 10n Z 5n! DPOWFSHFO Z FO
DVFOUSF TV SFTQFDUJWP MNJUF FO FM DBTP EF RVF FYJTUB
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A R BDPUBEP Z UBM RVF OG A > 0. 4J EFOJNPT FM
DPOKVOUP EF MPT SFDQSPDPT EF A DPNP A1 := {1/a : a A} QSVFCF RVF
FTUF DPOKVOUP FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF Z BEFNT

1 1
TVQ =
A OG A
4VCTVDFTJPOFT Z FM UFPSFNB EF

#PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT
&M DPODFQUP EF TVCTVDFTJO DPNP TV OPNCSF MP TVHJFSF FT VO TVCDPO
KVOUP EF VOB TVDFTJO EBEB QFSP FTUB BSNBDJO OP FT FYBDUB &O FTUB
TFDDJO QSFDJTBSFNPT FM DPODFQUP Z NPTUSBSFNPT TV JNQPSUBOUF QBQFM FO
FM BOMJTJT NBUFNUJDP
%FOJDJO 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT Z {nk }kN
VOB TVDFTJO EF OBUVSBMFT FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF -B TVDFTJO {xnk } TF
MMBNB VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {xn }.
&T DMBSP EF MB EFOJDJO RVF UPEB TVCTVDFTJO FT TVCDPOKVOUP EF MB
TVDFTJO
%FTDSJCJNPT DNP PCUFOFS TVCTVDFTJPOFT EF VOB TVDFTJO EBEB VOB
TVDFTJO {xn } EF FMMB FYUSBFNPT USNJOPT DVZPT OEJDFT GPSNBO VOB TF
DVFODJB FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF MPT USNJOPT BT PCUFOJEPT DPOTUJUVZFO
VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {xn }.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
0USB GPSNB EF FOUFOEFS FM DPODFQUP EF TVCTVDFTJO FT MB TJHVJFO

UF BTPDJBEB B {xn } FYJTUF VOB GVODJO f : N R DVZP SBOHP FT
QSFDJTBNFOUF MB TVDFTJO EF NBOFSB TJNJMBS TJ S : N N FT MB
GVODJO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF RVF EFTDSJCF MB TVDFTJO {nk }, FOUPO
DFT MB DPNQPTJDJO f S : N R FTU CJFO EFOJEB FT UBM RVF
(f S)(k) = f (nk ) = xnk Z TV SBOHP FT QSFDJTBNFOUF MB TVCTVDFTJO
EFUFSNJOBEB QPS S. &T EFDJS VOB TVCTVDFTJO TF PCUJFOF BM DPNQPOFS
VOB GVODJO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF EF N FO N DPO MB GVODJO RVF EFT
DSJCF MB TVDFTJO &O QBSUJDVMBS DPNP MB GVODJO JEFOUJEBE i(n) = n, FT
DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB UPEB TVDFTJO FT TVCTVDFTJO EF T NJTNB
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB TVDFTJO {1/n} n=1 -B TVDFTJO {1/2,
1, 1/4, 1/3, 1/6, 1/5, 1/8, . . .} OP FT VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {1/n} QVFT MPT
USNJOPT OP TPO PCUFOJEPT TJHVJFOEP VOB TFMFDDJO FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFO
UF TF FTDPHJ FM TFHVOEP MVFHP FM QSJNFSP EFTQVT FM DVBSUP FM UFSDFSP
FUD
&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MB TVDFTJO EBEB QPS an = 1/n QBSB n JNQBS Z
an = 1 TJ n FT QBS y&T FTUB TVDFTJO DPOWFSHFOUF &MBCPSF VO BSHVNFOUP
RVF KVTUJRVF TV SFTQVFTUB
&KFNQMP 4FB {an } MB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT EFOJEB QPS a1 = 1 Z
QBSB n 1,
1
an+1 = (2an + 3).
4
7FBNPT RVF FTUB TVDFTJO FT DPOWFSHFOUF Z IBMMFNPT TV MNJUF
-PT QSJNFSPT DVBUSP USNJOPT 1, 5/4, 11/8, 23/16 OPT JOEVDFO B
QFOTBS RVF EJDIB TVDFTJO FT DSFDJFOUF FTUSJDUB 1SPCFNPT FTUB BSNB
DJO QPS JOEVDDJO QBSB n = 1 MB BSNBDJO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT
RVF an < an+1 Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF an+1 < an+2
1 1 1
an+1 an+2 = (2an + 3) (2an+1 + 3) = (an an+1 ) < 0.
4 4 2
-B MUJNB EFTJHVBMEBE TF EFCF B MB IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB 7FBNPT BIPSB
RVF {an } FT BDPUBEB TVQFSJPSNFOUF VOB FYQMPSBDJO TPCSF BMHVOPT US
NJOPT EF OEJDF NBZPS OPT QFSNJUFO JOUVJS RVF 3/2 FT VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS
EF MB TVDFTJO MP DVBM UBNCJO QSPCBSFNPT QPS JOEVDDJO &M QBTP CBTF
FT DMBSP QBSB FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP TVQPOHBNPT RVF an < 3/2 Z WFBNPT
RVF FTUB EFTJHVBMEBE UBNCJO FT DJFSUB QBSB FM USNJOP (n + 1)TJNP
1PS EFOJDJO UFOFNPT RVF an+1 = 14 (2an + 3), RVF QPS MB IJQUFTJT EF
JOEVDDJO FT NFOPS RVF 14 (3 + 3) = 3/2 RVFEBOEP QSPCBEB BT MB BTFWF
SBDJO TPCSF FM BDPUBNJFOUP TVQFSJPS %FCJEP BM 5FPSFNB DPODMVJNPT
RVF {an } DPOWFSHF 7FBNPT BIPSB DNP FODPOUSBS TV MNJUF 6OB GPSNB

DPOTJTUF FO BQMJDBS FM DJUBEP UFPSFNB FM DVBM EJDF RVF FM MNJUF CVTDBEP

FT TVQ an &TUP SFRVJFSF DBMDVMBS FTF TVQSFNP RVF EFCF TFS NFOPS P JHVBM
RVF 3/2 MP RVF QPTJCMFNFOUF OP TFB UBO TFODJMMP EF MMFWBS B DBCP &M PUSP
DBNJOP NVDIP NT TJNQMF DPOTJTUF FO UPNBS MNJUF FO MB JHVBMEBE RVF
EFOF an+1 UFOJFOEP QSFTFOUF RVF
MN an = MN an+1 = MN an+1 .
n n n
4J EFOPUBNPT EJDIP MNJUF QPS - UFOFNPT RVF - = 14 (2- + 3) EF EPOEF

TF EFEVDF RVF - = 3/2
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {xn } MB TVDFTJO FO R EBEB QPS x1 > 1 Z QBSB

n 1, xn+1 = 21/xn 1SVFCF RVF MB TVDFTJO FT NPOUPOB Z BDPUBEB
&ODVFOUSF TV MNJUF
&KFSDJDJP 4FB an 0 QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n. 4J an a DVBOEP

n , QSVFCF RVF a 0 Z BEFNT RVF an a.
&KFSDJDJP "SHVNFOUF MB DPOWFSHFODJB P OP EF MB TVDFTJO EFOJEB

QPS
J
a1 = 1 Z QBSB n 1, an+1 = 12 an + 2.
1
JJ
x1 > 0, xn+1 = 2 + xn QBSB n 1.

JJJ
y1 = 1 Z QBSB n 1, yn+1 = 2 + yn .
&ODVFOUSF FM MNJUF EF MBT RVF TFBO DPOWFSHFOUFT
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {xn } MB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT EBEB QPS
1
x1 > 0, xn+1 = xn + QBSB n 1.
x2n
1SVFCF RVF {xn } OP FT BDPUBEB
&KFSDJDJP 4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO DPOWFSHFOUF Z TVT USNJOPT TPO

BMUFSOBUJWBNFOUF EF TJHOP QPTJUJWP OFHBUJWP QPTJUJWP w yDVM FT FM
WBMPS EFM MNJUF &YQMJRVF TV SFTQVFTUB
1SPQPTJDJO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT UBM RVF
an + &OUPODFT (1 + 1/an )an e.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB > 0 $PNP {(1 + 1/n)n } DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP e

FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N1 UBM RVF TJ n N1 FOUPODFT |(1 + 1/n)n e| < /2

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
$PNP UBNCJO FT VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM

N2 UBM RVF
k, m N2 |(1 + 1/k)k (1 + 1/m)m | < /2.
1PS PUSP MBEP DPNP an + FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N3 UBM RVF TJ n > N3

FOUPODFT an N2 . &O DPOTFDVFODJB TJ N := NY{N1 , N2 , N3 } Z n
N FOUPODFT
|(1 + 1/an )an e| |(1 + 1/an )an (1 + 1/n)n | + |(1 + 1/n)n e|

< /2 + /2 = ,
MP DVBM EFNVFTUSB MB QSPQPTJDJO

n 2
&KFNQMP -B TVDFTJO 1 + 1/n2 DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP e
n=1
#BTUB BQMJDBS FM SFTVMUBEP QSFWJP DPO an = n2 /PUFNPT
RVF FTUB TVDF
TJO FT VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {(1 + 1/n)n } QVFT MB GVODJO n # n2 FT
FTUSJDUBNFOUF DSFDJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO EF ONFSPT SFBMFT UBM RVF an
+ &OUPODFT TF DVNQMF RVF (1 + 1/an )an e.
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP an + QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF an > 1 /PUF

NPT RVF QPS EFOJDJO EF QBSUF FOUFSB 1 [[ an ]]. 5BNCJO
bn := 1 + 1/an > 1
Z BEFNT
[[ an ]] an < [[ an ]] + 1.
%F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF [[ an ]] + Z
bn[[ an ]] bann < b[[nan ]]+1 = (1 + 1/an )[[ an ]]+1 .
0CTFSWFNPT RVF EF MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

TF EFEVDF RVF
bn 1 + 1/[[ an ]]
[[ a ]]+1
Z BT MMFHBNPT B RVF bn n (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]]+1 , MP DVBM DPNCJOBEP
DPO MB TFHVOEB EFTJHVBMEBE FO
OPT BSSPKB MB
EFTJHVBMEBE
bann < (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]]+1 = (1 + 1/[[ an ]])[[ an ]] (1 + 1/[[ an ]]).

&T JNQPSUBOUF OPUBS RVF QPS MB 1SPQPTJDJO FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP e DVBOEP n . "IPSB CJFO MB TFHVOEB
EFTJHVBMEBE FO
QSPEVDF
1
bn > 1 + ,
[[ an ]] + 1
Z BT QPS MB QSJNFSB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

UFOFNPT RVF
[[ an ]]+1
bn 1 1
bann b[[nan ]] = > (1 + )[[ an ]]+1 .
bn bn [[ an ]] + 1
$PNP FM MBEP EFSFDIP EF

DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP e BM DPNCJOBS FTUP
DPO
PCUFOFNPT FM SFTVMUBEP EFTFBEP Z QPS UBOUP MB QSVFCB RVFEB
DPNQMFUB

6O SFTVMUBEP TFODJMMP QFSP EF VUJMJEBE TF QSFTFOUB FO FM TJHVJFOUF

MFNB Z TV EFNPTUSBDJO FKFSDJDJP
TF IBDF QPS JOEVDDJO
-FNB 4FB {xnk } VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {xn } &OUPODFT QBSB UPEP
OBUVSBM k TF UJFOF RVF nk k.
5FPSFNB 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT Z L VOB DPOTUBOUF

&OUPODFT {xn } DPOWFSHF B L TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB TVCTVDFTJO EF FMMB UBNCJO
DPOWFSHF B L.
%FNPTUSBDJO $POEJDJO OFDFTBSJB TFBO {xnk } VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {xn }

Z > 0. $PNP xn L FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF TJ n > N FOUPODFT
|xn L| < . 4FB k > N QPS UBOUP UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB RVF nk k
PCUFOFNPT RVF nk > N Z BT DPODMVJNPT RVF |xnk L| < QBSB UPEP
k > N MP RVF TJHOJDB RVF xnk L DVBOEP k .
$POEJDJO TVDJFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF MB TVDFTJO {xn } OP DPOWFSHF
B L. -VFHP FYJTUF VO o > 0 UBM RVF
m N n > m Z |xn L| o .
"QMJDBOEP
JOEVDUJWBNFOUF DPOTFHVJNPT VOB TVCTVDFTJO QBSB
m = 1 FYJTUF n1 > 1 UBM RVF |xn1 L| o . %F OVFWP QBSB m = n1
FYJTUF n2 > n1 UBM RVF |xn2 L| o . 4VQPOHBNPT RVF IFNPT PCUFOJ
EP OBUVSBMFT n1 < n2 < < nk UBMFT RVF |xnk L| o . )BDJFOEP
m = nk FO
FODPOUSBNPT nk+1 > nk UBM RVF |xnk+1 L| o .
%F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT DPOTUSVJEP VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF {xn } RVF OP DPO
WFSHF B L MP DVBM WB FO DPOUSBWB DPO MB IJQUFTJT &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO
EFNVFTUSB RVF MB TVDFTJO {xn } DPOWFSHF B L.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
n
&KFSDJDJP %FUFSNJOF TJ MB TVDFTJO { (1) n
2n+1 } DPOWFSHF P
OP &YQMJRVF
0CTFSWBNPT RVF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OPT QSPQPSDJPOB VO DSJUFSJP EF

OP DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJO B VO WBMPS EBEP FTUP FT {xn } OP DPO
WFSHF B L TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJO EF FMMB RVF OP DPOWFSHF B
L. /UFTF UBNCJO RVF QBSB DPODMVJS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF VOB TVDFTJO
B VO WBMPS EBEP FT OFDFTBSJP RVF UPEBT MBT TVCTVDFTJPOFT EF FMMB DPO
WFSKBO B EJDIP WBMPS &M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP EJDF RVF DPO BM NFOPT VOB
TVCTVDFTJO RVF DPOWFSKB TJFNQSF RVF TFB EF $BVDIZ FT TVDJFOUF QBSB
DPODMVJS MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MB TVDFTJO
5FPSFNB 4FBO {xn } VOB TVDFTJO EF $BVDIZ Z {xnk } VOB TVCTV
DFTJO RVF DPOWFSHF B L. &OUPODFT MB TVDFTJO DPOWFSHF B L.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB > 0 $PNP {xn } FT EF $BVDIZ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM

No UBM RVF QBSB n > No Z m > No TF UJFOF RVF |xn xm | < . 1PS PUSB
QBSUF FYJTUF N1 N UBM RVF TJ j > N1 FOUPODFT |xnj L| < . -VFHP TJ
j > NY{No , N1 } := N UFOFNPT RVF nj j > N Ni QBSB i = 0, 1
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF |xnj xj | < Z |xnj L| < . &O DPOTFDVFODJB
QBSB j > N,
|xj L| |xj xnj | + |xnj L| < 2.
&TUP RVJFSF EFDJS RVF xn L.

5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EF #PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT

5PEB TVDFTJO BDPUBEB
EF ONFSPT SFBMFT QPTFF VOB TVCTVDFTJO DPOWFSHFOUF
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO BDPUBEB EF ONFSPT SFBMFT 7B

NPT B TVQPOFS RVF MB TVDFTJO OP DPOTUJUVZF VO DPOKVOUP OJUP QVFT
FO FTF DBTP FM BSHVNFOUP FT TJNQMF Z TF EFEVDF TFHO FM DBTP QBSUJDV
MBS $POTUSVJNPT DPNP FO MB QSVFCB EFM 5FPSFNB MB TVDFTJO {bn }
EBEB QPS
bn = TVQ{an , an+1 , an+2 , . . .},
MB RVF SFTVMUB EFDSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB JOGFSJPSNFOUF QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO
ONFSP SFBM L BM DVBM DPOWFSHF %PT QSPQJFEBEFT JNQPSUBOUFT DBSBDUFSJ
[BO FTUF ONFSP L MBT DVBMFT TFSO UJMFT FO MP RVF SFTUB EF MB QSVFCB
"SNBDJO 1BSB UPEP > 0 FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT

an < L + .
&O FGFDUP DPNP {bn } FT EFDSFDJFOUF Z L = OG bn FYJTUF N N
UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT L + > bN bn an

"SNBDJO 1BSB UPEP > 0 TF DVNQMF RVF
( n N) ( m n) (am > L ).
4J FTUB BSNBDJO OP GVFTF DJFSUB FYJTUJSB VO 0 > 0 UBM RVF
( N N) ( m N ) (am L 0 ).
&TUP JNQMJDBSB QPS EFOJDJO EF bN RVF bN L 0 . $PNP

L 0 bN 0 TF UFOESB MB DPOUSBEJDDJO bN bN 0 . 1PS
UBOUP MB BSNBDJO FT DJFSUB
6TBNPT MB BSNBDJO DPO FM NJTNP > 0 Z N N EF MB BSNBDJO
Z BT IBMMBNPT n1 N UBM RVF an1 > L . 7PMWFNPT B BQMJDBS
MB TFHVOEB BSNBDJO DPO FM NJTNP > 0 Z FM OBUVSBM n1 + 1 QBSB
PCUFOFS n2 > n1 UBM RVF an2 > L . 4VQPOHBNPT PCUFOJEPT OBUVSBMFT
n1 > n2 > > nk UBMFT RVF anj > L QBSB UPEP j = 1, 2, . . . , k.
1BSB FM QBTP JOEVDUJWP BQMJDBNPT MB BSNBDJO DPO FM OBUVSBM nk + 1
Z FM NJTNP > 0 EF MB QSJNFSB BSNBDJO QBSB FODPOUSBS nk+1 > nk
UBM RVF ank+1 > L . %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT IBMMBEP VOB TVCTVDFTJO
{ank } UBM RVF
L < ank < L + QBSB UPEP k N.
&O DPOTFDVFODJB RVFEB QSPCBEB MB FYJTUFODJB EF VOB TVCTVDFTJO {ank }

RVF DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP SFBM L.

0CTFSWBDJO -B QSVFCB UBNCJO FT FYJUPTB TJ TF EFOF MB TVDFTJO
cn = OG {an , an+1 , an+2 , . . .}.
&TUB TVDFTJO SFTVMUB DSFDJFOUF Z BDPUBEB QPS UBOUP FYJTUF l R UBM RVF
cn l DVBOEP n . &O FTUF DBTP MBT DPSSFTQPOEJFOUFT BSNBDJPOFT
RVF DBSBDUFSJ[BO FM ONFSP SFBM l TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
"SNBDJO 1 . 1BSB UPEP > 0 FYJTUF N N UBM RVF TJ n N FOUPODFT
an > l .
"SNBDJO 2 . 1BSB UPEP > 0 TF DVNQMF RVF
( n N) ( m n) (am < l + ).
$PNCJOBOEP MB QSVFCB BOUFSJPS Z MBT EFOJDJPOFT EBEBT FO MB PCTFSWB

DJO EF MB QHJOB QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF TJ
L = MN TVQ an ,
n

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJO {ank } UBM RVF ank L DVBOEP k .

5BNCJO QPS MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUB PCTFSWBDJO TF UJFOF RVF TJ
l = MN JOG an ,
n
FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJO {anj } UBM RVF anj l DVBOEP j .
&KFSDJDJP 4FB x1 > 0 Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF xn+1 = xn + 1/xn QBSB

UPEP OBUVSBM n 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF xn + DVBOEP n .
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO S VO TVCDPOKVOUP OP WBDP EF R Z u R. .VFTUSF

RVF u = TVQ S TJ Z TPMP TJ
1 1
( n N )(u n OP FT VOB DPUB TVQFSJPS EF S Z u + n FT VOB DPUB
TVQFSJPS EF S

&KFSDJDJP 4FB A (0, +) OP WBDP 1SVFCF RVF u = TVQ A TJ Z

TPMP TJ
i) x A x u
ii) d > 1 a A : ud < a.
&KFSDJDJP %FDJNPT RVF VO QBS PSEFOBEP (A, B) EF TVCDPOKVOUPT

EJTKVOUPT OP WBDPT EF R FT VOB DPSUBEVSB TJ A B = R Z BEFNT
( a A) ( b B) (a < b). 4J (A, B) FT VOB DPSUBEVSB FO R QSVFCF
RVF TVQ A = OG B.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a, b R KPT Z A := {x R : a < x < b} 1SVFCF

RVF OG A = a Z TVQ A = b
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO EF SFBMFT UBM RVF a2n 0 Z
a2n+1 0 %FNVFTUSF RVF an 0.
n
1
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF MB TVDFTJO {bn } EBEB QPS bn =
k!
k=1
DPOWFSHF B MB DPOTUBOUF A R &ODVFOUSF FM MNJUF FO USNJOPT EF MB
DPOTUBOUF A
EF MB TVDFTJO {an } EBEB QPS

n
3k 2 4k + 2
an =
k!
k=1
&KFSDJDJP 6O TVCDPOKVOUP S EF ONFSPT SFBMFT TF EJDF RVF FT

JOEVDUJWP TJ TF DVNQMFO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT

J
0 S
J
( x) (x S x + 1 S).
%FNVFTUSF MBT BSNBDJPOFT

B
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP
C
-B JOUFSTFDDJO EF UPEPT MPT TVCDPOKVOUPT JOEVDUJWPT FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOEVDUJWP
'
D
N = {I R : I FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP}.
E
4J A N Z A FT VO DPOKVOUP JOEVDUJWP FOUPODFT A = N.
5PQPMPHB EF MB SFDUB SFBM

)BTUB BIPSB BMHVOPT EF MPT DPODFQUPT P SFTVMUBEPT QSFTFOUBEPT IBO JOWP
MVDSBEP JOUFSWBMPT BCJFSUPT P DFSSBEPT &TUF UJQP EF JOUFSWBMPT TPO DBTPT
QBSUJDVMBSFT EF VOB DMBTF NT BNQMJB EF DPOKVOUPT MMBNBEPT BCJFSUPT P
DFSSBEPT SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF MPT DVBMFT TPO MPT FMFNFOUPT EF MP RVF TF DP
OPDF DPNP 5PQPMPHB -B OPDJO EF UPQPMPHB OP FT JNQPSUBOUF BIPSB
TJO FNCBSHP QBSB DMBSJEBE Z QBSB OP DPOGVOEJS BM MFDUPS QSJODJQJBOUF TF
FOUJFOEF DPNP VOB DPMFDDJO EF TVCDPOKVOUPT EF VO DPOKVOUP EBEP X
MMBNBEPT BCJFSUPT RVF FT DFSSBEB CBKP VOJPOFT BSCJUSBSJBT JOUFSTFDDJPOFT
OJUBT Z UBOUP X DPNP FM DPOKVOUP WBDP FTUO FO MB DPMFDDJO
%FOJDJO 4FBO a R KP Z > 0. -MBNBNPT CPMB FO R EF
DFOUSP a Z SBEJP BM JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (a , a + ) 0USPT OPNCSFT RVF
TF TVFMFO VTBS TPO FOUPSOP P WFDJOEBE EF SBEJP &O DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUPT
DBTPT IBCMBSFNPT EF CPMB FOUPSOP P WFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP a Z MB
EFOPUBSFNPT QPS # (a).
0CTFSWFNPT RVF # (a) := (a , a + ) = {x R : |x a| < }, MP
DVBM EFKB DMBSJEBE BDFSDB EFM OPNCSF EF CPMB
&KFNQMP $VBMRVJFS JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP BDPUBEP (a, b) DPO a < b FT
VOB CPMB FO R EF DFOUSP a+b ba
2 Z SBEJP 2 .
%FOJDJO 4FBO S R DPO S OP WBDP Z a R KPT %FDJNPT

RVF a FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF S TJ UPEB WFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP a
DPOUJFOF VO QVOUP EF S EJTUJOUP EF a &O PUSPT USNJOPT TJ QBSB UPEP
> 0 TF UJFOF RVF # (a) (S {a}) = .
&M DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJO EF VO DPOKVOUP S MP EFOPUBNPT
QPS S .

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT JMVTUSBDJPOFT

J
4FB S = [0, 1]. &OUPODFT 0 FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF S ZB RVF
EBEP > 0 UFOFNPT RVF (, ) (S {0}) = (, ) (0, 1] = .
JJ
4FB S = {1/n} n=1 . &OUPODFT FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF S
ZB RVF QBSB DVBMRVJFS ONFSP > 0 DPNP 1/n 0 FYJTUF
VO OBUVSBM N0 UBM RVF TJ n N0 FOUPODFT 1/n < . 1PS UBOUP
1/n (, ) (S {0}) QBSB UPEP n N0 .
JJJ
&M MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF DVNQMF FO HFOFSBM FTUP FT TJ FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM
N0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N0 , an = a Z an a FOUPODFT a FT VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF MB TVDFTJO {an }
JW
4FB S = (0, 1) {2} &M QVOUP a = 2 OP FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMB
DJO EF S ZB RVF FYJTUF QPS FKFNQMP = 1/2 UBM RVF
(2 , 2 + ) (S {2}) = (3/2, 5/2) (0, 1)
FT WBDP
4J EFUBMMBNPT OVFWBNFOUF MPT USFT QSJNFSPT UFNT OPT EBNPT DVFOUB
EF EPT DPTBT QSJNFSP OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF
VO DPOKVOUP FT VO FMFNFOUP EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP Z TFHVOEP RVF UPEB
WFDJOEBE EF VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO a EF VO DPOKVOUP S FO SFBMJEBE
DPOUJFOF JOOJUPT QVOUPT EF S. &TUF IFDIP MP SFTBMUBNPT FO FM TJHVJFOUF
SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB 4FB a R VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF S &OUPODFT
UPEB WFDJOEBE EF a DPOUJFOF JOOJUPT QVOUPT EF S
%FNPTUSBDJO -B QSVFCB RVF QSFTFOUBNPT FT JOEJSFDUB FTUP FT TVQPO
HBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB WFDJOEBE EF a RVF DPOUJFOF VO DPOKVOUP OJUP
EF QVOUPT EF S %JHBNPT RVF QBSB BMHO > 0,
# (a) (S {a}) = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xm }.
-B JEFB BIPSB FT WFS RVF FYJTUF VOB WFDJOEBE EF a RVF OP TBUJTGBDF MB

EFOJDJO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO 5BM WFDJOEBE TF DPOTUSVZF FMJHJFOEP
VO ONFSP QPTJUJWP NFOPS RVF MBT EJTUBODJBT FOUSF a Z MPT xj MBT DVBMFT
TPO QPTJUJWBT .T QSFDJTBNFOUF UPNFNPT
:= NO {|xj a| : j = 1, 2, . . . , m}

7FS FM BQOEJDF EPOEF IBDFNPT VOB CSFWF QSFTFOUBDJO EFM DPODFQUP EF DPOKVOUP
JOOJUP

Z DPOTJEFSFNPT #/2 (a) "SNBNPT RVF FTUB /2WFDJOEBE EF a OP DPO

UJFOF QVOUPT EF S {a}. &O FGFDUP TJ FYJTUJFSB
z #/2 (a) (S {a})
FOUPODFT |z a| < /2 Z z S {a} "IPSB CJFO VTBOEP

UFO
ESBNPT RVF |z a| < /2 < |xj a| < FTUP FT |z a| < Z
BT DPODMVJSBNPT RVF z = xk QBSB BMHO k {1, 2, . . . , m}, MP DVBM OPT
BSSPKBSB MB DPOUSBEJDDJO |xk a| = |z a| < /2.

$PSPMBSJP 5PEP DPOKVOUP OJUP DBSFDF EF QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJO

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R %FNVFTUSF
B
4J A B FOUPODFT A B
C
(A B) = A B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF a A OP FT QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A &OUPODFT
FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF a EJHBNPT # , UBM RVF # A {a}c = , FT EFDJS
FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF a RVF TPMP DPOUJFOF VO QVOUP EFM DPOKVOUP A &O
TNCPMPT # A = {a}. &TUF UJQP EF QVOUPT UJFOF OPNCSF QSPQJP
%FOJDJO 4FBO A VO DPOKVOUP FO MB SFDUB SFBM Z a A %FDJNPT
RVF a FT VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF A TJ FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF a EJHBNPT # ,
UBM RVF # A = {a}.
%FOJDJO 6O TVCDPOKVOUP G R TF EJDF RVF FT BCJFSUP TJ QBSB
DBEB x G FYJTUF VOB WFDJOEBE EF x, # (x) UBM RVF
# (x) G.
0CTFSWBDJO &M ONFSP QPTJUJWP QSFTFOUBEP FO MB EFOJDJO EF DPO

KVOUP BCJFSUP EFQFOEF EFM QVOUP x G DPNP WFSFNPT FO QSYJNBT
JMVTUSBDJPOFT
&KFNQMP
B
&M JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (0, 1) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R TFB
x (0, 1) BSCJUSBSJP QFSP KP 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB WFDJOEBE
EF x DPOUFOJEB FO (0, 1) &O FGFDUP UPNFNPT DPNP SBEJP EF MB CPMB
B FYIJCJS FM ONFSP x := NO {1x, x} OPUF RVF FM SBEJP EF
QFOEF EFM QVOUP x
"SNBNPT RVF # (x) (0, 1) TJ y # (x)
FOUPODFT QPS MB EFOJDJO EFM ONFSP > 0 UFOFNPT RVF
|y x| < 1 x Z |y x| < x,
EF EPOEF TF TJHVF RVF 0 < y < 1 FTUP FT y (0, 1).

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
C
&M SB[POBNJFOUP FO FM UFN QSFWJP TF QVFEF FYUFOEFS B JOUFSWBMPT
HFOFSBMFT EF MB GPSNB (a, b) DPO a < b. $PODSFUBNFOUF FM JOUFSWBMP
BCJFSUP (a, b) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R FO QBSUJDVMBS UPEB CPMB
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
D
&T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFOJDJO RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
E
&M DPOKVOUP WBDP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R ZB RVF MB TJHVJFOUF
BSNBDJO FT WFSEBEFSB
( x ) ( > 0 : # (x) ).
F
4FB a R KP &OUPODFT MPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT (a, +) Z
(, a) TPO DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R FTDPKBNPT x (a, +) Z
TFB x = = x a > 0 &OUPODFT FT JONFEJBUB MB JODMVTJO
# (x) (a, +) &M SB[POBNJFOUP FT TJNJMBS QBSB (, a)
G
'JKFNPT a < b 1PS FM UFN BOUFSJPS FM DPOKVOUP A := (, a)
(b, +) SFTVMUB TFS VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R.
H
&M JOUFSWBMP S = (0, 1] OP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R &TUP TF
FYQMJDB EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB FYJTUF VO QVOUP FO S FM 1 RVF OP
FT FM DFOUSP EF BMHVOB CPMB MB DVBM RVFEF DPOUFOJEB FO S.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FO FM QFOMUJNP FKFNQMP FM DPNQMFNFOUP EF A

Ac := R A = [a, b] FM DVBM BDPTUVNCSBNPT MMBNBS JOUFSWBMP DFSSB
EP $PO FTUP JOUSPEVDJNPT FM TJHVJFOUF DPODFQUP
%FOJDJO 6O TVCDPOKVOUP F EF R TF EJDF RVF FT VO DPOKVOUP

DFSSBEP FO R TJ TV DPNQMFNFOUP F c FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
&M &KFNQMP QSPQPSDJPOB MB TJHVJFOUF MJTUB JONFEJBUB EF DPOKVO

UPT DFSSBEPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM
B
&M JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP [a, b] QVFT TV DPNQMFNFOUP FO R FT
(, a) (b, +),
FM DVBM FT BCJFSUP FO R
C
&M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT Z FM DPOKVOUP WBDP TPO DPOKVO
UPT DFSSBEPT FO R
D
1BSB a R KP MPT JOUFSWBMPT OP BDPUBEPT (, a] Z [a, +)
SFTVMUBO TFS DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R.

E
1BSB UPEP a R FM DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS {a} FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
FO R ZB RVF c
{a} = (, a) (a, +) .
F
&M JOUFSWBMP S = (0, 1] OP FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R ZB RVF TV
DPNQMFNFOUP (, 0] (1, +) OP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
0CTFSWBDJO &T JNQPSUBOUF FOGBUJ[BS RVF MPT DPODFQUPT EF DPOKVOUP

BCJFSUP Z DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP TPO DPODFQUPT DPOUSBSJPT FT EFDJS RVF TJ
VO DPOKVOUP EBEP OP FT BCJFSUP FTUP JNQMJDB RVF UFOHB RVF TFS DFSSBEP
Z WJDFWFSTB DPNP TF JMVTUS DPO FM DPOKVOUP (0, 1].
&KFNQMP 4FB A R VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP

1SPCFNPT RVF TVQ A / A. &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ TVQ A A DPNP A FT VO
DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF
(TVQ A , TVQ A + ) A.
&O QBSUJDVMBS TF UJFOF RVF TVQ A + /2 A, MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
TVQ A + /2 TVQ A,
RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO a Z b EPT ONFSPT SFBMFT EJTUJOUPT 1SVFCF RVF

FYJTUFO EPT BCJFSUPT EJTKVOUPT U Z V UBMFT RVF a U Z b V. &TUB
QSPQJFEBE EJDF RVF FO R EPT QVOUPT TF QVFEFO TFQBSBS QPS EPT BCJFSUPT
EJTKVOUPT Z TF TVFMF MMBNBS QSPQJFEBE )BVTEPSGG
&KFSDJDJP 4FB F VO TVCDPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP TV

QFSJPSNFOUF %FNVFTUSF RVF TVQ F F.
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO G VO TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R Z a G 4FB {an }

VOB TVDFTJO RVF DPOWFSHF BM SFBM a %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N
UBM RVF an G QBSB UPEP n N.
"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT JNQPSUBOUFT EF MPT DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT Z MPT

DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT TPO QSFTFOUBEPT B DPOUJOVBDJO
5FPSFNB 4F DVNQMFO MBT TJHVJFOUFT QSPQJFEBEFT
J
5PEB VOJO BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP FO R
JJ
6OB JOUFSTFDDJO EF VO ONFSP OJUP EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
JJJ
5PEB JOUFSTFDDJO BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R FT VO DPO
KVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
JW
6OB VOJO EF VO ONFSP OJUP EF DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R FT VO
DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
(
%FNPTUSBDJO J
4FBO I VO DPOKVOUP EF OEJDFT Z O = Gi VOB VOJO
iI
BSCJUSBSJB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO R 7FBNPT RVF O FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP FO R 4FB x O. 1PS EFOJDJO EF VOJO FYJTUF j I UBM RVF
x Gj Z DPNP FTUF FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO ONFSP
QPTJUJWP x UBM RVF # (x) Gj $PNP Gj O FOUPODFT # (x) O Z
BT DPODMVJNPT MB QSVFCB EF J

JJ
4FBO G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO MB SFDUB Z WFBNPT
k
RVF G := Gi FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R 4J BMHVOP EF MPT Gi FT
i=1
WBDP MB DPODMVTJO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF UPEPT MPT
Gi TPO OP WBDPT Z TFB x G -VFHP QPS EFOJDJO EF JOUFSTFDDJO
x Gi QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k $PNP FTUPT TPO DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO
R FYJTUFO k ONFSPT QPTJUJWPT 1 , 2 , . . . , k DBEB VOP EFQFOEF EF x
UBM RVF #i (x) Gi . -B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJO FT IBMMBS VO SBEJP UBM RVF

# (x) G Z QBSB FTF O EFOBNPT
:= NO {i : i = 1, 2, . . . , k}.
&T DMBSP RVF > 0. "SNBNPT RVF # (x) G FGFDUJWBNFOUF TJ

y # (x) FOUPODFT QPS MB EFOJDJO EFM ONFSP UFOFNPT RVF
|y x| < i QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF
y #i (x) Gi QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , k Z QPS UBOUP y G. 2VFEB
EFNPTUSBEP JJ

JJJ
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF J
Z VOB EF MBT MFZFT EF %h.PSHBO EF MB
UFPSB EF DPOKVOUPT FM DPNQMFNFOUP EF VOB JOUFSTFDDJO FT MB VOJO EF
MPT DPNQMFNFOUPT
JW
&TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF JJ
Z MB PUSB MFZ EF %h.PSHBO EF MB UFPSB
EF DPOKVOUPT
0CTFSWBDJO -B DPOEJDJO EF OJUVE FO MPT UFNT JJ

Z JW
FT DSVDJBM
1PS FKFNQMP TJ Gn = (0, 2 + 1/n) EPOEF n FT OBUVSBM Z n 1 DBEB Gn

FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R QFSP Gn = (0, 2] RVF DMBSBNFOUF OP FT
n=1
VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO MB SFDUB 1BSB JMVTUSBS MB JNQPSUBODJB EFM ONFSP

OJUP EF DPOKVOUPT FO FM DBTP JW

DPOTJEFSFNPT Fn = [0, 1 1/n]
EPOEF n FT OBUVSBM Z n 1 $BEB DPOKVOUP Fn FT DFSSBEP FO R QFSP
(
Fn = [0, 1) RVF DMBSBNFOUF OP FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB
n=1

(
&M IFDIP [0, 1) Fn FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB
n=1
QVFT TJ 0 y < 1 FOUPODFT 1 y > 0 Z BT FYJTUF BMHO OBUVSBM N UBM
RVF 1/N < 1 y FTUP FT 0 y < 1 1/N MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF y FN .
-B PUSB JODMVTJO FT TJNQMF
&KFNQMP 5PEP TVCDPOKVOUP OJUP EF ONFSPT SFBMFT FT VO DPO

KVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB &TUP TF FYQMJDB TJNQMFNFOUF FTDSJCJFOEP EJDIP
DPOKVOUP DPNP MB VOJO OJUB EF MPT TJOHVMBSFT GPSNBEPT QPS TVT FMF
NFOUPT Z BQMJDBOEP JW
EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS 3FDPSEBS UBNCJO RVF UPEP
DPOKVOUP TJOHVMBS FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO F R Z x0 F %FNVFTUSF RVF x0 FT VO QVOUP

BJTMBEP EF F TJ Z TPMP TJ F {x0 } FT DFSSBEP
%FOJDJO %FDJNPT RVF a R FT VO QVOUP JOUFSJPS EF VO TVC

DPOKVOUP G R TJ FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF a DPOUFOJEB FO G.
%FOPUBNPT QPS G FM DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT JOUFSJPSFT EFM DPOKVOUP G
Z MP MMBNBNPT FM JOUFSJPS EF G.
&T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFOJDJO RVF G FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP Z BEF

NT G G
&KFSDJDJP )BMMF FM JOUFSJPS EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT

Q, I, [0, 1).
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT BSNBDJPOFT
B
4FBO A Z B TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R UBMFT RVF A B &OUPODFT A
B.
C
(A B) = A B . y2V QVFEF BSNBS TJ TF DBNCJB QPS
)
D
G = {A R : A FT BCJFSUP Z A G} &TUP TF USBEVDF EJDJFOEP
RVF FM JOUFSJPS EF G FT FM BCJFSUP i NT HSBOEF u DPOUFOJEP FO G.
E
4FB A R VO BCJFSUP OP WBDP 1SVFCF RVF UPEP QVOUP EF A FT VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A
F
4FB A OP WBDP UBM RVF A Z A {a} TPO BCJFSUPT 1SVFCF RVF a FT
VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
$PNP FT MP VTVBM FO NBUFNUJDBT MBT EFOJDJPOFT TPO MBT IFSSBNJFO

UBT QSJNBSJBT QBSB DBSBDUFSJ[BS MPT DPODFQUPT 4JO FNCBSHP FO NVDIPT
DBTPT FTUBT TPO DPNQMJDBEBT EF WFSJDBS Z QPS FMMP FT OFDFTBSJP QSFTFO
UBS PUSBT DBSBDUFSJ[BDJPOFT RVF TFBO HJMFT -BT TJHVJFOUFT TPO EF NVDIB
VUJMJEBE
5FPSFNB $BSBDUFSJ[BDJO EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT Z DPOKVOUPT DF
SSBEPT

B
6O TVCDPOKVOUP G R FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
UPEPT TVT QVOUPT TPO JOUFSJPSFT FT EFDJS G = G .
C
6O TVCDPOKVOUP F R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
DPOUJFOF UPEPT TVT QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJO FT EFDJS F F.
D
6O TVCDPOKVOUP F R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ
UPEB TVDFTJO EF QVOUPT EF F RVF DPOWFSHF UJFOF MNJUF FO F
%FNPTUSBDJO B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF G FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R Z
WFBNPT RVF G = G . 1BSB FMMP CBTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF G G . 4FB QVFT
x G $PNP FTUF FT BCJFSUP FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF x MB DVBM FTU DPO
UFOJEB FO G MP RVF TJHOJDB RVF x G &TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOEJDJO
OFDFTBSJB MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJO FT TFODJMMB EF QSPCBS
C
4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO MB SFDUB SFBM Z
WFBNPT RVF F F. 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJO FT EFDJS TFB x VO
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF F FM DVBM OP FTU FO F -VFHP x F c Z DPNP
FTUF FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF (x , x + ) F c
EF MP DVBM TF JOFSF RVF (x , x + ) F = . "IPSB CJFO DPNP x FT
VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF F FOUPODFT TF EFCF DVNQMJS MB EFOJDJO
DPO FTUB CPMB Z QPS UBOUP TF UJFOF RVF (x , x + ) F {x}c = ,
MP RVF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO $PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB JODMVTJO
F F. 7FBNPT BIPSB MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJO TVQPOHBNPT RVF F F
Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP 1BSB IBDFSMP QSPCFNPT
RVF TV DPNQMFNFOUP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP 5PNFNPT x F c 1PS MB
IJQUFTJT x OP QVFEF TFS VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF F -VFHP FYJTUF
> 0 UBM RVF (x , x + ) F {x}c = . %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
(x , x + ) {x} F c = F c MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF F c FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP Z QPS FOEF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
D
4VQPOHBNPT RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP Z TFB {xn } VOB TV
DFTJO EF QVOUPT FO F RVF DPOWFSHF B x 1SPCFNPT RVF x F 4J OP
GVFSB BT FOUPODFT x FTUBSB FO F c Z EBEP RVF FTUF DPOKVOUP FT BCJFSUP
FO MB SFDUB SFBM FYJTUJSB VOB CPMB EF SBEJP Z EF DFOUSP FO x, # (x) UBM
RVF

(x , x + ) F c .
1PS PUSB QBSUF EF MB DPOWFSHFODJB EF MB TVDFTJO BM QVOUP x Z QBSB FTUF

> 0 FODPOUSBSBNPT VO xj F UBM RVF |xj x| < 1PS
TF
DPODMVJSB RVF xj F c MP DVBM TFSB VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO %F FTUB NBOFSB
RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MB OFDFTJEBE 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB TVDJFODJB VTBNPT MB
DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO PCUFOJEB FO FM MJUFSBM BOUFSJPS 4FB y VO QVOUP EF BDVNV
MBDJO EF F Z WFBNPT RVF y F -VFHP QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n DPO n 1,
WB MB EFOJDJO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO DPO MBT 1/nWFDJOEBEFT

PCUFOFNPT RVF
(y 1/n, y + 1/n) F {y}c = ,
Z QPS UBOUP QBSB UPEP n 1 FYJTUF yn F DPO yn = y Z UBM RVF
|yn y| < 1/n 0CUFOFNPT BT VOB TVDFTJO {yn } FO F RVF DPOWFSHF BM
QVOUP y 1PS OVFTUSB IJQUFTJT DPODMVJNPT RVF y F MP DVBM TJHOJDB
RVF F FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R.

&KFNQMP 4FB a VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF MB TVDFTJO {xn }
1SPCFNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJO {xnk } RVF DPOWFSHF BM ONFSP a.
#BTUB BQMJDBS MB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EF QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF NBOFSB
SFDVSTJWB EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB FYJTUF VO FMFNFOUP EF MB TVDFTJO
EJHBNPT xn1 UBM RVF |xn1 a| < 1 DPO xn1 = a 1PS FM 5FPSFNB
FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM n2 > n1 UBM RVF |xn2 a| < 1/2 Z xn2 = a 4VQPOHBNPT
FTDPHJEPT n1 < n2 < < nk UBMFT RVF |xnk a| < 1/k. %BEP RVF FO
1
MB k+1 WFDJOEBE EF a FYJTUFO JOOJUPT QVOUPT EF MB TVDFTJO QPEFNPT
1
FTDPHFS nk+1 > nk UBM RVF |xnk+1 a| < k+1 . %F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT
DPOTUSVJEP VOB TVCTVDFTJO {xnk } UBM RVF xnk a DVBOEP k
&KFSDJDJP 4VQPOHB RVF {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO RVF OP UJFOF DPMB
DPOTUBOUF Z FT UBM RVF an a DVBOEP n 1SVFCF RVF a FT FM OJDP
QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF MB TVDFTJO
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A R OP WBDP %FNVFTUSF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP
BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ TF DVNQMF MB QSPQJFEBE TJHVJFOUF
4J {an } FT VOB TVDFTJO RVF DPOWFSHF B VO QVOUP EF A FOUPODFT
FYJTUF VOB mDPMB EF MB TVDFTJO DPOUFOJEB FO A
&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MBT GVODJPOFT f, g, h : R R EBEBT QPS
f (x) = ax + b DPO a = 0, g(x) = x2 Z h(x) = x3 . 4FB A VO BCJFSUP OP
WBDP

%BEB VOB TVDFTJO {xn } MMBNBNPT mDPMB EF MB TVDFTJO BM DPOKVOUP
{xk : k m}

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
B
1SVFCF RVF MPT DPOKVOUPT f 1 (A), g 1 (A) Z h1 (A) TPO BCJFSUPT
C
1SVFCF RVF f (A) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
D
1SPQPSDJPOF VO FKFNQMP EF VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP O UBM RVF g(O) OP
FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
&KFSDJDJP 5SBTMBEP EF VO BCJFSUP FT VO BCJFSUP TFBO G R VO

BCJFSUP OP WBDP Z c R 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
c + G := {c + g : g G}
FT BCJFSUP FO R. "EFNT TJ c = 0 QSVFCF RVF c G := {c g : g G} FT

BCJFSUP FO R.
&KFSDJDJP 4VNB EF DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP TFBO

A Z B DPOKVOUPT BCJFSUPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM %FNVFTUSF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
A + B FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FO R
%FOJDJO 4FB A R %FOJNPT MB DMBVTVSB P DFSSBEVSB EFM

DPOKVOUP A MB DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS A DPNP MB JOUFSTFDDJO EF UPEPT MPT
DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT FO R RVF DPOUJFOFO BM DPOKVOUP A &O TNCPMPT

A = {F R : F FT DFSSBEP Z F A}.
0USB GPSNB EF EFDJS FTUP FT RVF MB DMBVTVSB EF A FT FM iNFOPSu DFSSBEP

RVF DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A %FTUBDBNPT RVF EF MB QBSUF JJJ
EFM 5FPSFNB
TF TJHVF RVF A FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
&O FM QSYJNP UFPSFNB TF SFOFO BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT Z DBSBDUFSJ
[BDJPOFT EF MB DMBVTVSB EF VO DPOKVOUP
5FPSFNB 4FB A R &OUPODFT
J
-B DMBVTVSB EF A DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A FT EFDJS A A.
JJ
&M DPOKVOUP A FT DFSSBEP TJ Z TPMP TJ A = A. &O QBSUJDVMBS A = A.
JJJ
4J A B FOUPODFT A B.
JW
4F WFSJDB RVF A B = A B.
W
x A TJ Z TPMP TJ UPEB CPMB EF x DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP
A TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO EF QVOUPT FO A RVF DPOWFSHF
B x
WJ
x A TJ Z TPMP TJ OG {|x a| : a A} = 0.

%FNPTUSBDJO J
4JNQMFNFOUF VTBNPT MB EFOJDJO QVFT TJ x A
FOUPODFT x QFSUFOFDF B DVBMRVJFS DFSSBEP F RVF DPOUFOHB BM DPOKVOUP
A MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS RVF x A.
JJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF A FT DFSSBEP Z QSPCFNPT RVF A = A. 1PS J
CBTUB WFS MB JODMVTJO A A TFB QVFT x A. -VFHP x QFSUFOFDF B UPEPT

MPT DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B A Z DPNP A FT DFSSBEP Z A A
FOUPODFT x A &TUP QSVFCB MB DPOEJDJO OFDFTBSJB -B TVDJFODJB FT
JONFEJBUB
JJJ
$PNP B B A, TJ x A FOUPODFT x QFSUFOFDF B UPEPT MPT
DPOKVOUPT DFSSBEPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B A TJFOEP B VOP EF FMMPT -VFHP
A B.
JW
:B RVF UBOUP A DPNP B FTUO JODMVJEPT FO A B MB JODMVTJO
AB AB
FT DPOTFDVFODJB EFM UFN QSFWJP 1BSB MB JODMVTJO SFDQSPDB UPNBNPT

x A B Z QPS UBOUP x F QBSB UPEP DPOKVOUP F DFSSBEP RVF
DPOUFOHB MB VOJO EF A Z B FO QBSUJDVMBS x QFSUFOFDF BM DFSSBEP
F := A B, FM DVBM DPOUJFOF B A B. "T RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FTUF
UFN
W
7BNPT B EFNPTUSBS FM DJDMP QSJNFSB BSNBDJO TFHVOEB BS
NBDJO UFSDFSB BSNBDJO QSJNFSB BSNBDJO 4FBO x A Z TV
QPOHBNPT QPS FM BCTVSEP
RVF FYJTUF VOB CPMB EF x EJHBNPT
# (x) # RVF OP DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A FTUP FT A # (x) = .
&TUP JNQMJDBSB RVF A #c , FM DVBM FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP -VFHP QPS
EFOJDJO EF DMBVTVSB UFOESBNPT RVF x / # RVF DMBSBNFOUF FT VOB
DPOUSBEJDDJO "IPSB WFBNPT FM TFHVOEP DJDMP BQMJDBOEP MB IJQUFTJT
DPO = 1/n FODPOUSBNPT RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n 1, #1/n (x) DPO
UJFOF QVOUPT EF A MP RVF TJHOJDB RVF FYJTUF xn A UBM RVF xn x.
'JOBMNFOUF QSPCFNPT RVF MB UFSDFSB BSNBDJO JNQMJDB MB QSJNFSB TFB
F VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R RVF DPOUJFOF BM DPOKVOUP A Z QSPCFNPT
RVF x F $PNP FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO EF QVOUPT FO A RVF DPOWFSHF B
x FTUB SFTVMUB DPOUFOJEB FO F Z QPS D
EFM 5FPSFNB TF DPODMVZF
RVF x F %BEP RVF FM DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP F FT BSCJUSBSJP PCUFOFNPT
RVF x A.
WJ
4VQPOHBNPT RVF x A. 1PS MP EFNPTUSBEP QSFWJBNFOUF FYJTUF
VOB TVDFTJO EF QVOUPT xn A UBM RVF xn x. %JDIP EF PUSB GPSNB
UFOFNPT RVF |xn x| 0 DVBOEP n "IPSB CJFO TJ EFOPUBNPT
m := OG {|x a| : a A} FT DMBSP RVF 0 m |xn x| QBSB UP
EP OBUVSBM n )BDJFOEP RVF n FO FTUBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT PCUFOFNPT

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
RVF m = 0. 3FDQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF m = 0 Z WFBNPT RVF

x A. 1BSB FMMP QSPCFNPT RVF FO UPEB WFDJOEBE EF x FYJTUFO FMFNFO
UPT EF A 4FB > 0 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EF ONP FYJTUF a A UBM RVF
> |x a | FTUP FT a # (x) Z BT UFOFNPT RVF A # (x) = . 1PS
UBOUP DVBMRVJFS CPMB EF x DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A MP DVBM RVJFSF EFDJS
RVF x A. &TUP DPNQMFUB MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB

/PUFNPT RVF EF MB QSJNFSB FRVJWBMFODJB FO W

TF TJHVF RVF A A.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB A R %FNVFTUSF RVF A = A A .
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF x A OG {|x y| : y Ac } > 0.
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF G FT BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ
( A R) (G A G A).
5FPSFNB 4FB A R &OUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT EF BDVNV

MBDJO EF A, A FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
%FNPTUSBDJO #BTUB QSPCBS RVF (A ) A . 4FB x (A ) Z TVQPOHB

NPT MP DPOUSBSJP FT EFDJS RVF x / A . &OUPODFT FYJTUJSB > 0 UBM RVF
# (x) A {x}. 1PS PUSB QBSUF UFOFNPT RVF # (x) A FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOOJUP Z DPNP A A FOUPODFT # (x) A UBNCJO FT VO DPOKVOUP
JOOJUP 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP BQMJDBEP DPO G = # (x) PCUFOESBNPT
RVF # (x) A # (x) A {x} = {x}, EF MP DVBM TF DPODMVJSB
RVF # (x) A TFSB VO DPOKVOUP OJUP &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO EFNVFTUSB FM
UFPSFNB

%FOJDJO 4FB A R %FDJNPT RVF a R FT VO QVOUP GSPOUFSB

EFM DPOKVOUP A TJ UPEB CPMB EF a DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF A Z
EF Ac
&M DPOKVOUP EF QVOUPT GSPOUFSB EF A MP EFOPUBNPT QPS A Z MP MMB
NBNPT MB GSPOUFSB EF A
&T TFODJMMP WFS RVF MB EFOJDJO EF GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FT FRVJ

WBMFOUF B MB JHVBMEBE A = A Ac . &O DPOTFDVFODJB MB GSPOUFSB EF VO
TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FO R
-BT OPDJPOFT EF DMBVTVSB Z GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FTUO SFMBDJPOB
EBT DPNP TF NVFTUSB B DPOUJOVBDJO
5FPSFNB 4FB A R &OUPODFT
B
&M DPOKVOUP A FT DFSSBEP TJ Z TPMP TJ A A.

C
A = A A.
%FNPTUSBDJO B
4VQPOHBNPT RVF A FT DFSSBEP &OUPODFT
A = A Ac = A Ac A.
3FDQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF A A Z WFBNPT RVF A A DPO

MP DVBM TF DPODMVZF RVF A FT DFSSBEP &O FGFDUP FTUP FT JONFEJBUP QVFT
TJ x A Z x OP QFSUFOFDJFSB BM DPOKVOUP A FOUPODFT x Ac Ac Z
QPS UBOUP x A A RVF QPS TVQVFTUP FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO
C
A A = A (A Ac ) = (A A) (A Ac ) =
A (A Ac ) = A R = A. -B QFOMUJNB JHVBMEBE TF UJFOF QPSRVF
R A Ac A Ac = R.

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF x A TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUFO TVDFTJPOFT {xn }

FO A Z {yn } FO Ac SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF UBMFT RVF xn x DVBOEP n
Z yn x DVBOEP n
&KFSDJDJP &ODVFOUSF MB DMBVTVSB FO R EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT DPOKVOUPT

I, Z, Q Z MB TVDFTJO {1/n}
&KFSDJDJP %FUFSNJOF MB WFSBDJEBE P GBMTFEBE EF MBT BSNBDJPOFT
4J A B FOUPODFT A B.
A = Ac .
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF MBT BSNBDJPOFT
B
-B GSPOUFSB EF VO DPOKVOUP FT WBDB TJ Z TPMP TJ EJDIP DPOKVOUP FT
BCJFSUP Z DFSSBEP
C
6O DPOKVOUP FT BCJFSUP TJ Z TPMP TJ OP DPOUJFOF QVOUPT EF TV GSPO
UFSB
D
1BSB UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R TF DVNQMF RVF Ac = (A )c .
E
1BSB UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP A EF R TF DVNQMF RVF A = Ac A .
F
4J F R FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP FOUPODFT (F ) = .
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF TJ A R FT OP WBDP Z BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF

FOUPODFT TVQ A A. &TUBCMF[DB VO SFTVMUBEP BOMPHP QBSB VO DPOKVOUP
BDPUBEP JOGFSJPSNFOUF

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MBT BSNBDJPOFT

B
(S1 S2 ) S1 S2 .
C
(S1 S2 ) S1 S2 .
D
(S1 S2 ) S1 S2 .
E
(S) S.
$POKVOUPT DPNQBDUPT FO MB SFDUB SFBM

-B OPDJO EF DPNQBDJEBE FT VOB EF MBT NT UJMFT FO FM BOMJTJT NB
UFNUJDP 4PO WBSJBEBT TVT BQMJDBDJPOFT QPS DJUBS VO QBS EF FKFNQMPT
NFODJPOFNPT RVF QFSNJUF HBSBOUJ[BS MB FYJTUFODJB EF QVOUPT EF N
YJNP P NOJNP EF VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB FO VO JOUFSWBMP DFSSBEP Z MB
PCUFODJO EF SFTVMUBEPT EF FYJTUFODJB EF TPMVDJPOFT EF DJFSUP UJQP EF
FDVBDJPOFT MMBNBEBT FDVBDJPOFT EJGFSFODJBMFT
%FOJDJO 4FBO J = VO DPOKVOUP EF OEJDFT Z O R VO
BCJFSUP QBSB DBEB J. %FDJNPT RVF MB DPMFDDJO {O : J} FT VO
DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB VO DPOKVOUP A R TJ
(
A O .
J
4J I J EFDJNPT
( RVF {O : I} FT VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP EFM DPOKVOUP
A TJ A O . 4J I J FT OJUP EFDJNPT RVF FM TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
I
FT OJUP
&KFNQMP -B DPMFDDJO {(0, n) : n N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFS
UP QBSB A := (0, +) ZB RVF EBEP x A FYJTUF N N UBM RVF
0 < x < N Z BT x (0, N ). "RV FM DPOKVOUP EF OEJDFT FT J = N. 6O
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP QBSB A FT {(0, n) : n 2N} FO FTUF DBTP FM TVCDPOKVOUP
EF OEJDFT FT I = 2N FM DPOKVOUP EF OBUVSBMFT QBSFT
7FBNPT RVF MB DPMFDDJO {(0, n+1
n
) : n N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFS
UP QBSB A := (0, 1). 4J 0 < x < 1 FOUPODFT QPS MB QSPQJFEBE BSRVJNF
EJBOB FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 1 x > 1/N > 1/(N + 1) Z QPS
(
UBOUP x < N /(N + 1). &TUP JNQMJDB RVF (0, 1) (0, n/(n + 1)).
n=0
%FOJDJO 4FB K R %FDJNPT RVF K FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP

TJ DVBMRVJFS DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP EF K BENJUF VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP OJUP
QBSB K

&KFNQMP &T JONFEJBUP EF MB EFOJDJO RVF FM DPOKVOUP WBDP FT

DPNQBDUP .T BO DVBMRVJFS DPOKVOUP OJUP FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP
$PNP VOB UFSDFSB JMVTUSBDJO WFBNPT RVF FM JOUFSWBMP (0, 1) OP FT
VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP 1BSB FMMP EFCFNPT FYIJCJS VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP
EF (0, 1) UBM RVF UPEP TVCDVCSJNJFOUP OJUP OP DVCSF B EJDIP DPOKVOUP
6TBSFNPT FM DVCSJNJFOUP EFM &KFNQMP %FOPUFNPT QPS Vn DBEB
BCJFSUP EFM DVCSJNJFOUP Z TVQPOHBNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJO RVF FYJTUF BMHO
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP OJUP RVF DVCSF B (0, 1) FTUP FT TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO
OBUVSBMFT n1 , n2 , . . . , np UBMFT RVF
(
p
(0, 1) Vi .
i=1
4FB M := NY{n1 , n2 , . . . , np }. $PNP {Vn } FT VOB DPMFDDJO DSFDJFOUF

FOUPODFT TF UFOESB RVF (0, 1) VM = (0, M /(M + 1)). &M BCTVSEP TF
UJFOF BM PCTFSWBS RVF (M + 1)/(M + 2) (0, 1) QFSP OP FTU FO VM
&TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO NVFTUSB RVF FM DPOKVOUP (0, 1) OP FT DPNQBDUP
" QSJNFSB WJTUB MB EFOJDJO EF DPNQBDJEBE RVF IFNPT QSFTFOUBEP
FT RVJ[ QPDP JOUVJUJWB *OUSPEVDJSFNPT GPSNBT FRVJWBMFOUFT EF FYQSFTBS
FTUF DPODFQUP EF NBOFSB RVF TFB DPNQMFUBNFOUF BNJHBCMF B OVFTUSB
JOUVJDJO Z BEFNT EF GDJM JOUFSJPSJ[BDJO &O FTB EJSFDDJO FNQF[BNPT
DPO FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP RVF QFSNJUF NPTUSBS DMBSBNFOUF FM QPS RV
EF MB SFTQVFTUB OFHBUJWB FO FM BOUFSJPS FKFNQMP Z NT BO FT VO DBTP
QBSUJDVMBS EF VO IFDIP HFOFSBM RVF QSFTFOUBSFNPT NT BEFMBOUF
5FPSFNB 4FBO a Z b ONFSPT SFBMFT DPO a < b. &OUPODFT FM
JOUFSWBMP [a, b] FT VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJO -B QSVFCB FT JMVTUSBUJWB FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF TF QVFEF
DPOTJEFSBS DPNP VOB UDOJDB MB DVBM DPOTJTUF FO DPOTUSVJS VO DPOKVOUP
RVF SFOB MPT FMFNFOUPT DPO MBT QSPQJFEBEFT RVF VOP EFTFB 4FB {V }
DPO J VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB [a, b] %FOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP
EF UPEPT MPT JOUFSWBMPT EF MB GPSNB [a, x] RVF TF QVFEFO DVCSJS DPO VO
TVCDVCSJNJFOUP OJUP EF {V } FT EFDJS
*
(
E := x [a, b] : [a, x] V QBSB BMHO I J OJUP .
I
%FNPTUSFNPT RVF b E, MP DVBM UFSNJOB MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB 1BSB FMMP

VTBSFNPT MB DPNQMFUF[ EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT Z QSPQJFEBEFT EFM TVQSFNP
*OJDJBMNFOUF OPUFNPT RVF E FT OP WBDP QVFT a E : [a, a] = {a} Z
FYJTUF J UBM RVF a V . "EJDJPOBMNFOUF FM DPOKVOUP E FTU BDPUBEP

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS b -VFHP FYJTUF c R UBM RVF c = TVQ E 0CTFSWFNPT

UBNCJO RVF a c b Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUF J UBM RVF c V . $PNP
FTUF MUJNP FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF (c, c+) V
1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF x0 E UBM RVF c < x0 Z EF FTUB NBOFSB
UFOFNPT RVF
(
m
[a, x0 ] V i .
i=1
$PNP c + /2 / E FTUF ONFSP OP WFSJDB QPS MP NFOPT VOB EF MBT
DPOEJDJPOFT RVF DBSBDUFSJ[B MPT FMFNFOUPT EF E 1FSP
(
m
[a, c + /2] = [a, x0 ] [x0 , c + /2] Vi V ,
i=1
FOUPODFT OFDFTBSJBNFOUF c + /2 / [a, b]. &TUP JNQMJDB RVF c + /2 < a

P CJFO c + /2 > b -B QSJNFSB OP QVFEF PDVSSJS ZB RVF TF PCUFOESB
c + /2 < a c MP DVBM BSSPKBSB MB DPOUSBEJDDJO < 0. 1PS UBOUP
UJFOF RVF EBSTF MB TFHVOEB PQDJO FTUP FT c + /2 > b EF FTUP TF TJHVF
RVF
(
m
[a, b] [a, c + /2] V i V .
i=1
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP RVF b E.

&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF VTBOEP MB EFOJDJO RVF FM DPOKVOUP [0, +)

OP FT DPNQBDUP
&KFSDJDJP 4FB {an } VOB TVDFTJO FO R UBM RVF an a 4J
K = {an } {a},
QSVFCF RVF K FT DPNQBDUP

&KFSDJDJP $POTJEFSF MBT GVODJPOFT EFM &KFSDJDJP Z TFB K R
VO DPNQBDUP %FNVFTUSF RVF f (K), g(K) Z h(K) TPO DPOKVOUPT DPN
QBDUPT 4VHFSFODJB FM UFN B
EFM DJUBEP FKFSDJDJP QVFEF BZVEBS
5FPSFNB 4FBO A Z K TVCDPOKVOUPT EF R UBMFT RVF A FT DFSSBEP

K FT DPNQBDUP Z A K. &OUPODFT A FT DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {V } DPO J VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP QBSB A Z
WFBNPT RVF FT QPTJCMF FYUSBFS VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
) OJUP QBSB EJDIP DPO
KVOUP %BEP RVF K R = A A J (V Ac ) )
c QPS MB DPNQBDJEBE
EF K FYJTUF VO TVCDPOKVOUP OJUP I J UBM RVF K I (V Ac ) %F
)
FTUP TF TJHVF RVF A I V MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF A FT DPNQBDUP

&KFNQMP &M DPOKVOUP RVF EFTDSJCJNPT B DPOUJOVBDJO FT EF TVNB

JNQPSUBODJB FO NBUFNUJDBT Z UJFOF QSPQJFEBEFT JODSFCMFT QFSP TPMB
NFOUF EFTUBDBSFNPT VO QBS EF FMMBT 4FB F0 = [0, 1] %JWJEJNPT FTUF
FO USFT UFSDJPT EF JHVBM MPOHJUVE Z EFTDBSUBNPT FM UFSDJP NFEJP BCJFSUP

RVFEOEPOPT DPO F1 = [0, 1/3] [2/3, 1]. $BEB VOP EF MPT JOUFSWBMPT RVF
DPOGPSNBO F1 MP EJWJEJNPT FO UFSDJPT JHVBMFT Z EFTDBSUBNPT MPT UFSDJPT
DFOUSBMFT BCJFSUPT
"T FO FTUB TFHVOEB FUBQB PCUFOFNPT
F2 = [0, 1/32 ] [2/32 , 3/32 ] [6/32 , 7/32 ] [8/32 , 1].
&M QSPDFTP TF SFQJUF Z FO MB nTJNB FUBQB PCUFOFNPT Fn DPNP VOJO

EF 2n JOUFSWBMPT EF MPOHJUVE 1/3n DBEB VOP %FOJNPT FM DPOKVOUP EF
$BOUPS EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB

C := Fn .
nN
0CTFSWFNPT RVF C = QVFT 0, 1 C JODMVTP MPT FYUSFNPT EF MPT JOUFS

WBMPT UFSDJPT EFTDBSUBEPT QFSUFOFDFO BM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS 'JOBMNFOUF
DPNP DBEB Fn FT DFSSBEP FOUPODFT FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS FT DFSSBEP Z
BEFNT FT DPNQBDUP QVFT F0 MP FT Z C F0 . -B PUSB QSPQJFEBE RVF NFO
DJPOBSFNPT FT RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS UJFOF JOUFSJPS WBDP TJ OP GVFSB
BT FYJTUJSB x0 C FT EFDJS FYJTUJSB JO JOUFSWBMP BCJFSUP (a, b) C
Z QPS UBOUP (a, b) Fn QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n %F FTUP TF TFHVJSB RVF
0 < b a (2/3)n QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n Z BT UFOESBNPT RVF b = a MP
DVBM FT BCTVSEP %F FTUB NBOFSB DPODMVJNPT RVF FM DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS
OP UJFOF QVOUPT JOUFSJPSFT
"IPSB QSFTFOUBNPT VO SFTVMUBEP NT HFOFSBM RVF FM 5FPSFNB
5FPSFNB 5PEP TVCDPOKVOUP DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP EF R FT DPNQBDUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB A VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF R DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP 1PS FM

BDPUBNJFOUP FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF M > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x A TF
DVNQMF |x| M &O PUSBT QBMBCSBT A [M, M ] %FCJEP B MB DPNQB
DJEBE EF [M, M ] 5FPSFNB
Z B MB DFSSBEVSB EF A DPODMVJNPT
RVF A FT DPNQBDUP

&M SFDQSPDP EF FTUF UFPSFNB UBNCJO FT DJFSUP
5FPSFNB 4FB K R VO DPOKVOUP DPNQBDUP &OUPODFT K FT

DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJO 1VFTUP RVF {(n, n) : n N} FT VO DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP

QBSB R K QPS MB IJQUFTJT FYJTUF VO DPOKVOUP OJUP EF OBUVSBMFT
{n1 , n2 , . . . , np } UBM RVF
(
p
K (ni , ni ).
i=1
4J M := NY{n1 , n2 , . . . , np } FOUPODFT SFTVMUB RVF K (M, M ) Z

QPS UBOUP K FT BDPUBEP 7FBNPT BIPSB RVF K FT DFSSBEP 1BSB FTUP
QSPCFNPT RVF K c FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP TFB y K c 1BSB DBEB OBUVSBM
n 1 FM DPOKVOUP Gn := (, y1/n)(y+1/n, +) FT VO DPOKVOUP

(
BCJFSUP Z BEFNT TF DVNQMF RVF K Gn ZB RVF TJ w K FOUPODFT
n=1
|w y| > 0 QPS UBOUP FYJTUF VO OBUVSBM N UBM RVF 1/N < w y P CJFO
1/N < y w MP RVF RVJFSF EFDJS RVF w GN . 1PS MB DPNQBDJEBE EFM
DPOKVOUP K QPEFNPT SFEVDJS FM DVCSJNJFOUP B VO TVCDVCSJNJFOUP OJUP
FT EFDJS
(m
K Gni .
i=1
$PNP BOUFT TJ L := NY{ni : i = 1, 2, . . . , m} FOUPODFT K GL RVF

FT FRVJWBMFOUF B EFDJS RVF GcL K c MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
1 1
(y 2L , y+ 2L ) K c.
&TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF K c FT BCJFSUP Z QPS UBOUP K FT DFSSBEP

-PT EPT MUJNPT UFPSFNBT TF DPOKVHBO FO VOP TPMP FM DVBM FT VO

SFTVMUBEP DMTJDP EF DPNQBDJEBE
5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EF )FJOF#PSFM
6O DPOKVOUP K R FT DPN
QBDUP TJ Z TPMP TJ K FT DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FB K R Z OP WBDP %FNVFTUSF K FT DPNQBDUP TJ Z
TPMP TJ UPEB TVDFTJO FO K UJFOF BM NFOPT VOB TVCTVDFTJO RVF DPOWFSHF
FO K.
-NJUFT Z DPOUJOVJEBE FO MB SFDUB

)BTUB BIPSB MB OPDJO EF MNJUF OPT FT DPOPDJEB QBSB VOB DMBTF QBSUJDVMBS
EF GVODJO DVZP EPNJOJP FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT
VOB TVDFTJO &M DPODFQUP EF MNJUF UBNCJO TF QSFTFOUB QBSB GVODJPOFT
NT HFOFSBMFT DPO EPNJOJP VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF R

%FOJDJO 4FBO f : A R R VOB GVODJO Z c R VO QVOUP

EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A %FDJNPT RVF L R FT VO MNJUF EF f FO c, TJ QBSB
UPEP > 0 FYJTUF VO > 0 RVF WFSJDB MB TJHVJFOUF DPOEJDJO
( x) (x A 0 < |x c| < |f (x) L| < ).
6TBSFNPT MBT OPUBDJPOFT MN f (x) = L P UBNCJO f (x) L DVBO

xc
EP x c.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FTUB EFOJDJO TF GPSNVMB EF NBOFSB FRVJWBMFOUF
BT MN f (x) = L TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEB CPMB # (L) EF L FYJTUF VOB
xc
CPMB # (c) EF c UBM RVF
( x) (x A # (c) x = c f (x) # (L)).
5FPSFNB 4J FM MNJUF EF VOB GVODJO f : A R R FYJTUF FO

VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO c R EF A FOUPODFT FT OJDP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO SFBMFT L1 = L2 UBMFT RVF
MN f (x) = L1 Z MN f (x) = L2 .
xc xc
&OUPODFT QBSB = 12 |L1 L2 | > 0 FYJTUFO 1 > 0 Z 2 > 0 UBMFT RVF
( x) (x A 0 < |x c| < 1 |f (x) L1 | < )
( x) (x A 0 < |x c| < 2 |f (x) L2 | < ).
4FB = NO {1 , 2 } > 0 1PS UBOUP QBSB UPEP x A DPO 0 < |xc| <
MBT JNQMJDBDJPOFT EF
Z
TF DVNQMFO Z BT TF UJFOF RVF
|f (x) L1 | < Z |f (x) L2 | < .
-VFHP QBSB MPT x A DPO 0 < |x c| < TF JOFSF RVF
|L1 L2 | |L1 f (x)| + |f (x) L2 | < 2 = |L1 L2 |,
RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF FT VOB DPOUSBEJDDJO -VFHP FM MNJUF FT OJDP

&KFNQMP 4J f FT VOB GVODJO DPOTUBOUF EJHBNPT f (x) = b QBSB

UPEP x A Z c A FOUPODFT MN b = b.
xc

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
&KFNQMP 4FBO f : (0, +) R EBEB QPS f (x) = x1 Z c > 0

KP $PNP FM JOUFSWBMP (0, +) FT VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP Z c (0, +)
FOUPODFT c FT VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF EJDIP JOUFSWBMP 7FBNPT RVF
1 1
MN =
xc x c
4FB > 0 Z FODPOUSFNPT > 0 UBM RVF TJ x > 0 Z 0 < |x c| <
FOUPODFT |1/x 1/c| < . /PUFNPT RVF
1 1 |x c|
| |= ,
x c cx
TFS NFOPS RVF TJ MPHSBNPT BDPUBS JOGFSJPSNFOUF FM EFOPNJOBEPS RVF
JOUVJUJWBNFOUF FTU DFSDBOP B c2 QBSB UPEPT MPT x > 0 DFSDBOPT B c
4VQPOHBNPT RVF 0 < |x c| < DPO > 0 B EFUFSNJOBS Z USBUFNPT
FOUPODFT EF BDPUBS JOGFSJPSNFOUF FM EFOPNJOBEPS
x = c (c x) c |x c| > c .
&TUP OPT TVHJFSF SFTUSJOHJS > 0 EF NBOFSB RVF < c QPS FKFNQMP
c/2 "T MBT DPTBT x > c/2 QBSB UPEP x > 0 DPO |x c| < Z
c/2 -MFWBOEP FTUP BM FTUJNBUJWP
MMFHBNPT B RVF
1 1 2
| | < 2,
x c c
MP DVBM TFS NFOPS RVF > 0 TJ 2/c2 &O SFTVNFO EBEP > 0
UPNBNPT > 0 DPNP = NO {c/2, c2 /2} EF NBOFSB RVF TJ x > 0
DPO 0 < |x c| < FOUPODFT |1/x 1/c| < &TUP EFNVFTUSB RVF
1/x 1/c DVBOEP x c.
x4
&KFNQMP 1SPCFNPT RVF MN f (x) = 4 EPOEF f (x) = &M
x4 x2
EPNJOJP EF f FT FM DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP (0, 4) (4, +) Z FT VO QVOUP EF
BDVNVMBDJO EF EJDIP DPOKVOUP /PUFNPT RVF

(x 4) ( x + 2)

|f (x) 4| = 4 = | x 2|.
( x 2) ( x + 2)

"EFNT |x 4| = | x + 2| | x 2| OPT NPUJWB B FODPOUSBS VOB DPUB

JOGFSJPS EF x + 2 RVF QPEFNPT IBMMBS EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB TJ < 1
Z |x 4| < FOUPODFT |x 4| < 1 Z BT 3 < x < 5 FO QBSUJDVMBS

x > 1 -VFHP x + 2 > 3 %F FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF TJ = NO {1, 3} Z
|x 4| < FOUPODFT
|x 4|
|f (x) 4| = | x 2| = < .
x+2 3

-BT TVDFTJPOFT VOB WF[ NT EFNVFTUSBO TFS VOB IFSSBNJFOUB QP

EFSPTB &M QSYJNP UFPSFNB QSPQPSDJPOB VO DSJUFSJP QPS TVDFTJPOFT QBSB
EFUFSNJOBS TJ VO ONFSP SFBM L FT MNJUF P OP EF VOB GVODJO
5FPSFNB $SJUFSJP QBSB MNJUFT QPS TVDFTJPOFT
4FBO
f : A R R
Z c R VO QVOUP EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A &OUPODFT
MN f (x) = L ( {xn }) (xn A {c} xn c f (xn ) L).

xc
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF MN f (x) = L Z TFB {xn } VOB TVDFTJO

xc
EF QVOUPT FO A UBM RVF xn = c QBSB UPEP n N Z xn c. 1SPCFNPT
RVF f (xn ) L. 4FB QVFT > 0 $PNP MN f (x) = L FYJTUF > 0 UBM
xc
RVF TJ x A Z 0 < |x c| < FOUPODFT |f (x) L| < . "IPSB CJFO ZB
RVF xn c FYJTUF N0 N UBM RVF TJ n N0 FOUPODFT 0 < |xn c| <
Z QPS UBOUP QBSB UPEP n N0 TF UJFOF RVF |f (xn ) L| < MP DVBM
TJHOJDB RVF f (xn ) L
1BSB QSPCBS MB PUSB JNQMJDBDJO FT NT TFODJMMP QPS SFEVDDJO BM BC
TVSEP TVQPOHBNPT RVF OP TF UJFOF MB DPODMVTJO FT EFDJS MN f (x) = L
xc
&OUPODFT FYJTUF 0 > 0 UBM RVF QBSB UPEP > 0 FYJTUF x A, x = c
RVF EFQFOEF EF DPO 0 < |x c| < Z |f (x) L| 0 6TBOEP
FTUP DPO = 1/n EPOEF n 1 FT OBUVSBM FODPOUSBNPT VOB TVDFTJO
xn A {c} UBM RVF xn c Z |f (xn ) L| 0 MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF MB
IJQUFTJT %F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

"QSPWFDIBOEP FTUB DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO QPS TVDFTJPOFT Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT

EF FTUBT QPEFNPT EFNPTUSBS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT CTJDBT EF MPT MNJUFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO f, g : A R R GVODJPOFT Z c R VO QVOUP
EF BDVNVMBDJO EF A 4J
MN f (x) = L Z MN g(x) = M
xc xc

Z TJ K FT VOB DPOTUBOUF SFBM FOUPODFT MN Kf (x) MN f (x) + g(x)
xc xc
Z MN f (x) g(x) FYJTUFO Z BEFNT
xc

MN Kf (x) = KL, MN f (x)+g(x) = L+M Z MN f (x)g(x) = LM.
xc xc xc

4J BEFNT g(x) = 0 QBSB UPEP x A Z M = 0 FOUPODFT MN f (x)/g(x)
xc
FYJTUF Z FT JHVBM B L/M.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB {xn } VOB TVDFTJO EF QVOUPT FO A UBM RVF xn = c

QBSB UPEP n N Z xn c. 1PS MB IJQUFTJT f (xn ) L Z
g(xn ) M DVBOEP n . 1PS QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT DPO
WFSHFOUFT DPODMVJNPT RVF
Kf (xn ) KL, f (xn ) + g(xn ) L + M
Z f (xn ) g(xn ) LM EF MP RVF TF TJHVF RVF
Kf (x) KL, f (x) + g(x) L + M
Z f (x) g(x) L M DVBOEP x c. 'JOBMNFOUF WFBNPT RVF
f (x)/g(x) L/M
DVBOEP x c : TFB > 0. 1PS MB QSJNFSB DPODMVTJO EF FTUF UFPSFNB
f (xn )M g(xn )L 0 DVBOEP n Z BT FYJTUF N N UBM RVF
|f (xn )M g(xn )L| < QBSB UPEP n N 1PS PUSB QBSUF FYJTUF N1 N
UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N1 UFOFNPT RVF |g(xn ) M | < |M |/2 Z EF
FTUP MUJNP TF EFEVDF RVF |g(xn )| > |M |/2 QBSB UPEP n N1 -VFHP
TJ N0 = NY{N, N1 } Z UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB MBT DPODMVTJPOFT QSFWJBT
PCUFOFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP n N0

f (xn ) L |f (xn )M g(xn )L| 2

g(xn ) M = |g(xn ) M |
< 2
M
%F FTUB NBOFSB RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM UFPSFNB

"DUP TFHVJEP OPT PDVQBSFNPT EF MB OPDJO EF DPOUJOVJEBE *OUVJUJ

WBNFOUF DPOUJOVJEBE OPT JOEJDB iBVTFODJB EF TBMUPTu
$POTJEFSBSFNPT GVODJPOFT EFOJEBT FO VO TVCDPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT
SFBMFT Z RVF UPNBO WBMPSFT SFBMFT &O QBMBCSBT TJNQMFT f FT DPOUJOVB
FO VO QVOUP EF TV EPNJOJP x0 TJ FT QPTJCMF MPHSBS RVF f (x) FTU iBSCJ
USBSJBNFOUFu DFSDB EF f (x0 ) DVBOEP x FTU iTVDJFOUFNFOUF QSYJNP B
x0 u
%FOJDJO 4FBO A R f : A R VOB GVODJO Z x0 A
%FDJNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ TF DVNQMF MP TJHVJFOUF > 0
> 0 UBM RVF
TJ x A DPO |x x0 | < FOUPODFT |f (x) f (x0 )| < .
0CTFSWBDJPOFT J
&O HFOFSBM FM ONFSP EFQFOEF EF f, Z x0
JJ
-B BOUFSJPS EFOJDJO QVFEF GPSNVMBSTF DMBSBNFOUF FO USNJOPT EF
CPMBT BCJFSUBT MB GVODJO f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 A TJ
> 0 > 0 : f [# (x0 )] # (f (x0 ));

FT EFDJS TJ EBEB DVBMRVJFS CPMB BCJFSUB FO R DPO DFOUSP f (x0 ) FYJTUF

VOB CPMB BCJFSUB FO A EF DFOUSP x0 DVZB JNBHFO CBKP f FTU DPOUFOJEB
FO MB CPMB JOJDJBM
JJJ
-B OPDJO EF DPOUJOVJEBE QVFEF TFS GPSNVMBEB VUJMJ[BOEP FM DPODFQUP
EF DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP MB GVODJO f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB
DVBMRVJFS TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP G R RVF DPOUFOHB B f (x0 ) FYJTUF VO
TVCDPOKVOUP BCJFSUP G EF R RVF DPOUFOHB B x0 Z f [G] G &O FGFDUP
TFB f DPOUJOVB FO x0 Z TFB G R VO BCJFSUP UBM RVF f (x0 ) G
%FCJEP B RVF G FT BCJFSUP FYJTUF 0 > 0 UBM RVF #0 (f (x0 )) G Z QPS
MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO x0 FYJTUF 0 > 0 UBM RVF f [# (x0 )] #0 (f (x0 ))
5PNBOEP G = # (x0 ) TF UJFOF RVF G FT VO BCJFSUP FO R UBM RVF x0 G
Z f [G] G
3FDQSPDBNFOUF TVQPOHBNPT RVF QBSB UPEP BCJFSUP G FO R UBM RVF
f (x0 ) G FYJTUF VO BCJFSUP G FO R UBM RVF x0 G Z f [G] G
7FBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 4FB > 0 EBEP $PNP G = # (f (x0 ))
FT VO BCJFSUP FO R RVF DPOUJFOF B f (x0 ) FYJTUF G R G BCJFSUP
x0 G Z f [G] G $PNP G FT BCJFSUP Z x0 G FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF
# (x0 ) G -VFHP
f [# (x0 )] f [G] G = # (f (x0 ));
JF G FT DPOUJOVB FO x0
JW
-B DPOUJOVJEBE QVOUVBM QVFEF GPSNVMBSTF FO USNJOPT EF TVDFTJPOFT
f FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EF TV EPNJOJP TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEB TVDFTJO
{xn } FO FM EPNJOJP EF f UBM RVF xn c TF DVNQMF RVF f (xn ) f (c)
-B WFSJDBDJO EF FTUB BSNBDJO FT DPNP FO FM 5FPSFNB
&O PUSPT USNJOPT FTUBNPT EJDJFOEP RVF
f FT DPOUJOVB FO c ( {xn } %PN f )

% &
xn c MN f (xn ) = f ( MN xn ) .
n n
%FOJDJO %FDJNPT RVF VOB GVODJO f : A R R FT DPOUJOVB

TJ QBSB UPEP x A G FT DPOUJOVB FO x
&KFNQMP $POTJEFSFNPT MB GVODJO f : R R EFOJEB QPS

f (x) = x2 QBSB UPEP x R 7FBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO R 4FB
x0 R Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF QBSB DVBMRVJFS > 0 QPEFNPT FODPOUSBS VO
> 0 UBM RVF |x x0 | < |x2 x20 | < &O FGFDUP
|x2 x20 | = |(x + x0 )(x x0 )| = |(x x0 + 2x0 )(x x0 )|

(|x x0 | + 2|x0 |)|x x0 |.

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
1PS MP UBOUP TJ 0 < 1 FOUPODFT

|x x0 | < |x2 x20 | (1 + 2|x0 |)|x x0 |.
4J BEFNT
1+2|x0 | UFOESFNPT RVF
|x x0 | < |x2 x20 | < .

%F FTUB NBOFSB TJ NO {1, 1+2|x

0|
} TF UJFOF RVF
|x x0 | < |x2 x20 | < .

-VFHP f (x) = x2 FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 Z DPNP FTUF FT BSCJUSBSJP FOUPODFT
f FT DPOUJOVB FO UPEP R.
&KFNQMP -B GVODJO f : R R EFOJEB QPS

0 si x < 0
f (x) =
1 si x 0
FT DPOUJOVB QBSB UPEP x = 0 QFSP OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x = 0 -B QSJNFSB
QBSUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT f FT DPOTUBOUF FO DBEB JOUFSWBMP (, 0) Z
(0, +) %FNPTUSFNPT BIPSB RVF f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 = 0 1BSB
= 12 > 0 OP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF
1
|x| < |f (x) f (0)| <
2
&O FGFDUP TJ FYJTUJFSB UBM > 0 FO QBSUJDVMBS QBSB x (, 0) UFOESB
NPT |x| < Z TJO FNCBSHP |f (x) f (0)| = |0 1| = 1 > 12
&YJTUFO GVODJPOFT RVF TPO EJTDPOUJOVBT FO UPEP QVOUP EF TV EPNJOJP
&KFNQMP -B GVODJO EF %JSJDIMFU f : R R EFOJEB QPS

1 si x es racional
f (x) =
0 si x es irracional,
FT EJTDPOUJOVB FO UPEP QVOUP 4FB x0 VO ONFSP SBDJPOBM WFBNPT RVF f
OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 &O FGFDUP QBSB 0 = 12 > 0 TF DVNQMF MB OFHBDJO
EF
EBEP > 0

f [# (x0 )] = f [(x0 , x0 + )] #0 (f (x0 )) = #1/2 (1) ,
ZB RVF > 0 FYJTUF y0 #(x0 , ) UBM RVF y0 FT JSSBDJPOBM Z BT
0 = f (y0 ) f [(x0 , x0 + )]
/ ( 12 , 32 )
QFSP 0 = f (y0 )
1
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF QSVFCB DPO FM NJTNP 0 = 2 > 0 RVF TJ x0 FT VO
JSSBDJPOBM f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0

&KFNQMP "OBMJDFNPT MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF MB GVODJO f : R R

EFOJEB QPS

0 si x es irracional
f (x) = 1 p
q si x = q ,
EPOEF p Z q TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT Z q > 0 $POTJEFSFNPT f (0) = 1.

"SNBNPT RVF f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO Q 4VQPOHBNPT x0 Q DPO x0 = pq
EPOEF p Z q TPO QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT Z q > 0 1PS EFOJDJO f (x0 ) = 1q
1
1BSB 0 = 2q > 0 OP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF
1
x R |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| <
2q
&O FGFDUP > 0 i I UBM RVF |i x0 | < QFSP
1 1
|f (i) f (x0 )| = > 0 = .
q 2q
-VFHP f OP FT DPOUJOVB FO x0
"IPSB WFBNPT RVF f FT DPOUJOVB FO I. 4FBO i0 I Z > 0 1PS MB QSP
QJFEBE BSRVJNFEJBOB FYJTUF N N UBM RVF N1 < 1BSB j {1, . . . , N }
m m +1
FYJTUF mj := [[ j i0 ]] Z UBM RVF jj < i0 < jj 4FBO
mj mj + 1
j = NO {i0 , i0 } > 0, j = 1, . . . , N
j j
Z = NO {1 , . . . , N } > 0 /PUFNPT RVF DPNP MPT FOUFSPT mj Z mj + 1

m m +1
TPO MPT QUJNPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B j i0 FOUPODFT jj Z jj TPO MPT SBDJP
OBMFT QUJNPT RVF DPOUJFOFO B i0 1PS UBOUP FO USNJOPT HFPNUSJDPT
FM ONFSP FT MB NOJNB EJTUBODJB FOUSF FM ONFSP JSSBDJPOBM i0 Z MPT
m m +1
SBDJPOBMFT jj Z jj MPT DVBMFT UJFOFO EFOPNJOBEPS NFOPS P JHVBM RVF
N %FNPTUSFNPT RVF
x R |x i0 | < |f (x) f (i0 )| = |f (x)| < .
&GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ x I Z |x i0 | < FOUPODFT |f (x) f (i0 )| = 0 < .

"IPSB TVQPOHBNPT RVF x Q DPO x = nk EPOEF k Z n TPO QSJNPT
SFMBUJWPT n > 0 Z |x i0 | < "SNBNPT RVF OFDFTBSJBNFOUF n > N
DPNP FT EF FTQFSBSTF HFPNUSJDBNFOUF
Z BT VOB WF[ KVTUJDBEP FTUF
IFDIP TF UJFOF RVF
1 1
|f (x) f (i0 )| = < < ,
n N

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
DPO MP RVF TF QSVFCB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO i0 I %FNPTUSFNPT MB

MUJNB BSNBDJO QVFTUP RVF |x i0 | = | nk i0 | < j QBSB UPEP
j {1, . . . , N } FOUPODFT
mj k mj + 1
< < , QBSB UPEP j {1, . . . , N }.
j n j
4J PDVSSJFSB RVF n N IBDJFOEP j = n FO
FODPOUSBSBNPT VO
ONFSP FOUFSP FOUSF EPT FOUFSPT DPOTFDVUJWPT MP RVF QPS TVQVFTUP FT VO
BCTVSEP &TUP QSVFCB OVFTUSB BSNBDJO FT EFDJS n > N.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R R VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB FO Z UBM RVF

f (x) = f (2x) QBSB UPEP x R 1SVFCF RVF f FT DPOTUBOUF
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB TFB f : R R VOB

GVODJO &OUPODFT f FT DPOUJOVB TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEP BCJFSUP O FO
R, f 1 (O) FT BCJFSUP FO R TJ Z TPMP TJ QBSB UPEP DFSSBEP F FO R, f 1 (F)
FT DFSSBEP FO R.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R R VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB %FNVFTUSF RVF

QBSB UPEP E R TF DVNQMF RVF f (E) f (E).
0CTFSWBDJO 5PEB GVODJO FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF TV EP

NJOJP TFBO A FM EPNJOJP EF VOB GVODJO EF WBMPS SFBM f, x0 VO QVOUP
BJTMBEP EF A Z > 0 $PNP x0 FT VO QVOUP BJTMBEP EF A FOUPODFT FYJTUF
> 0 UBM RVF A # (x0 ) = {x0 } Z BT QBSB UPEP x A DPO |x x0 | <
FM OJDP FT x = x0
TF UJFOF RVF |f (x) f (x0 )| = 0 < . /UFTF RVF FM
ONFSP WJFOF EBEP QPS MB EFOJDJO EF QVOUP BJTMBEP Z QPS UBOUP OP
EFQFOEF EF
$PO MP FYQVFTUP UJFOF TFOUJEP FYBNJOBS MB DPOUJOVJEBE QVOUVBM EF
VOB GVODJO TPMBNFOUF FO MPT QVOUPT EF BDVNVMBDJO EF TV EPNJOJP Z
FO DPOTFDVFODJB QVFEF TFS WFSJDBEB WB MNJUFT DPNP TF FTUBCMFDF FO
FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP DVZB EFNPTUSBDJO FT VOB BQMJDBDJO EJSFDUB EF
MBT EFOJDJPOFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO A R f : A R VOB GVODJO Z x0 A

&OUPODFT f FT DPOUJOVB FO x0 TJ Z TPMP TJ MN f (x) = f (x0 ).
xx0
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : R R DPOUJOVB FO Z BEJUJWB FTUP FT QBSB

UPEP x, y R TF DVNQMF f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y). %FNVFTUSF RVF f FT
DPOUJOVB FO UPEP QVOUP
&KFSDJDJP )BMMF UPEBT MBT GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT f : R R UBMFT

RVF f (a + b) = f (ab) QBSB UPEP a, b I.

-B DPOUJOVJEBE FT QSFTFSWBEB QPS MBT PQFSBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJDBT EF GVO

DJPOFT DPOUJOVBT "OUFT EF QSPCBS FTUF IFDIP EFNPTUSBNPT VO MFNB
JNQPSUBOUF RVF TFS EF VUJMJEBE FO VOB EF MBT BSNBDJPOFT &M MFNB HB
SBOUJ[B RVF VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP QSFTFSWB FM TJHOP FO VOB
WFDJOEBE EFM QVOUP
-FNB 4FB f VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EF TV EPNJOJP Z

UBM RVF f (c) > 0 &OUPODFT FYJTUF VO CPMB # (c) EF c UBM RVF f (x) > 0
QBSB UPEP x # (c). 3FTVMUBEP TJNJMBS TF UJFOF TJ f (c) < 0
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP f FT DPOUJOVB FO c FOUPODFT QBSB = 12 f (c) > 0

FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF TJ x FTU FO FM EPNJOJP EF f A Z |xc| < TF UJFOF
|f (x) f (c)| < 12 f (c) %F FTUP TF TJHVF RVF 0 < 12 f (c) < f (x) < 32 f (c)
QBSB UPEP x A DPO |x c| < &O FM DBTP f (c) < 0 TF SB[POB
BOMPHBNFOUF DPO = 12 f (c) > 0 QBSB DPODMVJS RVF
3 1
f (c) < f (x) < f (c) < 0
2 2
QBSB UPEP x A Z FO DJFSUB WFDJOEBE EF c -B QSVFCB EFM MFNB RVFEB
DPNQMFUB

0CTFSWBDJO 4J VOB GVODJO f FT DPOUJOVB FO VO QVOUP c EPOEF

f (c) = 0 OP OFDFTBSJBNFOUF TF QVFEF BSNBS RVF MB GVODJO f TF BOVMB
FO BMHVOB WFDJOEBE EF c DPNP QVFEF TFS JMVTUSBEP DPO f (x) = x Z c = 0
P VO DBTP NT FYUJDP FT FM &KFNQMP
5FPSFNB 4FBO f Z g GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT FO VO QVOUP c Z K VOB

DPOTUBOUF SFBM &OUPODFT MBT GVODJPOFT Kf, f + g Z f g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO
c 4J BEFNT g(c) = 0 FOUPODFT f /g FT DPOUJOVB FO FM QVOUP c.
%FNPTUSBDJO 6TBNPT VO BSHVNFOUP QPS TVDFTJPOFT TFB {xn } VOB

TVDFTJO UBM RVF xn c $PNP f Z g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO c FOUPODFT
f (xn ) f (c) Z g(xn ) g(c) 1SPQJFEBEFT EF MBT TVDFTJPOFT DPOWFS
HFOUFT JNQMJDBO RVF Kf (xn ) Kf (c) Z
f (xn ) + g(xn ) f (c) + g(c), f (xn ) g(xn ) f (c) g(c),
MP DVBM TJHOJDB RVF Kf, f + g Z f g TPO DPOUJOVBT FO c 'JOBMNFOUF

QPS FM MFNB QSFWJP FYJTUF > 0 UBM RVF g(x) = 0 QBSB UPEP x # (c)
-VFHP DPNP xn c FYJTUF N0 N UBM RVF xn # (c) QBSB UPEP
n N0 Z QPS UBOUP g(xn ) = 0 QBSB FTUB N0 DPMB 1PEFNPT FOUPODFT
BQMJDBS MB QSPQJFEBE EF FYJTUFODJB EFM MNJUF EF VO DPDJFOUF EF TVDFTJPOFT

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
DPOWFSHFOUFT DVBOEP MB TVDFTJO EFM EFOPNJOBEPS UJFOF DPMB OP OVMB Z

DPOWFSHF B VO SFBM EJTUJOUP EF DFSP QBSB DPODMVJS RVF
f (xn )/g(xn ) f (c)/g(c).
&TUP EFNVFTUSB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f /g FO FM QVOUP c.

1PS JOEVDDJO TF QVFEF QSPCBS RVF VOB TVNB OJUB EF GVODJPOFT

DPOUJOVBT UBNCJO FT DPOUJOVB 4JNJMBSNFOUF QBSB VO QSPEVDUP EF VO
ONFSP OJUP EF GVODJPOFT DPOUJOVBT
&KFSDJDJP -BT TJHVJFOUFT BTFWFSBDJPOFT TF QVFEFO DPOTJEFSBS UFP

SFNBT
B
4FBO a < b ONFSPT SFBMFT Z f, g : [a, b] R GVODJPOFT DPOUJ
OVBT 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP {x [a, b] : f (x) = g(x)} FT DFSSBEP
C
#BKP MBT NJTNBT DPOEJDJPOFT EF B
QSVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP
{x [a, b] : f (x) < g(x)}
FT BCJFSUP
D
4VQPOHB RVF f : R R FT DPOUJOVB .VFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP
R FM DPOKVOUP {x [a, b] : f (x) } FT DFSSBEP Z RVF
{x [a, b] : f (x) < } FT VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO f Z g GVODJPOFT EF WBMPS SFBM Z DPOUJOVBT FO FM

DPOKVOUP [a, b] 1SVFCF RVF FM DPOKVOUP K = {x [a, b] : f (x) g(x)}
FT DPNQBDUP
-B DPOUJOVJEBE UBNCJO FT QSFTFSWBEB QPS MB DPNQPTJDJO EF GVO

DJPOFT DPOUJOVBT
5FPSFNB 4FBO f : A R Z g : B R GVODJPOFT UBMFT RVF

f (A) B 4J f FT DPOUJOVB FO c A Z g FT DPOUJOVB FO f (c) B
FOUPODFT g f : A R FT DPOUJOVB FO c
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB > 0 EBEP $PNP g FT DPOUJOVB FO f (c) FYJTUF

> 0 UBM RVF
y B |y f (c)| < |g(y) g(f (c)| < .
1PS PUSB QBSUF QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f FO c QBSB FTUF > 0 FYJTUF > 0
UBM RVF
x A |x c| < |f (x) f (c)| < .

1PS DPOTJHVJFOUF DPNCJOBOEP

Z
UFOFNPT RVF
x A |x c| < |g(f (x)) g(f (c))| < ,
FT EFDJS g f FT DPOUJOVB FO c

%FOJDJO 6OB GVODJO f : A R TF EJDF BDPUBEB FO A TJ TV

SBOHP f (A) FT VO DPOKVOUP BDPUBEP FO R FT EFDJS TJ FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF
C > 0 JOEFQFOEJFOUF EF x UBM RVF x A, |f (x)| C.
-B DPOTUBOUF C T EFQFOEF EFM EPNJOJP FO FM TFOUJEP EF RVF BM DBN

CJBS FM EPNJOJP EF MB GVODJO MB DPOTUBOUF DBNCJB QFSP VOB WF[ KBEP
FM EPNJOJP MB DPOTUBOUF OP EFQFOEF EF x FO FM EPNJOJP EF MB GVODJO
"MHVOPT FKFNQMPT JMVTUSBO FTUP DMBSBNFOUF
&KFNQMP -B GVODJO f (x) = 1/x FT BDPUBEB FO A = [1, +) ZB

RVF QBSB UPEP x A, x 1 Z BT |f (x)| = x1 1. 4J DBNCJBNPT FM
EPNJOJP EJHBNPT A = (1/4, +) FOUPODFT MB DPOTUBOUF DBNCJB QVFT
QBSB UPEP x A, |f (x)| < 4 "IPSB TJ FTDPHFNPT FM EPNJOJP A = (0, 1)
1
ZB MB GVODJO f OP FT BDPUBEB BMM QVFT QBSB xn = n+1 DPO n 1 OBUVSBM
TF UJFOF RVF |f (xn )| = n + 1 MP RVF UJFOEF B +
0CTFSWBDJO &T JNQPSUBOUF NFODJPOBS RVF TJ VOB GVODJO f : A R

OP FT BDPUBEB FO A FOUPODFT FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO {xn } EF QVOUPT FO A
UBM RVF |f (xn )| + FGFDUJWBNFOUF MB OFHBDJO EF GVODJO BDPUBEB
FRVJWBMF B EFDJS RVF
C > 0 x A : |f (x)| > C.
"QMJDBOEP FTUP DPO C = n N FODPOUSBNPT xn A UBM RVF

|f (xn )| > n. &TUP KVTUJDB OVFTUSB BSNBDJO
&KFNQMP 4FBO A R, b R Z m N DPOTUBOUFT KBT 4J

f : (b 1, b + 1) R FTU EBEB QPS f (x) = Axm FOUPODFT f FT
BDPUBEB FO (b 1, b + 1) ZB RVF QBSB UPEP x FO FTUF EPNJOJP TF DVNQMF
RVF
|x| |x b| + |b| < 1 + |b|
Z QPS DPOTJHVJFOUF |f (x)| A(1 + |b|)m , FT EFDJS FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF
C := A(1 + |b|)m UBM RVF QBSB UPEP x (b 1, b + 1) TF DVNQMF RVF
|f (x) C 7BNPT B BQSPWFDIBS FTUP QBSB EFNPTUSBS RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP
DPO DPFDJFOUFT SFBMFT EFOF VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB WFS MB TFDDJO "
QH

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
4FB p : R R EFOJEB QPS p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0

EPOEF UBOUP n N DPNP DBEB DPFDJFOUF ai R FTUO KBEPT Z an = 0
"SNBNPT RVF p FT VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB 1BSB FMMP UPNFNPT b R
BSCJUSBSJP Z MP EFKBNPT KP FO FM SB[POBNJFOUP RVF TJHVF 1PS FM BMHPSJUNP
EF MB EJWJTJO QBSB QPMJOPNJPT Z FM UFPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP WFS 5FPSFNBT
" Z " QH
FYJTUF VO OJDP QPMJOPNJP c EF HSBEP n 1
MMBNBEP FM DPDJFOUF Z UBM RVF p(x) = c(x)(x b) + p(b) EPOEF
c(x) = An1 xn1 + An2 xn2 + + A1 x + A0 .
4FB > 0 Z IBMMFNPT > 0 UBM RVF TJ x R Z |x b| < FOUPODFT

|p(x) p(b)| < $PNP |p(x) p(b)| = |c(x)| |x b| CBTUB RVF BDP
UFNPT |c(x)| 0CTFSWFNPT RVF DBEB USNJOP RVF EFOF BM QPMJOPNJP c
FT EF MB GPSNB f (x) = Axm Z TJ SFTUSJOHJNPT EF NBOFSB RVF 1
FOUPODFT QPS MP IFDIP BM JOJDJP TBCFNPT RVF FYJTUFO DPOTUBOUFT QPTJUJWBT
C1 , C2 , , Cn1 UBMFT RVF TJ |x b| < 1 FOUPODFT
|c(x)| Cn1 + Cn2 + C1 + A0 C.
-VFHP TJ = NO {1, /2C} Z |x b| < FOUPODFT |p(x) p(b)| <

MP RVF EFNVFTUSB MB DPOUJOVJEBE EFM QPMJOPNJP p FO b Z DPNP FTUPT TPO
BSCJUSBSJPT DPODMVJNPT RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP FT DPOUJOVP FO R
-B JEFB EF QSPCBS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF VO QPMJOPNJP DPNP TF IB IFDIP

TF BQPZB FO iPCMJHBSu BM MFDUPS B SFDPSEBS P SFWJTBS BMHVOPT UFPSFNBT
JNQPSUBOUFT EF QPMJOPNJPT DPNP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO FM UFPSFNB
EFM SFTJEVP Z PUSPT IFDIPT RVF TF EFTDSJCFO FO FM BQOEJDF -B QSVFCB
QVEP TFS QSFTFOUBEB EF PUSB GPSNB DBEB USNJOP RVF EFOF BM QPMJOPNJP
p FT EF MB GPSNB Axm FM DVBM FT VO QSPEVDUP EF m + 1 GBDUPSFT Z DBEB
VOP EF FMMPT FT DPOUJOVP -VFHP FM QPMJOPNJP p SFTVMUB DPOUJOVP QVFT FT
MB TVNB EF VO ONFSP OJUP EF FTUPT USNJOPT
-B DPOUJOVJEBE EF VOB GVODJO f OP FT TVDJFOUF QBSB RVF FTUB TFB
BDPUBEB &M &KFNQMP NVFTUSB VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB RVF FT BDPUBEB
FO VO DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP OP BDPUBEP Z UBNCJO FT BDPUBEB FO VO BCJFSUP
OP BDPUBEP QFSP OP MP FT FO VO DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP BDPUBEP &M TJHVJFOUF
SFTVMUBEP EJDF RVF BEFNT EF DPOUJOVJEBE EF MB GVODJO TF SFRVJFSF RVF
FM EPNJOJP TFB DPNQBDUP DFSSBEP Z BDPUBEP

5FPSFNB 4FBO K R DPNQBDUP Z f : K R VOB GVODJO

DPOUJOVB &OUPODFT f FT BDPUBEB
%FNPTUSBDJO 4VQPOHBNPT RVF f OP FT BDPUBEB -VFHP FYJTUF VOB TV

DFTJO {xn } K UBM RVF QBSB UPEP n N TF DVNQMF RVF |f (xn )| > n

$PNP K FT BDPUBEP FOUPODFT MB TVDFTJO {xn } FT BDPUBEB Z QPS UBOUP

FM UFPSFNB EF #PM[BOP8FJFSTUSBTT JNQMJDB RVF FYJTUF VOB TVCTVDFTJO
{xnk } RVF DPOWFSHF FT EFDJS FYJTUF a R UBM RVF xnk a DVBOEP
k %FCJEP B RVF K FT DFSSBEP a K Z QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f
PCUFOFNPT RVF f (xnk ) f (a) DVBOEP k MP RVF QFSNJUF BSNBS
RVF {f (xnk )} FT BDPUBEB 1FSP FM TVQVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP EJDF
RVF |f (xnk )| > nk k QBSB UPEP k N MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF FM BDPUB
NJFOUP EF {f (xnk )} &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO QSVFCB RVF f FT BDPUBEB

&M UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS HBSBOUJ[B RVF TJ f FT DPOUJOVB FO FM DPNQBDUP

K FOUPODFT MPT ONFSPT OG f Z TVQ f FYJTUFO &O SFBMJEBE TF BMDBO[BO
K K
MPT FYUSFNPT NT QSFDJTBNFOUF UFOFNPT
5FPSFNB 5FPSFNB EFM WBMPS FYUSFNP
4FB f VOB GVODJO EF WBMPS
SFBM Z DPOUJOVB FO FM DPNQBDUP K &OUPODFT FYJTUFO a, b K UBMFT RVF
f (a) = NY f Z f (b) = NO f
K K
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB s = TVQ f 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF a K UBM RVF

K
s = f (a) MP RVF EFNVFTUSB RVF s = NY f 1PS DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EF
K
TVQSFNP QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM n 1 FYJTUF xn K UBM RVF
s 1/n < f (xn ) s.
$PNP TF SB[PO FO MB QSVFCB EFM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS FYJTUFO VOB TVCTV

DFTJO {xnk } Z a K UBMFT RVF f (xnk ) f (a) -VFHP
s 1/nk < f (xnk ) s
QBSB UPEP k N 5PNBOEP MNJUF DVBOEP k FO MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT

QSFWJBT MMFHBNPT B MP EFTFBEP FT EFDJS s = f (a) 1BSB EFNPTUSBS MB
FYJTUFODJB EF NO f TF BQMJDB MP RVF TF IB QSPCBEP B f FGFDUJWBNFOUF
K
FYJTUF b K UBM RVF
f (b) = NY (f ) = NO f,
K K
EF EPOEF TF PCUJFOF MB DPODMVTJO 2VFEB BT QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : [a, b] R DPOUJOVB Z UBM RVF f (x) > 0 QBSB
UPEP x [a, b] 1SVFCF RVF FYJTUF VOB DPOTUBOUF m > 0 UBM RVF f (x) m
QBSB UPEP x [a, b]
&O MB QSVFCB EFM QSYJNP UFPSFNB TF FYIJCF VOB WF[ NT MB GVFS[B
EFM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ FO MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT

-PT ONFSPT SFBMFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO a < b Z f VOB GVODJO DPO WBMPSFT FO R DPOUJOVB

FO [a, b] Z UBM RVF f (a) < 0 < f (b) &OUPODFT FYJTUF c (a, b) UBM RVF
f (c) = 0.
%FNPTUSBDJO %FOBNPT FM DPOKVOUP A = {t [a, b] : f (t) < 0}

&TUF DPOKVOUP FT OP WBDP QVFT a A Z FT BDPUBEP TVQFSJPSNFOUF QPS
b. -VFHP QPS FM BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ FO MPT SFBMFT FYJTUF c R UBM
RVF c = TVQ A 1SPCFNPT RVF c (a, b) Z RVF f (c) = 0 DPO MP DVBM
TF UFSNJOB MB EFNPTUSBDJO EFM UFPSFNB 0CTFSWFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF
f (c) 0 ZB RVF FYJTUF VOB TVDFTJO tn A UBM RVF tn c Z DPNP
f (tn ) < 0 QPS MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f TF UJFOF RVF f (c) = MN f (tn ) 0
n
%FCJEP B f (a) < 0 MB DPOUJOVJEBE EF f Z FM -FNB MB GVODJO f
DPOTFSWB FM TJHOP OFHBUJWP FO VOB WFDJOEBE EF a FT EFDJS FYJTUF 1 > 0
UBM RVF f (t) < 0 QBSB UPEP t [a, a + 1 ] /PUFNPT RVF
{t [a, a + 1 ] : f (t) < 0} A
Z QPS UBOUP TVQ{t [a, a + 1 ] : f (t) < 0} c MP RVF JNQMJDB

c a + 1 > a %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS DPNP f (b) > 0 FYJTUF 2 > 0
UBM RVF f (t) > 0 QBSB UPEP t [b 2 , b] "SNBNPT RVF c 0 %F FTUB BSNBDJO TF TJHVF RVF c 0 TVDJFOUFNFOUF QFRVFP UBM RVF f (t) < 0 QBSB UPEP
t (c 3 , c + 3 ) 'JKBSBNPT VO t (c, c + 3 ) Z TFSB DMBSP RVF
t [a, b] Z f (t ) < 0 3FTVMUBSB FOUPODFT RVF t A Z t c, VOB
DPOUSBEJDDJO &TUP QSVFCB RVF f (c) = 0

"QMJDBOEP FTUF UFPSFNB B MB GVODJO g(x) = f (x) c TF QSVFCB FM

TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
$PSPMBSJP 5FPSFNB EFM WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP

4FBO a c > f (b)
TF PCUJFOF MB NJTNB DPODMVTJO VTBOEP MB GVODJO g(x) = c f (x)
&KFNQMP 4FB f : [0, 1] [0, 1] VOB GVODJO DPOUJOVB &OUPODFT

FYJTUF c [0, 1] UBM RVF f (c) = c. &TUF QVOUP c TF MMBNB QVOUP KP EF
MB GVODJO f &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ f (0) = 0 P f (1) = 1 MB DPODMVTJO FT
JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF f (0) = 0 Z RVF f (1) = 1 $PNP
f (0) 0 Z f (1) 1 FOUPODFT f (0) > 0 Z f (1) < 1 *OUSPEVDJNPT MB
GVODJO BVYJMJBS g : [0, 1] R EFOJEB QPS g(x) = f (x) x /PUFNPT

RVF g(0) = f (0) > 0 Z g(1) = f (1) 1 < 0. "QMJDBOEP FM UFPSFNB EFM
WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP B MB GVODJO g FODPOUSBNPT c (0, 1) UBM RVF g(c) = 0
FT EFDJS f (c) = c.
&KFSDJDJP 4FB f : [a, b] [a, b] VOB GVODJO UBM RVF FYJTUF VOB
DPOTUBOUF 0 c < 1 DPO MB TJHVJFOUF QSPQJFEBE QBSB UPEP x, y [a, b]
TF DVNQMF RVF |f (x) f (y)| c |x y| 1SVFCF RVF f FT DPOUJOVB Z
UJFOF B MP TVNP VO QVOUP KP
JBMBT`Qv2+iQ $POTVMUF TPCSF ONFSPT BMHFCSBJDPT Z ONFSPT

USBTDFOEFOUFT EFOJDJO FKFNQMPT QSFHVOUBT BCJFSUBT TPCSF FM QBSUJ
DVMBS FUD

$BQUVMP
-PT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
%BEP RVF QBSB UPEP ONFSP SFBM x TF UJFOF RVF x2 0 FOUPODFT MB

2
= 1 OP UJFOF TPMVDJO FO FM DBNQP R FO PUSBT QBMBCSBT
FDVBDJO x
OP FYJTUF 1 FO R 1PS FM &KFSDJDJP EF MB TFDDJO QH FYJTUF
VO DBNQP NT BNQMJP FO FM DVBM FTUB SB[ DVBESBEB T FYJTUF %JDIP
DBNQP TFS MMBNBEP FM EF MPT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
$POTUSVDDJO EF MPT ONFSPT

DPNQMFKPT
%FOJDJO &M $POKVOUP C := R R FT MMBNBEP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT
ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
&O FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT EFOJNPT WB FM FKFSDJDJP

DJUBEP MBT TJHVJFOUFT PQFSBDJPOFT MBT DVBMFT EFOPUBNPT QPS DPNPEJEBE
DPO MPT TNCPMPT DMTJDPT i + u Z i u QBSB x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 R
(x1 , y1 ) + (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 ),
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 ) = (x1 x2 y1 y2 , x1 y2 + y1 x2 ).

&OGBUJ[BNPT OVFWBNFOUF RVF QBSB OP IBDFS QFTBEB MB FTDSJUVSB IFNPT
VTBEP FM NJTNP TNCPMP QBSB EFOPUBS MB TVNB Z FM QSPEVDUP FO DPOKVOUPT
EJGFSFOUFT Z RVF FM DPOUFYUP QFSNJUF DMBSBNFOUF FMJNJOBS BNCJHFEBEFT
(FPNUSJDBNFOUF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y) TF SFQSFTFOUB DP
NP FM FYUSFNP EFM WFDUPS FO FM QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP RR DPO QVOUP JOJDJBM
FO FM PSJHFO
&M FKFSDJDJP RVF IFNPT WFOJEP NFODJPOBOEP SFTQBMEB FM TJHVJFOUF
IFDIP
5FPSFNB &M DPOKVOUP C EF MPT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT EPUBEP EF MBT

PQFSBDJPOFT QSFWJBNFOUF EFOJEBT FT VO DBNQP

'JHVSB 3FQSFTFOUBDJO HFPNUSJDB EF VO DPNQMFKP z = (x, y).
%BEP RVF (x, 0) + (y, 0) = (x + y, 0) Z RVF (x, 0) (y, 0) = (xy, 0)

QPEFNPT JEFOUJDBS x DPO (x, 0) .T QSFDJTBNFOUF TJ
C := {(x, 0) : x R}
Z TF EFOF : R C QPS (x) = (x, 0) FOUPODFT FT VO JTPNPSTNP

&TUB BQMJDBDJO OPT QFSNJUF UBNCJO BSNBS RVF C DPOUJFOF B R FO FM
TFOUJEP EF RVF C DPOUJFOF VO TVCDPOKVOUP C FM DVBM FT JTPNPSGP B R
$PO FTUP RVFEB EFNPTUSBEB MP TJHVJFOUF
1SPQPTJDJO &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT FT VO TVCDPOKVOUP
QSPQJP EFM DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
0CTFSWBDJO &T NVZ JNQPSUBOUF FM TJHVJFOUF DPNFOUBSJP TFB n 1 VO

ONFSP OBUVSBM 4F EFOF Rn DPNP FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT MBT nUVQMBT EF
ONFSPT SFBMFT FT EFDJS
Rn = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) : xi R, i = 1, 2, . . . , n}.
1BSB n = 1 UFOFNPT MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT Z QBSB n = 2 UFOFNPT MPT

ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT 1BSB FTUPT OJDPT WBMPSFT EF n TF EFNVFTUSB FO <:>
RVF Rn FT VO DBNQP
%FOJDJO %BEP VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y) MMBNBNPT B x
MB QBSUF SFBM EF z Z MB EFOPUBNPT QPS Re(z) -MBNBNPT B y MB QBSUF
JNBHJOBSJB EF z MB DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS Im(z). 6O ONFSP DPNQMFKP EF
MB GPSNB (0, y) DPO y = 0 MP MMBNBNPT JNBHJOBSJP QVSP
1PEFNPT FOUPODFT BSNBS RVF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP FT VO ONFSP
SFBM TJ TV QBSUF JNBHJOBSJB FT DFSP /PUFNPT UBNCJO RVF
(x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = (x, 0) + (0, 1) (y, 0).

%FOJDJO &M JNBHJOBSJP QVSP (0, 1) MP MMBNBNPT VOJEBE JNBHJOBSJB

Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS i FT EFDJS i := (0, 1).
&TUB EFOJDJO OPT QFSNJUF FTDSJCJS VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y)
EF MB GPSNB z = x + iy 6TBNPT DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUBT EPT FTDSJUVSBT QBSB
VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP 6O JNBHJOBSJP QVSP FT FOUPODFT EF MB GPSNB iy
DPO y = 0
$VBOEP SFQSFTFOUBNPT HFPNUSJDBNFOUF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP FTDSJ
UP FO MB GPSNB z = x + iy FM NJTNP QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP EF EPT FKFT SFDUBO
HVMBSFT SFDJCF PUSP OPNCSF EJBHSBNB EF "SHBOE EFOPNJOBEP B WFDFT
QMBOP EF "SHBOE P QMBOP DPNQMFKP
"M FKF IPSJ[POUBM TF MF MMBNB FKF SFBM
FO WF[ EF FKF EF MBT BCTDJTBT
Z BM WFSUJDBM TF MF MMBNB FKF JNBHJOBSJP FO
WF[ EF FKF EF MBT PSEFOBEBT
6O DPNQMFKP z = x + iy HSDBNFOUF MVDF
BT
Im(z)
y x + iy
Re(z)
x
'JHVSB %JBHSBNB EF "SHBOE
0CTFSWFNPT RVF i2 = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (1, 0) = 1 Z UBNCJO

(i)2 = 1 %F FTUB NBOFSB 1 UJFOF EPT SBDFT DVBESBEBT FO C B TBCFS
i. .T BEFMBOUF QSFTFOUBSFNPT VO NUPEP QBSB IBMMBS SBDFT nTJNBT
EF DVBMRVJFS ONFSP DPNQMFKP z.
$PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EFM &KFSDJDJP TF UJFOF FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
FM DVBM NBOJFTUB VOB EF MBT EJGFSFODJBT OPUBCMFT DPO MPT ONFSPT SFBMFT
%JDIB EJGFSFODJB DPOTJTUF FO RVF OP IBZ PSEFO FO MPT ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
FT EFDJS OP IBZ EFTJHVBMEBEFT
1SPQPTJDJO &M DBNQP C OP FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP
%FOJDJO 4FBO z1 = (x1 , y1 ) Z z2 = (x2 , y2 ) ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
%FDJNPT RVF z1 = z2 TJ x1 = x2 Z y1 = y2
&KFSDJDJP 4FBO z Z w DPNQMFKPT Z TVQPOHB RVF z + w Z zw TPO
ONFSPT SFBMFT OFHBUJWPT 1SVFCF RVF z Z w EFCFO TFS ONFSPT SFBMFT

%FOJDJO %BEP VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = x + iy EFOJNPT TV

DPNQMFKP DPOKVHBEP FM DVBM EFOPUBNPT QPS z DPNP z = x iy
/PUFNPT RVF VO DPNQMFKP Z TV DPOKVHBEP TPO TJNUSJDPT SFTQFDUP BM

FKF SFBM
Im(z)
w
z
Re(z)
z
w
'JHVSB $PNQMFKP Z TV DPOKVHBEP
"MHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT EFM DPOKVHBEP TF QSFTFOUBO B DPOUJOVBDJO
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO z Z w ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT &OUPODFT
z + w = z + w Z z w = z w.
4J w = 0 FOUPODFT z/w = z/w.
z = z z R.
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO z = x+iy, w = u+iv. &M QSJNFS Z UFSDFS OVNFSBMFT

TPO VOB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF 1BSB FM TFHVOEP OVNFSBM VTBNPT FM
BOUFSJPS QBSB PCUFOFS z = w (z/w) = w (z/w) EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF FM
SFTVMUBEP
%FOJDJO %BEP VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = x + iy EFOJNPT TV

+ EFOPUBNPT QPS |z|
NEVMP OPSNB MPOHJUVE P WBMPS BCTPMVUP FM DVBM
DPNP FM ONFSP SFBM OP OFHBUJWP EBEP QPS |z| = x2 + y 2
&O FM DBTP FO FM RVF Im(z) = 0 FT EFDJS z = x R |z| DPJODJEF DPO

FM WBMPS BCTPMVUP EF |x| EFOJEP FO R.
%F MB EFOJDJO EF NEVMP EF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP z = (x, y)
TV SFQSFTFOUBDJO HFPNUSJDB FO FM QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP Z FM UFPSFNB EF

1JUHPSBT WFNPT RVF |z| SFQSFTFOUB MB MPOHJUVE EF MB IJQPUFOVTB EFM

USJOHVMP SFDUOHVMP DVZPT WSUJDFT TPO MPT QVOUPT (0, 0), (x, 0) Z (x, y).
-B JEFB B DPOUJOVBDJO FT VTBS MBT OPDJPOFT FMFNFOUBMFT EF USJHPOP
NFUSB QBSB QSFTFOUBS MB GPSNB USJHPOPNUSJDB EF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP
z = (x, y) = x + iy = 0. /PUFNPT RVF x = |z| DPT , y = |z| TJO , EPOEF
(, ] FT FM OJDP OHVMP NFEJEP FO SBEJBOFT FOUSF FM FKF SFBM
QPTJUJWP Z FM TFHNFOUP Oz. 0CTSWFTF RVF FYJTUFO JOOJUPT OHVMPT RVF
TBUJTGBDFO MBT JHVBMEBEFT BOUFSJPSFT Z FT QPS FTP RVF BM OJDP OHVMP RVF
WFSJDB FTUBT JHVBMEBEFT FO FM JOUFSWBMP (, ] TF MF BTJHOB VO OPNCSF
QBSUJDVMBS
y (x, y)
x
x

(x, y)
'JHVSB 'PSNB USJHPOPNUSJDB
%FOJDJO 4FB z = (x, y) VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP OP OVMP &M OJ

DP OHVMP (, ] NFEJEP FO SBEJBOFT UBM RVF x = |z| DPT
y = |z| TJO , TF MMBNB BSHVNFOUP QSJODJQBM EF z Z MP EFOPUBNPT QPS
"SH z -PT EFNT OHVMPT RVF TBUJTGBDFO EJDIBT JHVBMEBEFT TF MMBNBO
BSHVNFOUPT Z EFOPUBNPT QPS BSH z FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEPT MPT BSHVNFOUPT
-B FYQSFTJO z = |z| DPT + i|z| TJO TF MMBNB GPSNB USJHPOPNUSJDB P
QPMBS EFM ONFSP DPNQMFKP z.
1VFTUP RVF x2 x2 + y 2 = |z|2 FOUPODFT |Re(z)| |z|. %F NBOFSB

TJNJMBS |Im(z)| |z|. 5BNCJO TF UJFOF RVF
z+z zz
Re(z) = , Im(z) =
2 2i
&T JONFEJBUP EF MBT EFOJDJPOFT Z MBT NBOJQVMBDJPOFT BMHFCSBJDBT EJT
QPOJCMFT FO MPT DBNQPT RVF |z|2 = zz. &TUP OPT QFSNJUF IBMMBS VOB FY
QSFTJO IBTUB BIPSB OP FTUBCMFDJEB QBSB FM JOWFSTP EF z = (x, y) = 0
&O FGFDUP DPNP
1 z
= z 1 = 2 ,
z |z|

x y
FOUPODFT z 1 = , 2 .
x2
+ y x + y2
2
6TBOEP MB EFOJDJO EF JHVBMEBE EF EPT DPNQMFKPT TF QVFEF FTUBCMF
DFS EF PUSB NBOFSB MB FYQSFTJO QBSB FM SFDQSPDP EF z = (x, y) = 0 TFB
z 1 = (u, v) EJDIP JOWFSTP FOUPODFT (x, y) (u, v) = (1, 0) EF EPOEF TF
PCUJFOF MB FYQSFTJO EBEB BSSJCB QBSB z 1 .
6OB EF MBT WFOUBKBT EFM DPODFQUP EF DPOKVHBEP EF VO DPNQMFKP FT
RVF QFSNJUF DPOPDFS FO MB GPSNB FTUOEBS FM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPNQMFKPT
5i
&KFNQMP )BMMBS FO MB GPSNB FTUOEBS a + ib FM DPDJFOUF .
3 + 2i
&M QVOUP DMBWF FT VTBS FM DPOKVHBEP EFM EFOPNJOBEPS EF MB TJHVJFOUF
NBOFSB
5i 5 i 3 2i 1
= = (13 13i) = 1 i.
3 + 2i 3 + 2i 3 2i 13
&KFSDJDJP &TDSJCB FM SFTVMUBEP FO MB GPSNB a + ib :
2+i 4+i
B

3 i 1 + 2i

3 + 2i 5 2i
C
+
1+i i1
&KFSDJDJP &ODVFOUSF UPEPT MPT WBMPSFT QPTJCMFT EF in WBSJBOEP
n N.
&KFSDJDJP %FNVFTUSF MB JEFOUJEBE EFM QBSBMFMPHSBNP QBSB ONFSPT

DPNQMFKPT
|z + w|2 + |z w|2 = 2(|z|2 + |w|2 ).
UBMFT RVF |z| 1, |w| 1

&KFSDJDJP 4FBO z Z w ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT
Z |z w| 1. %FNVFTUSF RVF |z + w| 3.

&KFSDJDJP 4FB z = x + iy C. 1SVFCF RVF |x| + |y| 2 |z|.

za
&KFSDJDJP 4J |z| < 1 Z |a| < 1 QSVFCF RVF < 1.
1 az
&KFSDJDJP &TDSJCB FO USNJOPT EF MB WBSJBCMF z MB FDVBDJO EF MB
IJQSCPMB x2 y 2 = 1.
-B NJTNB QSVFCB EF $
FO FM 5FPSFNB EFNVFTUSB
1SPQPTJDJO 4FBO z1 Z z2 ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT UBMFT RVF z1 z2 = 0.

&OUPODFT z1 = 0 z2 = 0.

&M NEVMP EF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP TBUJTGBDF MBT TJHVJFOUFT

QSPQJFEBEFT
5FPSFNB 4FBO z Z w ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT &OUPODFT
B
|zw| = |z| |w|. 4J w = 0 FOUPODFT |z/w| = |z|/|w|.
C
|z + w| |z| + |w| %FTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS

D
|z| |w| |z w| $POUJOVJEBE EFM NEVMP

%FNPTUSBDJO B
/PUFNPT RVF |zw|2 = (zw)zw = zzww = |z|2 |w|2
JNQMJDB MB BSNBDJO -B TFHVOEB QBSUF FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSJ
NFSB QVFT |z| = |w(z/w)| = |w| |z/w|.
C
$PNP FO FM OVNFSBM BOUFSJPS MB DMBWF FT QSPCBS RVF MPT DVBESBEPT
TBUJTGBDFO VOB EFTJHVBMEBE EF MB DVBM TF EFTQSFOEB FM SFTVMUBEP
EFTFBEP
|z + w|2 = (z + w)(z + w)
= |z|2 + zw + wz + |w|2
= |z|2 + zw + zw + |w|2
= |z|2 + 2Re(zw) + |w|2 QPS
2 2
|z| + 2|zw| + |w|
= |z|2 + 2|z| |w| + |w|2 QPS (a)
2
= (|z| + |w|) .
D
#BTUB BQMJDBS MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS BT
|z| = |z w + w| |z w| + |w| |z| |w| |z w|.
$BNCJBOEP MPT SPMFT EF z Z w TF PCUJFOF |w| |z| |z w| Z BM

DPNCJOBS FTUBT EPT EFTJHVBMEBEFT TF PCUJFOF FM SFTVMUBEP
2VFEB BT QSPCBEP FM UFPSFNB

-B JHVBMEBE FO MB EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS TF UJFOF DVBOEP MPT DPN

QMFKPT JOWPMVDSBEPT TPO QBSBMFMPT Z FO MB NJTNB EJSFDDJO : SFDQSPDB
NFOUF
&KFNQMP 4FBO z Z w DPNQMFKPT OP OVMPT 1SPCFNPT RVF
|w + z| = |w| + |z|

TJ Z TPMP TJ FYJTUF t > 0 UBM RVF w = tz.

-B DPOEJDJO TVDJFOUF FT JONFEJBUB QVFT
|w + z| = |tz + z| = (t + 1)|z| = |tz| + |z| = |w| + |z|.
4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF |w + z| = |w| + |z| &MFWBOEP BM DVBESBEP Z
SFBMJ[BOEP MPT DMDVMPT MMFHBNPT B MB JHVBMEBE
Re(z w) = |zw| 0.
&TDSJCBNPT z = x + iy Z w = u + iv 1PS MB JHVBMEBE Z MB EFTJHVBMEBE FO

TF UJFOF RVF Im(zw) = yuvx = 0 Z ux+vy 0 SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF
7BNPT B DPOTJEFSBS EPT DBTPT v = 0 Z v = 0. %FM QSJNFS DBTP MB
IJQUFTJT Z MB JHVBMEBE QSFWJB TF TJHVF RVF y = 0 Z QPS UBOUP z = x Z
w = u. $PNP u = 0 FOUPODFT IBDJFOEP t = x/u UFOFNPT RVF
z = x = (x/u)u = tw.
0CTFSWFNPT RVF FO FTUF DBTP Re(zw) = ux > 0 Z BT t > 0, RVFEBOEP
QSPCBEB MB DPOEJDJO OFDFTBSJB FO FTUF DBTP 4J v = 0 FOUPODFT x =
(u/v)y Z EFOJFOEP t = y/v TF PCUJFOF RVF z = x+iy = (y/v)(u+iv) =
tw TPMP SFTUB WFS RVF t > 0 EBEP RVF 0 Re(zw) = ux + vy Z v 2 > 0
FOUPODFT (ux + vy)/v 2 0 FT EFDJS (u2 /v 2 )t + t 0 MP DVBM FRVJWBMF B
EFDJS RVF t|w|2 0. 4J t = 0 FOUPODFT y = x = z = 0 MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF
MB IJQUFTJT 1PS UBOUP t > 0.
'SNVMB EF %F .PJWSF

-B GPSNB USJHPOPNUSJDB EF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP QFSNJUF FO PDBTJPOFT
SFBMJ[BS DJFSUBT PQFSBDJPOFT DPNP MB QPUFODJBDJO Z MB SBEJDBDJO EF VOB
NBOFSB NT TJNQMF *OJDJBNPT FTUB TFDDJO EFTDSJCJFOEP MB FYQSFTJO
USJHPOPNUSJDB DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF BM QSPEVDUP Z BM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPN
QMFKPT OP OVMPT Z MVFHP MB QPUFODJBDJO QBSB B QBSUJS EF BI EFEVDJS FM
UFPSFNB EF %F .PJWSF 'JOBMNFOUF OPT PDVQBNPT EF MB SBEJDBDJO
4FBO z1 = |z1 |(DPT 1 + i TFO1 ) Z z2 = |z2 |(DPT 2 + i TFO2 ) EPT
ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT OP OVMPT &OUPODFT
z1 z2 = |z1 z2 |(DPT 1 DPT 2 TFO1 TFO2
+ i(DPT 1 TFO2 + TFO1 DPT 2 ))

= |z1 z2 | DPT(1 + 2 ) + i TFO(1 + 2 ) .
-B FYQSFTJO
MB QPEFNPT JOUFSQSFUBS EJDJFOEP EF NBOFSB MJHFSB Z OP
QSFDJTB RVF QBSB IBMMBS FM QSPEVDUP EF EPT DPNQMFKPT FTDSJUPT FO GPSNB
USJHPOPNUSJDB CBTUB NVMUJQMJDBS TVT NEVMPT Z TVNBS TVT BSHVNFOUPT

&KFNQMP 4FB z = |z|(DPT + i TFO) = 0 )BMMFNPT FM QSPEVDUP iz

OPUFNPT QSJNFSP RVF i = cos(/2) + i TFO(/2) Z QPS
TF PCUJFOF
RVF
iz = |z|(DPT( + /2) + i TFO( + /2) = |z|(TFO + i DPT ).
&O SFBMJEBE FM PCKFUJWP QSJODJQBM EF FTUF FKFNQMP FT JMVTUSBS RVF FM QSP

EVDUP EF VO DPNQMFKP z = 0 QPS MB VOJEBE JNBHJOBSJB i FT PUSP DPNQMFKP
FM DVBM TF PCUJFOF SPUBOEP FM i WFDUPS u BTPDJBEP B z FO VO OHVMP EF /2
FO TFOUJEP BOUJIPSBSJP &TUP TF EFEVDF EF MB QSJNFSB JHVBMEBE FO

Im(z)
z
iz
Re(z)
'JHVSB &GFDUP HFPNUSJDP iz
7FBNPT BIPSB FM DPDJFOUF QBSB DPNQMFKPT z1 Z z2 OP OVMPT UFOJFOEP

FO DVFOUB RVF FM DPOKVHBEP EF z2 FTU EBEP QPS
z2 = |z2 |(DPT 2 i TFO2 ),
UFOFNPT RVF
z1 z1 z2
=
z2 |z2 |2
|z1 |
= (DPT 1 DPT 2 + TFO1 TFO2 + i(DPT 2 TFO1 TFO2 DPT 1 ))
|z2 |
|z1 |
= DPT(1 2 ) + i TFO(1 2 ) .
|z2 |
-B FYQSFTJO
EJDF EF NBOFSB MJHFSB Z OP QSFDJTB RVF QBSB IBMMBS
FM DPDJFOUF EF EPT DPNQMFKPT FTDSJUPT FO GPSNB USJHPOPNUSJDB CBTUB
FTUBCMFDFS FM DPDJFOUF EF TVT NEVMPT Z SFTUBS TVT BSHVNFOUPT

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF VTBOEP JOEVDDJO RVF TJ

z = |z|(DPT + i TFO) = 0
FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP n N TF WFSJDB MB JHVBMEBE

z n = |z|n DPT(n) + i TFO(n) .
%F FTUF FKFSDJDJP TF PCUJFOF MB WBMJEF[ QBSB FOUFSPT OFHBUJWPT FO
FGFDUP TFBO n Z DPO n 1 Z m = n. &OUPODFT m FT VO OBUVSBM
DPO m 1. -VFHP TJ z = |z|(DPT + i TFO) = 0 BM BQMJDBS FM FKFSDJDJP
QSFWJP Z FM IFDIP EF RVF z 1 = z/|z|2 UFOFNPT RVF
1
z n = z m = (z m )1 = |z|m DPT(m) + i TFO(m)
1
= |z|m DPT(m) + i TFO(m)

= |z|n DPT(m) i TFO(m)

= |z|n DPT(m) + i TFO(m)

= |z|n DPT(n) + i TFO(n) .
&O QBSUJDVMBS TJ |z| = 1 DPODMVJNPT FM TJHVJFOUF JNQPSUBOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB 'SNVMB EF %F .PJWSF
1BSB UPEP SFBM Z QBSB UPEP
FOUFSP n TF UJFOF RVF
(DPT + i TFO)n = DPT(n) + i TFO(n).
6OB BQMJDBDJO JONFEJBUB EF MB GSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF FT MB EFEVDDJO
EF VOB SFHMB QBSB IBMMBS MB SB[ nTJNB n 2
EF VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP
5FPSFNB 4FB z = 0 VO ONFSP DPNQMFKP DPO "SH z = . &OUPODFT
z QPTFF FYBDUBNFOUF n SBDFT nTJNBT EJGFSFOUFT MBT DVBMFT FTUO EBEBT
QPS
+ 2k + 2k
z 1/n = |z|1/n DPT( )+i TFO( ) , DPO k = 0, 1, . . . , n1.
n n
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FBO z = |z|(DPT + i TFO) Z w = |w|(DPT + i TFO)
UBMFT RVF z 1/n = w FTUP FT wn = z. -VFHP QPS MB GSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF
UFOFNPT RVF

|z|(DPT + i TFO) = |w|n DPT(n) + i TFO(n) .

&O IPOPS B "CSBIBN %F .PJWSF
B RVJFO TF BUSJCVZF TV EFTDVCSJNJFOUP
&SB VO GSBODT SFGVHJBEP FO -POESFT RVF DVST TVT FTUVEJPT DPO NVDIBT EJDVMUBEFT
*OUSPEVKP DBOUJEBEFT JNBHJOBSJBT FO USJHPOPNFUSB

5PNBOEP NEVMPT FO MB JHVBMEBE

DPOTFHVJNPT RVF |z| = |w|n FT
EFDJS |w| = |z|1/n . 3FFNQMB[BOEP FTUP FO
PCUFOFNPT MBT TJHVJFOUFT
JHVBMEBEFT DPT = DPT(n) Z TFO = TFO(n) "IPSB CJFO MPT TJHVJFO
UFT DNQVUPT
TFO(n ) = TFO(n) DPT TFO DPT(n)

= TFO DPT TFO DPT = 0,
DPT(n ) = DPT(n) DPT + TFO TFO(n) = 1,
+ 2k
JNQMJDBO RVF n = 2k DPO k Z. -VFHP = DPO k Z.
n
)BTUB FM NPNFOUP IFNPT QSPCBEP RVF
+ 2k + 2k
wk = |z|1/n DPT( ) + i TFO( ) ,
n n
DPO k Z TPO SBDFT nTJNBT EF z 7FBNPT RVF FYBDUBNFOUF n EF FMMBT
TPO EJGFSFOUFT QPS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MBT GVODJPOFT USJHPOPNUSJDBT TFOP
Z DPTFOP FT JONFEJBUP RVF QBSB UPEP l Z TF DVNQMF RVF wn+l = wl
3FTUB EFNPTUSBS RVF w0 , w1 , . . . , wn1 TPO EJGFSFOUFT "SHVNFOUFNPT
QPS DPOUSBEJDDJO Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT m Z j DPO
0m<n1
Z 0 j < n 1 UBMFT RVF m = j Z wm = wj . %F MBT SFTUSJDDJPOFT TPCSF

m Z j TF DPODMVZF RVF
|m j| < n 1.
%F MB TVQVFTUB JHVBMEBE EF MBT EPT SBDFT TF EFTQSFOEF RVF

+ 2m + 2j + 2m + 2j
DPT( ) = DPT( ) Z TFO( ) = TFO( ).
n n n n
)BDJFOEP VTP EF MBT JEFOUJEBEFT QBSB TFO(x y) DPT(x y) DPO
x = +2m
n , y = +2j
n TF EFEVDF RVF x y = 2N EPOEF N Z. %F
FTUB JHVBMEBE TF MMFHB B RVF m j = nN Z BT QPS
DPODMVJNPT RVF
|N | < 1 1/n < 1 MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF N = 0 Z QPS UBOUP PCUFOFNPT
RVF x = y FT EFDJS MMFHBNPT B MB DPOUSBEJDDJO m = j. &TUF BCTVSEP
EFNVFTUSB FM UFPSFNB

0CTFSWBDJO )FNPT IFDIP MB FYDMVTJO z = 0 ZB RVF QBSB z = 0 OP

TF EFOF BSHVNFOUP Z BEFNT FT DMBSP RVF MB OJDB SB[ nTJNB EF
z = 0 FT DFSP

&KFNQMP 3FTPMWBNPT MB FDVBDJO z 4 + 4 = 0 QBSB z C. /PUF

NPT RVF FTUP FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS MBT SBDFT DVBSUBT EFM DPNQMFKP 4.
)BZ QPS MP NFOPT EPT NBOFSBT EF QSPDFEFS FO FTUF DBTP GBDUPSJ[BOEP
QBSB FTDSJCJS MB FDVBDJO EF MB GPSNB (z 2 + 2i)(z 2 2i) = 0 Z IBMMBS
MBT EPT SBDFT DVBESBEBT UBOUP EF 2i DPNP EF 2i P BQMJDBS EJSFDUB
NFOUF FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS 7BNPT B FTDPHFS FTUB MUJNB /PUFNPT RVF
"SH (4) = Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB MBT SBDFT EF 4 FTUO EBEBT QPS
+ 2k + 2k
wk = 41/4 DPT( ) + i TFO( ) , k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
4 4
6OB DVFOUB EJSFDUB Z TJNQMF OPT BSSPKB MBT SBDFT
w0 = 1 + i, w1 = 1 + i, w2 = 1 i, w3 = 1 i.
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT

)BMMF MBT SBDFT TFYUBT EF
&TDSJCB FO MB GPSNB a + ib FM SFTVMUBEP EF (1 i)23 .

(1 + i)10
)BMMF MB QBSUF SFBM EF
(1 i)6
0CTFSWBDJO &T DMBSP RVF FO FM DBTP n = 2 TJ w FT VOB SB[ DVBESBEB

EF z FOUPODFT w FT MB PUSB SB[
&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF MBT TPMVDJPOFT EF MB FDVBDJO az 2 +bz+c = 0,
FO MB DVBM a, b Z c TPO ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT DPO a = 0 FTUO EBEBT QPS MB
GSNVMB DVBESUJDB VTVBM FTUP FT
+
z = (b b2 4ac )/(2a).
&KFSDJDJP 3FTVFMWB MB FDVBDJO z 2 (5 + i)z + 8 + i = 0.

0USB VUJMJEBE EF MB 'SNVMB EF %F .PJWSF DPOTJTUF FO MB EFEVDDJO
EF VOB NBOFSB TJNQMF EF BMHVOBT JEFOUJEBEFT USJHPOPNUSJDBT
&KFNQMP 1SPCFNPT RVF TFO3 = 3 DPT2 TFO TFO3 Z
DPT 3 = DPT3 3 DPT TFO2 .
&O FGFDUP DPNP (DPT + iTFO)3 = DPT 3 + i TFO3 BM EFTBSSPMMBS FM MBEP

J[RVJFSEP Z BQMJDBS MB JHVBMEBE EF MBT QBSUFT SFBM F JNBHJOBSJB SFTQFDUJ
WBNFOUF TF PCUJFOF RVF
DPT 3 = DPT3 3 DPT TFO2 , TFO3 = 3 DPT2 TFO TFO3 .

&KFNQMP %FNPTUSFNPT RVF QBSB UPEP R EJGFSFOUF EF VO NM

UJQMP EF 2 Z QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF DVNQMF RVF
1 TFO(n + /2)
1 + DPT + DPT(2) + + DPT(n) = +
2 2 TFO(/2)
n+1
-B DMBWF DPOTJTUF FO VTBS MB JEFOUJEBE 1+z +z 2 + +z n = z z11 , QBSB
z = 1 DPO z = DPT + i TFO /PUFNPT RVF DPNP OP FT VO NMUJQMP EF
2 FOUPOFT z = 1. "T MBT DPTBT UFOFNPT RVF
1 + (DPT + i TFO) + (DPT + i TFO)2 +

(DPT + i TFO)n+1 1
+ (DPT + i TFO)n = ,
DPT + i TFO 1
MP DVBM QPS MB GSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF FT FRVJWBMFOUF B
1 + DPT + i TFO + DPT(2) + i TFO(2) + + DPT(n)

DPT(n + ) + i TFO(n + ) 1
+ iTFO(n) =
DPT + i TFO 1
1BSB EFNPTUSBS
CBTUB JHVBMBS MBT QBSUFT SFBMFT FO MB JEFOUJEBE QSF
WJB PCUFOJOEPTF RVF
1 + DPT + DPT(2) + + DPT(n) =

1 DPT(n + ) DPT DPT(n + ) + TFO(n + ) TFO
2 +
2(1 DPT )
1 DPT(n) DPT(n + )
= 2 +
2(1 DPT )
1 2 TFO( 2n+
2 ) TFO( 2 )

= 2 + ()
2(1 DPT )
1 TFO(n+/2)
= 2 + 2 TFO(/2)
&O () IFNPT VTBEP MB JEFOUJEBE
DPT x DPT y = 2 TFO((x + y)/2) TFO((y x)/2),
Z FO MB MUJNB MOFB VTBNPT MB JEFOUJEBE 1 DPT = 2 TFO2 (/2).

&KFSDJDJP 1SVFCF RVF QBSB UPEP R EJGFSFOUF EF VO NMUJQMP EF
2 Z QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM n TF DVNQMF RVF
DPU(/2) DPT(n + /2)
1 + TFO + TFO(2) + + TFO(n) =
2 2 TFO(/2)

&KFSDJDJP 6TBOEP MB GSNVMB EF %F .PJWSF Z MB JEFOUJEBE CTJDB

EF MB USJHPOPNFUSB QSVFCF RVF
TFO 5 = 5 DPT4 TFO 10 DPT2 TFO3 + TFO5
Z
DPT 5 = 16 DPT5 20 DPT3 + 5 DPT .
&KFSDJDJP 4FB vn = DPT( 2 2
n ) + i TFO( n ) DPO n 2 KP VOB SB[
nTJNB EF 1 1SVFCF RVF UPEBT MBT SBDFT EJGFSFOUFT
EF MB VOJEBE TPO
1, vn , vn2 , . . . , vnn1 .
)BDJFOEP VTP EF MB JEFOUJEBE FOVODJBEB FO FM &KFNQMP EFEV[DB RVF

MB TVNB EF MBT SBDFT nTJNBT EF 1 TVNBO DFSP
$PNP DPOTFDVFODJB EF MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUF FKFSDJDJP QPEFNPT
FOVODJBS PUSB GPSNB EF IBMMBS MBT SBDFT nTJNBT EF VO DPNQMFKP z0 = 0
1BSB FMMP CBTUB DPOPDFS MBT SBDFT nTJNBT EF MB VOJEBE Z VOB SB[
nTJNB EF z0 &O FGFDUP TJ c C FT EJDIB SB[ FOUPODFT
c, cvn , cvn2 , . . . , cvnn1 ,
FT FM DPOKVOUP EF UPEBT MBT SBDFT nTJNBT EJTUJOUBT EFM DPNQMFKP

z0 = 0
Im(z) Im(z)
v82
v3
v83 v8
1 v84
Re(z)
1
v87
v85
v32
v86
'JHVSB 3BDFT DCJDBT Z PDUBWBT EF MB VOJEBE
0CTFSWBDJO $VBOEP n 3 MBT SBDFT nTJNBT EF 1 DPSSFTQPOEFO

B MPT WSUJDFT EF VO QPMHPOP SFHVMBS EF n MBEPT JOTDSJUP FO VOB DJS
DVOGFSFODJB VOJUBSJB DFOUSBEB FO FM PSJHFO 6OP EF UBMFT WSUJDFT FT MB
SB[ w = 1 ZB RVF vnn = 1. 1BSB BZVEBS DPO FTUB FYQMJDBDJO WB
NPT B JMVTUSBS QSJNFSP FM DBTP n = 3 6OB SB[ DCJDB EJGFSFOUF EF 1 FT

v3 = DPT( 2 2 2
3 ) + i TFO( 3 ) "M DBMDVMBS v3 , FT EFDJS NVMUJQMJDBSMB QPS T
NJTNB PCUFOFNPT PUSB SB[ FKFSDJDJP BOUFSJPS
DPO BSHVNFOUP BVNFO
UBEP FO 2/3 -VFHP MBT USFT SBDFT DCJDBT EF 1 TF PCUJFOFO BT SPUBOEP
SFTQFDUP B v3 VO OHVMP EF 2/3 DPOTFHVJNPT v32 Z SFTQFDUP B FTUB SP
UBOEP 2/3 MPHSBNPT v33 = 1. &M NJTNP SB[POBNJFOUP WBMF QBSB FM DBTP
HFOFSBM n > 3 FTUP FT MB SB[ vn UJFOF BSHVNFOUP 2/n Z QPS UBOUP
SPUBOEP VO OHVMP EF 2/n FM WFDUPS BTPDJBEP B vn DPOTFHVJNPT vn2
SPUBOEP FTUB FM NJTNP OHVMP TF PCUJFOF MB SB[ vn3 , Z BT TVDFTJWBNFOUF
IBTUB MMFHBS B MB SB[ nTJNB vnn = 1.

#JCMJPHSBGB
<"&> "NBOO ) Z &TDIFS + "OBMZTJT * #JSLIVTFS 7FSMBH

<#4> #BSUMF 3 Z 4IFSCFSU % *OUSPEVDUJPO UP SFBM BOBMJTZT B &E

+PIO 8JMFZ 4POT

<#$> #BVNTMBH # Z $IBOEMFS # 5IFPSZ BOE 1SPCMFNT PG (SPVQ

5IFPSZ 4DIBVNhT 0VUMJOF 4FSJFT .D(SBX)JMM #PPL $PNQBOZ

<#> #MPDI & % 5IF 3FBM /VNCFST BOE 3FBM "OBMZTJT 4QSJOHFS

<'8> 'MFUDIFS 1 Z 8BZOF 1BUUZ $ 'PVOEBUJPOT PG IJHIFS NBUIF

NBUJDT 184 1VC
<(> (BVHIBO & % *OUSPEVDUJPO UP BOBMZTJT B &E ".4O

<),> )PGGNBO , Z ,VO[F 3 MHFCSB MJOFBM 1)* 1SFOUJDF)BMM *O

UFSOBUJPOBM

<+(3> +JNOF[ #FDFSSB - 3 (PSEJMMP "SEJMB + & Z 3VCJBOP 0SUF

HO ( / 5FPSB EF /NFSPT QBSB QSJODJQJBOUFT 'BDVMUBE EF
$JFODJBT 6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB

<+#> #VSHPT 3PNO + EF $MDVMP JOOJUFTJNBM EF VOB WBSJBCMF

.D(SBX)JMM

<-> -BOH 4 MHFCSB MJOFBM 'POEP &EVDBUJWP *OUFSBNFSJDBOP 4"

<-> -BOH 4 6OEFSHSBEVBUF "MHFCSB B &E 4QSJOHFS

<.2> .VP[ + . *OUSPEVDDJO B MB UFPSB EF DPOKVOUPT B &E

6OJWFSTJEBE /BDJPOBM EF $PMPNCJB

<1#> 1FUUPGSF[[P " + Z #ZSLJU % 3 *OUSPEVDDJO B MB UFPSB EF

MPT ONFSPT -POEPO 1SFOUJDF)BMM

<4> 4QJWBL . $BMDVMVT $MDVMP JOOJUFTJNBM 3FWFSUF

4F
HVOEB &EJDJO
<:> :PVOH 3 . 8IFO JT Rn B FME .BUI (B[

"QOEJDF
5FNBT PQDJPOBMFT
&O MB QSJNFSB QBSUF EF FTUF BQOEJDF QSFTFOUBNPT BMHVOPT FMFNFOUPT

SFMBDJPOBEPT DPO UDOJDBT EF DPOUFP MVFHP JOUSPEVDJNPT MBT OPDJPOFT
EF DPOKVOUP OJUP F JOOJUP Z BMHVOBT QSPQJFEBEFT &O MB UFSDFSB QBS
UF TF QSFTFOUBSO BMHVOPT IFDIPT FMFNFOUBMFT Z DPNQMFNFOUBSJPT TPCSF
DBNQPT QPTUFSJPSNFOUF VO CPTRVFKP TPCSF QPMJOPNJPT Z OBMNFOUF MB
SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF VO ONFSP SFBM
" &MFNFOUPT EF DPOUFP

-PT DPODFQUPT RVF QSFTFOUBSFNPT FO FTUB TFDDJO TFSO EF UJQP CTJDP
*OJDJBSFNPT DPO FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP EFTQVT MBT OPDJP
OFT EF WBSJBDJO Z DPNCJOBDJO
1BSB GBDJMJUBS MP RVF TJHVF TVQPOHBNPT RVF FO VOB QFRVFB SFVOJO
IBZ USFT IPNCSFT h1 , h2 , h3 Z UBNCJO IBZ DJODP NVKFSFT m1 , . . . , m5 .
y$VOUBT QPTJCMFT QBSFKBT EF CBJMF IPNCSFNVKFS TF QVFEFO GPSNBS $PO
FM IPNCSF h1 TF QVFEFO GPSNBS DJODP QBSFKBT EF CBJMF VOB QPS DBEB
NVKFS RVF TF BTPDJF DPO M FM IPNCSF h2 UBNCJO QVFEF GPSNBS DJODP
QBSFKBT EF CBJMF Z EF JHVBM NBOFSB FM IPNCSF h3 . &O UPUBM TF DPOTUJUVZFO
5 + 5 + 5 = 3 5 = 15 QBSFKBT EF CBJMF &O FTUB JMVTUSBDJO MBT QBSFKBT
TF PCUJFOFO BM DPOTJEFSBS DPOKVOUBNFOUF EPT FWFOUPT VOP FTDPHFS VO
IPNCSF Z EPT FTDPHFS VOB NVKFS
1SJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EF DPOUFP TJ VO FWFOUP QVFEF PDVSSJS EF m NB

OFSBT Z DVBOEP IB TJEP FGFDUVBEP QPS DVBMRVJFSB EF FMMBT PUSP FWFOUP
QVFEF PDVSSJS EF n NBOFSBT FOUPODFT MPT EPT FWFOUPT KVOUPT QVFEFO
PDVSSJS EF m n NBOFSBT
&KFNQMP " y%F DVOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEFO FTDPHFSTF VOB DPOTPOBOUF

Z VOB WPDBM EF MB QBMBCSB `m/BK2MiQ $PNP IBZ DJODP DPOTPOBOUFT Z

DVBUSP WPDBMFT QPS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP QPEFNPT FTDPHFS

5 4 = 20 QBSFKBT EF MFUSBT DPOGPSNBEBT DBEB VOB EF FMMBT QPS VOB
DPOTPOBOUF Z VOB WPDBM
&M QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP TF QVFEF HFOFSBMJ[BS EF MB NB
OFSB OBUVSBM B WBSJPT FWFOUPT
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT MPT EHJUPT EFM TJTUFNB EFDJNBM FT EFDJS MPT
FMFNFOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP D = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. y$VOUPT ONFSPT
QBSFT EF USFT DJGSBT NBZPSFT RVF TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS DPO FTUPT EHJ
UPT 1BSB PCUFOFS ONFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT TFBMBEBT
EFCFNPT DPOTJEFSBS USFT FWFOUPT VOP FM EHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT EFCF TFS
NBZPS RVF DFSP EPT FM EHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT QVFEF TFS DVBMRVJFSB Z USFT
FM EF MBT VOJEBEFT EFCF TFS QBS $PNP FM QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF EBSTF EF
GPSNBT FM TFHVOEP EF Z FM UFSDFSP EF NBOFSBT FOUPODFT FM ONFSP
QPTJCMF EF ONFSPT DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT QFEJEBT FT 9 10 5 = 450.
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT MPT EHJUPT 2, 5, 6 Z 8.
B
y$VOUPT ONFSPT EF EPT DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS TJ TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS
MBT DJGSBT )BZ EPT FWFOUPT JOWPMVDSBEPT BD VOP MMFOBS MB DBTJMMB
EF MBT EFDFOBT DPO MPT ONFSPT EBEPT Z EPT MMFOBS MB DBTJMMB EF
MBT VOJEBEFT &M QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF DVNQMJSTF EF DVBUSP GPSNBT
EJGFSFOUFT Z QPS DBEB VOB EF FTUBT DPNP TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS MBT
DJGSBT FM TFHVOEP FWFOUP UJFOF UBNCJO DVBUSP PQDJPOFT 1PS FM
QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP SFTVMUBO 42 = 16 ONFSPT EF
EPT DJGSBT
C
y$VOUPT ONFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS TJ TF QVFEFO SFQF
UJS TPMP MBT EPT MUJNBT DJGSBT "QMJDBNPT OVFWBNFOUF FM QSJODJQJP
GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP FO FTUF DBTP TPO USFT FWFOUPT MPT RVF EF
CFO PDVSSJS DPOKVOUBNFOUF QBSB PCUFOFS MPT ONFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT
DPO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT QFEJEBT &M EHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT TF QVFEF FT
DPHFS EF 4 NBOFSBT VOB WF[ FTDPHJEP FTUF RVFEBO TPMP USFT EHJUPT
EJTQPOJCMFT QBSB MMFOBS MB DBTJMMBT EF MBT EFDFOBT Z DPNP QVFEFO
SFQFUJSTF MBT EPT MUJNBT DJGSBT UBNCJO EJTQPOFNPT EF USFT QPTJ
CJMJEBEFT QBSB FTDPHFS FM EHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT "T RVF SFTVMUBO
4 3 3 = 36 ONFSPT
D
y$VOUPT ONFSPT NBZPSFT RVF 6000 Z NFOPSFT RVF 10000 TF QVFEFO
PCUFOFS $PNP MPT ONFSPT EFCFO TFS EF DVBUSP DJGSBT UFOFNPT RVF
DPNCJOBS DVBUSP FWFOUPT FM EHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT EF NJMMBS TPMP
UJFOF EPT PQDJPOFT FM Z FM $BEB VOP EF MPT PUSPT USFT FWFOUPT
UJFOFO DVBUSP QPTJCJMJEBEFT ZB RVF TF QVFEFO SFQFUJS DJGSBT (6555

"QOEJDF
P 8266 TBUJTGBDFO MBT DPOEJDJPOFT

-VFHP SFTVMUBO 2 43 = 128
ONFSPT FOUSF 6000 Z 10000
E
y$VOUPT ONFSPT EF DVBUSP DJGSBT TF QVFEFO PCUFOFS $PO MP FY
QVFTUP FO MPT MJUFSBMFT BOUFSJPSFT DPOTJEFSBNPT RVF RVFEB DMBSP
RVF SFTVMUBO 44 = 256 ONFSPT EF DVBUSP DJGSBT
&KFSDJDJP " 3FTVFMWB MPT TJHVJFOUFT QSPCMFNBT

"M MBO[BS BM UJFNQP EPT NPOFEBT Z VO EBEP yEF DVOUBT NBOFSBT
QVFEFO DBFS

y$VOUPT ONFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT EJGFSFOUFT NFOPSFT RVF 400 QVFEFO
GPSNBSTF DPO MPT EHJUPT 1, 2, 3, 4 Z 5

y$VOUPT ONFSPT EF USFT DJGSBT P NFOPT QVFEFO GPSNBSTF DPO MPT
EHJUPT 1, 2, 3, 4 Z 5 TJ OP UJFOFO DJGSBT SFQFUJEBT
%FQFOEJFOEP EF MB JNQPSUBODJB EFM PSEFO P OP FO MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT
PCUFOJEBT EF n FMFNFOUPT IBCMBNPT EF WBSJBDJPOFT P DPNCJOBDJPOFT
&TUPT DPODFQUPT TPO EFOJEPT B DPOUJOVBDJO
%FOJDJO " 6OB WBSJBDJO EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF r FO r (r n)
FT VOB PSEFOBDJO EF MPT r FMFNFOUPT UPNBEPT FOUSF MPT n MB DVBM TF
EJTUJOHVF EF PUSB ZB TFB QPS VO FMFNFOUP P QPS VO PSEFO EJGFSFOUF
-BT WBSJBDJPOFT FO MBT RVF TF JOWPMVDSBO MPT n PCKFUPT (n = r) TF
MMBNBO QFSNVUBDJPOFT
1PS FKFNQMP MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF EPT FO EPT GPSNBEBT DPO MBT MFUSBT
a, b, c, d TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
ab ac ad ba bc bd ca cb cd da db dc
/PUFNPT RVF EPT EF FMMBT EJFSFO ZB TFB QPS VOB MFUSB P QPS VOB PS
EFOBDJO EJGFSFOUF EF MBT MFUSBT -BT WBSJBDJPOFT EF USFT FO USFT TPO FO
UPUBM 24 MP DVBM TF FYQMJDB BT MB QSJNFSB MFUSB TF PCUJFOF EF NBOFSBT
VOB WF[ TF UFOHB FTUB RVFEBO QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB MB TFHVOEB MFUSB Z
OBMNFOUF QBSB MB QPTJDJO UFSDFSB RVFEBO EPT PQDJPOFT 1PS FM QSJODJ
QJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP UFOFNPT 4 3 2 = 24 WBSJBDJPOFT UPNBEBT
EF B USFT
6OB GSNVMB QBSB DBMDVMBS MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF

r FO r TF EFEVDF EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF FTUP
FRVJWBMF B FODPOUSBS FM ONFSP EF PSEFOBNJFOUPT EF r PCKFUPT DVBOEP
EJTQPOFNPT EF n EF FMMPT &M QSJNFS MVHBS TF QVFEF FTDPHFS EF n QPTJCJ
MJEBEFT Z DVBOEP IB TJEP FTDPHJEP EF BMHVOB EF FMMBT FM TFHVOEP MVHBS

QVFEF TFS MMFOBEP EF BMHVOB EF MBT n 1 PQDJPOFT EJTQPOJCMFT $PNP

DBEB NBOFSB EF PDVQBS FM QSJNFS MVHBS QVFEF BTPDJBSTF DPO DBEB NB
OFSB EF PDVQBS FM TFHVOEP QPS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM DPOUFP FM
ONFSP EF NBOFSBT FO RVF TF QVFEFO PDVQBS MPT EPT QSJNFSPT MVHBSFT
FTU EBEP QPS n(n 1). "IPSB CJFO DVBOEP MPT EPT QSJNFSPT MVHBSFT
IBO TJEP PDVQBEPT EF DVBMRVJFSB EF FTUBT NBOFSBT FM UFSDFS MVHBS QVFEF
MMFOBSTF EF n 2 GPSNBT 3B[POBOEP DPNP BOUFT FM ONFSP EF NBOFSBT
FO RVF QVFEFO TFS PDVQBEPT USFT MVHBSFT FT n(n1)(n2). 1SPDFEJFOEP
EF FTUB GPSNB Z OPUBOEP RVF TF JOUSPEVDF VO OVFWP GBDUPS QPS DBEB MVHBS
PDVQBEP UFOFNPT RVF FM ONFSP EF NBOFSBT EF PDVQBS MPT r QVFTUPT FT
FM QSPEVDUP EF MPT r GBDUPSFT
n(n 1)(n 2) (n (r 1)).
4J EFOPUBNPT QPS n Vr FM ONFSP EF MBT WBSJBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT

EF r FO r UFOFNPT RVF
n
Vr = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1).
&M TVQFSOEJDF n EFOPUB FM ONFSP EF PCKFUPT EJTQPOJCMFT Z FM TVCOEJDF

r JOEJDB UBOUP FM ONFSP EF FMFNFOUPT FO DBEB VOB EF MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT
FO FM PSEFOBNJFOUP DPNP FM ONFSP EF GBDUPSFT FO FM QSPEVDUP
0CTFSWFNPT RVF DVBOEP r = n FT EFDJS FO FM DBTP EF QFSNVUBDJPOFT

EF n PCKFUPT MBT DVBMFT EFOPUBNPT QPS Pn FM ONFSP EF FTUBT FTU EBEP
QPS n(n 1)(n 2) 1 = n! $PODSFUBOEP Pn = n!
&KFNQMP "

y$VOUPT ONFSPT EJGFSFOUFT EF DJGSBT QVFEFO PCUFOFSTF DPO MPT
OVFWF EHJUPT 1, 2, 3, . . . , 9 $PNP MB JEFB FT PDVQBS TJFUF MVHBSFT
JNQPSUB FM PSEFO
EJTQPOJFOEP EF PCKFUPT FTUBNPT IBCMBOEP EF
WBSJBDJPOFT EF FMFNFOUPT UPNBEPT BM NJTNP UJFNQP EF FO
FT EFDJS 9 V7 = 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 = 181440.

y$VOUBT PSEFOBDJPOFT QVFEFO UFOFSTF DPO MB MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB
+m/2`MQ y$VOUBT DPNJFO[BO DPO + Z UFSNJOBO DPO Q -B QSJ
NFSB QBSUF TF USBUB EF QFSNVUBS MBT PDIP MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB
DVBEFSOP Z QPS UBOUP MB SFTQVFTUB FT 8! = 40320. 1BSB MB TF
HVOEB QBSUF WBO B RVFEBS KBT MB QSJNFSB Z MUJNB MFUSBT Z FO
DPOTFDVFODJB CBTUB QFSNVUBS MBT PUSBT TFJT MFUSBT MP RVF OPT EB
VO ONFSP EF 1 6! 1 = 720 FT EFDJS 720 QFSNVUBDJPOFT EF
MBT MFUSBT EF MB QBMBCSB DVBEFSOP DPNJFO[BO DPO + Z UFSNJOBO
DPO Q

"QOEJDF

y%F DVOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEFO PSEFOBSTF MJCSPT FO VO FTUBOUF TJ USFT
MJCSPT EFUFSNJOBEPT TJFNQSF EFCFO FTUBS KVOUPT 7BNPT B DPOTJEF
SBS MPT USFT MJCSPT RVF TJFNQSF EFCFO FTUBS KVOUPT DPNP VO TPMP UPNP
Z BT DPOWFSUJNPT FM QSPCMFNB FO VOB QFSNVUBDJO EF PCKFUPT
MP DVBM EB 4! NBOFSBT EF PSEFOBSMPT 1FSP QPS DBEB VOB EF FTUBT
EFCFNPT UFOFS FO DVFOUB RVF FM UPNP EF MPT USFT MJCSPT OPT PGSFDF
3! PSEFOBDJPOFT &O DPOTFDVFODJB FYJTUFO 4! 3! = 144 NBOFSBT
EF PSEFOBS MPT MJCSPT EFKBOEP USFT MJCSPT EFUFSNJOBEPT TJFNQSF
KVOUPT
&KFSDJDJP "

5SFT NBUSJNPOJPT TF SFOFO QBSB DFMFCSBS FM BOJWFSTBSJP EF VOP EF
FMMPT %FTFBO RVF MFT UPNFO VOB GPUPHSBGB EF GPSNB RVF FTUO UPEPT
MPT IPNCSFT KVOUPT Z UBNCJO MBT NVKFSFT y%F DVOUBT GPSNBT
EJTUJOUBT QVFEFO IBDFSMP

$PO MPT EHJUPT QBSFT yDVOUPT ONFSPT NFOPSFT RVF TF QVFEFO
GPSNBS

&O MBT WBSJBDJPOFT TJO SFQFUJDJO
RVF QPEFNPT GPSNBS DPO MBT OVFWF
DJGSBT TJHOJDBUJWBT FT EFDJS DPO MBT DJGSBT 1, 2, . . . , 9 UPNBEBT EF
USFT FO USFT yDVOUBT WFDFT FTU MB DJGSB

4J TF TVQPOFO PSEFOBEBT UPEBT MBT QFSNVUBDJPOFT RVF TF QVFEFO GPS
NBS DPO MBT DJGSBT 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 FO PSEFO DSFDJFOUF yRV MVHBS PDV
QB MB QFSNVUBDJO
"IPSB OPT PDVQBNPT EF QSFTFOUBS MBT BHSVQBDJPOFT FO MBT DVBMFT FM

PSEFO OP JNQPSUB
%FOJDJO " $BEB VOP EF MPT HSVQPT RVF QVFEFO GPSNBSTF UPNBOEP
BMHVOPT P UPEPT MPT PCKFUPT EJTQPOJCMFT EF NPEP RVF EPT DVBMFTRVJFSB EF
FMMPT EJFSFO FO BMHO PCKFUP TF MMBNB VOB DPNCJOBDJO
$PNP FKFNQMP OPUFNPT RVF MBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT RVF QVFEFO GPSNBS

TF DPO MBT MFUSBT a, b, c, d UPNBEBT EF EPT FO EPT TPO MBT TJHVJFOUFT
ab, ac, ad, bc, bd, cd EPOEF EPT DVBMFTRVJFSB EF FMMBT EJFSFO FO VOB MF
USB 3FDBMDBNPT RVF QBSB GPSNBS DPNCJOBDJPOFT TPMP JOUFSFTB FM ONFSP
EF FMFNFOUPT RVF DPOUJFOF DBEB TFMFDDJO NJFOUSBT RVF QBSB GPSNBS WB
SJBDJPOFT UFOFNPT RVF DPOTJEFSBS UBNCJO FM PSEFO EF MPT FMFNFOUPT RVF
GPSNBO DBEB PSEFOBDJO "T ab Z ba TPO MB NJTNB DPNCJOBDJO QFSP
TPO WBSJBDJPOFT EJTUJOUBT

&KFNQMP " %F MBT MFUSBT a, b, c, d UPNBEBT EF B USFT PCUFOFNPT MBT

DPNCJOBDJPOFT abc, abd, bcd Z acd $BEB VOB EF FTUBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT
BENJUF 3! PSEFOBDJPOFT Z QPS UBOUP FM UPUBM EF WBSJBDJPOFT EF MBT DVBUSP
MFUSBT UPNBEBT EF B USFT FO USFT TPO DPNP ZB TBCBNPT
7BNPT B EFEVDJS BIPSB VOB GSNVMB RVF OPT QFSNJUB IBMMBS FM ONFSP
EF DPNCJOBDJPOFT EF n PCKFUPT EJGFSFOUFT UPNBEPT EF r FO r %FOPUFNPT
UBM ONFSP QPS n Cr $PO n = 4 Z r = 3 FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS TVHJFSF
RVF n Cr r! = n Vr . "SNBNPT RVF FO SFBMJEBE FTUB JHVBMEBE FT DJFSUB
FO FGFDUP DPNP DBEB VOB EF MBT DPNCJOBDJPOFT DPOUJFOF r FMFNFOUPT
EJGFSFOUFT RVF DPNP TBCFNPT QVFEFO TFS PSEFOBEPT FOUSF T EF r! NB
OFSBT FOUPODFT FM QSPEVDUP n Cr r! FT JHVBM BM ONFSP EF WBSJBDJPOFT
EF n PCKFUPT UPNBEPT EF B r FM DVBM IFNPT EFOPUBEP QPS n Vr %F FTUB
NBOFSB RVFEB QSPCBEB MB BSNBDJO 4FHVJEBNFOUF WBNPT B PCUFOFS MB
GSNVMB QSPNFUJEB Z QBSB FMMP SFDPSEFNPT RVF
n
Vr = n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)
n(n 1)(n 2) (n r + 1)(n r)!
=
(n r)!
n!
= ,
(n r)!
EF MP DVBM TF TJHVF RVF
n!
n
Cr = "
r!(n r)!
4J FO MB GSNVMB "
IBDFNPT n = r Z DPNP n Cn = 1 FOUPODFT MB
EFOJDJO 0! = 1 RVFEB QMFOBNFOUF NPUJWBEB 0CTFSWFNPT UBNCJO RVF
FO EJDIB GSNVMB BM DBNCJBS r QPS n r PCUFOFNPT RVF n Cr = n Cnr .
&KFNQMP " 6O FTUVEJBOUF UJFOF RVF DPOUFTUBS EF MBT QSFHVO

UBT EF VO FYBNFO y%F DVOUBT GPSNBT EJGFSFOUFT QVFEF DPOUFTUBS y:
TJ MBT USFT QSJNFSBT TPO PCMJHBUPSJBT y: TJ EF MBT DJODP QSJNFSBT IB EF
DPOUFTUBS B DVBUSP 1BSB MB QSJNFSB QBSUF OP JNQPSUB FM PSEFO TF USBUB
EF IBMMBS UPEPT MPT HSVQPT QPTJCMFT EF FMFNFOUPT EF VO UPUBM EF
10!
FT EFDJS IBZ 10 C8 = 2!8! = 45 QPTJCMFT HSVQPT EJGFSFOUFT EF QSFHVO
UBT 1BSB MB TFHVOEB QBSUF DPNP PCMJHBUPSJBNFOUF EFCF SFTQPOEFS MBT
USFT QSJNFSBT FOUPODFT EF MBT TJFUF SFTUBOUFT GPSNB HSVQPT EF B DJODP
7!
Z BT QVFEF SFTQPOEFS MBT QSFHVOUBT EF 7 C5 = 5!2! = 21 NBOFSBT
'JOBMNFOUF QBSB SFTPMWFS FTUB JORVJFUVE OPUFNPT RVF IBZ EPT FWFOUPT
JOWPMVDSBEPT FM QSJNFSP DPOTJTUF FO TFMFDDJPOBS HSVQPT EF B EF DJODP
EJTQPOJCMFT Z FM TFHVOEP FWFOUP DPOTJTUF FO FTDPHFS HSVQPT EF B EF

"QOEJDF
MBT DJODP SFTUBOUFT &M QSJNFS FWFOUP QVFEF EBSTF EF 5 C4 = 5 NBOFSBT

Z FM TFHVOEP UBNCJO EF 5 C4 NBOFSBT 1PS FM QSJODJQJP GVOEBNFOUBM EFM
DPOUFP IBZ NBOFSBT EF SFTQPOEFS FM FYBNFO CBKP FTUBT DPOEJDJPOFT
&KFNQMP " $BMDVMFNPT FM ONFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT RVF UJFOF VO QP

MHPOP EF MBEPT Z FO HFOFSBM QBSB VOP EF O MBEPT -BT EJBHPOBMFT
TF PCUJFOFO VOJFOEP WSUJDFT QFSP EFCFNPT SFTUBS MPT MBEPT EFM QP
MHPOP ZB RVF FTUPT OP TPO EJBHPOBMFT $PO MPT WSUJDFT TF GPSNBO
12 C = 66 TFHNFOUPT Z BT FM ONFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT EF VO EPEFDHPOP
2
FT 66 12 = 54 1BSB FM QPMHPOP EF n MBEPT BQMJDBNPT FM NJTNP SB[P
OBNJFOUP FM ONFSP EF TFHNFOUPT RVF TF DPOTJHVFO DPO MPT n WSUJDFT
FTU EBEP QPS n C2 Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB FM ONFSP EF EJBHPOBMFT FT
n! n(n 1) n(n 3)
n
C2 n = n= n=
2(n 2)! 2 2
&KFNQMP " &O VO UFTU EF QSFHVOUBT DPO EPT PQDJPOFT yEF DVO
UBT GPSNBT QVFEFO NBSDBSTF MBT QSFHVOUBT QBSB RVF BM NFOPT FTUO
DPSSFDUBT &M QSPCMFNB FT FRVJWBMFOUF B FODPOUSBS FM ONFSP EF NBOFSBT
EF SFTQPOEFS FM FYBNFO GBMMBOEP FO B MP TVNP USFT QSFHVOUBT FTUP FT
JODPSSFDUBT &TUF ONFSP FTU EBEP QPS
20 20 20 20
C3 + C2 + C1 + C0 = 1351.
&KFSDJDJP " %F JOHMFTFT Z BNFSJDBOPT TF WB B GPSNBS VO DPNJU

EF JOUFHSBOUFT y%F DVOUBT NBOFSBT QVFEF IBDFSTF TJ DPNP NOJNP
EFCFO FTUBS BNFSJDBOPT
n 7BMF MB QFOB NFODJPOBS

n
RVF TF BDPTUVNCSB UBNCJO VTBS MB OPUBDJO
r QBSB EFOPUBS Cr .
&KFSDJDJP "
n+1 n
n

4FBO n, r N DPO r + 1 n %FNVFTUSF RVF r+1 = r+1 + r .

1SVFCF RVF TJ r N FTU KP FOUPODFT
n

r+k r+n+1
= .
k n
k=0

n
n

%FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB DBEB n N TF DVNQMF RVF k = n2n1
k
k=0

" $POKVOUPT OJUPT F JOOJUPT

%FOJDJO "
J
4FBO A Z B EPT DPOKVOUPT OP WBDPT %FDJNPT RVF A Z B TPO
FRVJQPUFOUFT P RVF UJFOFO MB NJTNB QPUFODJB TJ FYJTUF VOB GVODJO
CJZFDUJWB f EF A FO B
4J A Z B TPO FRVJQPUFOUFT FTDSJCJNPT A B.
JJ
%FOJNPT FM TFHNFOUP JOJDJBM EF ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT DPNP FM DPO
KVOUP Jn := {k N : 1 k n} QBSB BMHO n N.
/UFTF RVF Jn = Jm TJ Z TPMP TJ Jn Jm Z Jm Jn TJ Z TPMP TJ
m n Z n m TJ Z TPMP TJ m = n
JJJ
6O DPOKVOUP A TF EJDF OJUP TJ FT WBDP P FT FRVJQPUFOUF B BMHO
TFHNFOUP JOJDJBM EF OBUVSBMFT Jn .
JW
6O DPOKVOUP A FT JOOJUP TJ OP FT OJUP
0CTFSWBDJPOFT
4J VO DPOKVOUP A FT OJUP Z OP WBDP QPEFNPT
FTDSJCJS A = {x1 , . . . , xn }. &O FGFDUP FYJTUFO n N Z f : Jn A
CJZFDUJWB Z QPS UBOUP TJ QBSB DBEB i Jn , xi := f (i), FOUPODFT
A = {f (i) : 1 i n} = {xi : 1 i n} {x1 , . . . , xn }.

&T GDJM WFS RVF FT VOB SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB FT EFDJS FT
SFFYJWB TJNUSJDB Z USBOTJUJWB
&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF RVF MB SFMBDJO EF FRVJQPUFODJB FT VOB

SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB
&M TJHVJFOUF MFNB FT EF HSBO JNQPSUBODJB Z OPT TFS EF BZVEB NT

BEFMBOUF
-FNB " 4FBO m 1 Z n 1 ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT 4J FYJTUF

f : Jm Jn VOP B VOP FOUPODFT m n : SFDQSPDBNFOUF
%FNPTUSBDJO 'JKBSFNPT MB WBSJBCMF n N Z VTBSFNPT JOEVDDJO TPCSF

m &O FM DBTP QBSUJDVMBS n = 1 TJ FYJTUF f : Jm {1} JOZFDUJWB
FOUPODFT f FT VOB GVODJO DPOTUBOUF Z QPS MB JOZFDUJWJEBE TF UJFOF RVF
m = 1 1PS UBOUP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF n > 1 4FB
Pm : FYJTUF f : Jm Jn JOZFDUJWB m n.
1SPCFNPT RVF Pm TF DVNQMF QBSB UPEP m N.

"QOEJDF
4J m = 1 DPNP FM DPOTFDVFOUF EF P1 FT WFSEBEFSP FOUPODFT P1 FT DJFSUB

4VQPOHBNPT BIPSB RVF Pk FT DJFSUB QBSB k 1 Z EFNPTUSFNPT RVF Pk+1
UBNCJO FT DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUF F : Jk+1 Jn JOZFDUJWB Z
WFBNPT RVF k + 1 n 1BSB FMMP DPOTJEFSFNPT EPT DBTPT
l Jk+1 UBM RVF F (l) = n 1PS TFS F JOZFDUJWB FTUF l FT OJDP 4J
l = k + 1 QPS FM TVQVFTUP RVF FTUBNPT IBDJFOEP MB SFTUSJDDJO EF F B
Jk Z DPO WBMPSFT FO Jn {n} FT EFDJS MB BQMJDBDJO F |Jk : Jk Jn1 FT
JOZFDUJWB -B IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO JNQMJDB RVF k n 1 Z QPS UBOUP
k + 1 n. "IPSB CJFO TJ l = k + 1 FOUPODFT EFOJFOEP
F (k + 1) := p (p < n)
DPOTUSVJNPT MB GVODJO : Jk Jn1 BT

F (x) TJ x = l
(x) :=
p TJ x = l.
&T DMBSP RVF FTUB BQMJDBDJO SFTVMUB JOZFDUJWB -B IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB

JNQMJDB RVF k n 1
l Jk+1 , F (l) = n. %FOBNPT : Jk+1 Jn QPS

F (x) TJ x = k + 1
(x) :=
n TJ x = k + 1.
$PNP FT JOZFDUJWB FOUPODFT MB BQMJDBDJO |Jk : Jk Jn {n} UBN

CJO FT JOZFDUJWB Z FO DPOTFDVFODJB MB IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO OVFWB
NFOUF JNQMJDB RVF k n 1. -VFHP FM QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO HBSBOUJ[B
RVF Pm TF DVNQMF QBSB UPEP m 1. 1BSB FM SFDQSPDP OUFTF RVF MB

BQMJDBDJO JODMVTJO i : Jm Jn EBEB QPS i(x) = x FT JOZFDUJWB
4VQPOHBNPT RVF MB SFMBDJO EF FRVJQPUFODJB FTU EFOJEB FO

BMHVOB DPMFDDJO BEFDVBEB EF DPOKVOUPT C %FOPUBSFNPT QBSB A C
MB DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB EF A QPS |A| Z MB MMBNBNPT DBSEJOBM EFM DPOKVOUP
" FT EFDJS
|A| := {X C : X A}.
&O FM DBTP EF RVF FM DPOKVOUP A TFB OJUP UFOFNPT VOB EFOJDJO BM
UFSOBUJWB EFM DBSEJOBM EF A DPNP TJHVF

n TJ A Jn , QBSB BMHO n 1
|A| :=
0 TJ A = .

&T FWJEFOUF RVF Jn UJFOF DBSEJOBM n 0CTFSWFNPT RVF |A| FTU CJFO EF
OJEP QVFT TJ A Jn Z A Jm FOUPODFT Jn Jm Z FO WJSUVE EFM
-FNB " TF UJFOF m = n /PUFNPT UBNCJO RVF EF FTUB EFOJDJO TF
EFTQSFOEF RVF FO FM DBTP A OJUP FM DBSEJOBM EF A FT FM ONFSP EF
FMFNFOUPT EFM DPOKVOUP A
&KFNQMP " &M DPOKVOUP EF MPT ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT FT JOOJUP 4J N

GVFSB OJUP FYJTUJSB VOB GVODJO f : Jn N CJZFDUJWB QBSB BMHO
n N 1FSP p := f (1) + + f (n) > f (x) QBSB UPEP x Jn Z BT
p / f (Jn ) = N MP DVBM DPOUSBEJDF RVF p N 0USB GPSNB EF QSPCBS RVF
N FT JOOJUP DPOTJTUF FO BQMJDBS FM BYJPNB EF 1FBOP "1
TVQPOHBNPT
RVF N FT OJUP Z TFB k FM NYJNP EF TVT FMFNFOUPT 1PS FM DJUBEP BYJPNB
k + FT VO ONFSP OBUVSBM Z FT UBM RVF k + > k, MP RVF DPOUSBEJDF MB
NBYJNBMJEBE EF k.
&KFNQMP " 4FBO A, B, C, D TVCDPOKVOUPT OP WBDPT EF VO DPOKVO

UP U 4J A C Z B D FOUPODFT A B C D. 4J BEFNT
A B = C D = FOUPODFT A B C D 1SPCFNPT MB QSJNFSB
BSNBDJO FYJTUFO CJZFDDJPOFT f : A C Z g : B D %FOBNPT MB
GVODJO h : A B C D QPS h(a, b) := f (a), g(b) . $PNP f Z g TPO
CJZFDUJWBT h UBNCJO FT CJZFDUJWB -VFHP A B C D. 1BSB QSPCBS
MB TFHVOEB BSNBDJO EFOBNPT : A B C D QPS

f (x) TJ x A
(x) :=
g(x) TJ x B.
&O QSJNFS MVHBS PCTFSWFNPT RVF FTU CJFO EFOJEB QVFTUP RVF A B
FT WBDP 7FBNPT RVF FT VOP B VOP 4VQPOHBNPT RVF x, y A B
TPO UBMFT RVF x = y. &OUPODFT TJ x, y A QPS MB JOZFDUJWJEBE EF f
(x) = (y) %F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF DPODMVZF TJ x, y B. &O FM DBTP EF
RVF x A Z y B FT DMBSP RVF (x) = (y) QVFT C D = . -VFHP
FT JOZFDUJWB 'JOBMNFOUF TJ z C D FOUPODFT MB EJTZVOUJWJEBE EF FTUPT
DPOKVOUPT JNQMJDB RVF P CJFO z C P CJFO z D &O DVBMRVJFS DBTP MB
TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE EF f Z EF g OPT QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF FYJTUF x A B
UBM RVF (x) = z. -VFHP FT TPCSF
-FNB " 1BSB UPEP n N DPO n 1 UPEP TVCDPOKVOUP EF Jn FT

OJUP
%FNPTUSBDJO -B EFNPTUSBDJO FT QPS JOEVDDJO TPCSF n. 4J n = 1 MPT

OJDPT TVCDPOKVOUPT EF J1 TPO Z J1 RVF TPO OJUPT 4VQPOHBNPT RVF MB
BSNBDJO TF DVNQMF QBSB n 1 Z TFB B Jn+1 DPO B = . 1SPCFNPT
RVF B FT OJUP 4J B Jn MB IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO JNQMJDB RVF B FT

"QOEJDF
OJUP 4J B OP FT TVCDPOKVOUP EF Jn FOUPODFT FYJTUF x B DPO x / Jn

MP RVF JNQMJDB RVF x Jn+1 Jn . 1PS UBOUP x = n + 1 Z BT n + 1 B
"IPSB CJFO DPNP B Jn+1 FYJTUF A Jn UBM RVF B = A {n + 1}.
1PS MB IJQUFTJT EF JOEVDDJO A FT OJUP Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO r N Z
f : A Jr CJZFDUJWB %FOBNPT h : B Jr+1 QPS

f (x) TJ x A
h(x) :=
r + 1 TJ x = n + 1.
%FKBNPT DPNP FKFSDJDJP QBSB FM MFDUPS QSPCBS RVF h FT CJZFDUJWB -VFHP

B Jn+1 FT OJUP Z RVFEB EFNPTUSBEP FM MFNB QBSB UPEP n 1

&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF RVF MB BQMJDBDJO h EFOJEB FO MB QSVFCB EFM

-FNB " FT CJZFDUJWB
1SPQPTJDJO " 4J A FT OJUP Z B A FOUPODFT B FT OJUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4J B FT WBDP MB DPODMVTJO FT JONFEJBUB 4VQPOHBNPT

RVF B = 1PS MB IJQUFTJT FYJTUFO n N Z f : A Jn CJZFDUJWB Z
FO DPOTFDVFODJB f (B) f (A) = Jn 1PS FM MFNB BOUFSJPS f (B) SFTVMUB
OJUP $PNP f |B : B f (B) FT CJZFDUJWB FOUPODFT f (B) B Z QPS
UBOUP B FT OJUP
&T JONFEJBUP MP TJHVJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP " 4J A FT JOOJUP Z B A FOUPODFT B UBNCJO FT JO

OJUP
&KFNQMP " $PNP N Z Z N FT JOOJUP FOUPODFT FM $PSPMBSJP "

JNQMJDB RVF Z FT JOOJUP
5FPSFNB " 4J A Z B TPO OJUPT FOUPODFT A B FT VO DPOKVOUP

OJUP Z BEFNT
|A B| = |A| + |B| |A B|. "
%FNPTUSBDJO 4J BMHVOP EF MPT DPOKVOUPT FT WBDP MBT DPODMVTJPOFT TF

DVNQMFO USJWJBMNFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT FOUPODFT RVF BNCPT DPOKVOUPT TPO
OP WBDPT Z RVF BEFNT TPO EJTKVOUPT 1PS MB IJQUFTJT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT
m Z n Z GVODJPOFT f : B Jm , g : A Jn CJZFDUJWBT "IPSB CJFO
VTBOEP MB CJZFDDJO h : B {n + 1, . . . , n + m} EBEB QPS
h(k) = f (k) + n,

TF EFEVDF RVF B {n + 1, . . . , n + m} Z BQMJDBOEP FM &KFNQMP " TF

UJFOF RVF
A B Jn {n + 1, . . . , n + m} = {1, . . . , n + m} = Jn+m .
&O DPOTFDVFODJB A B FT OJUP "EFNT EF MB EFOJDJO EF DBSEJOBM

EF VO DPOKVOUP OJUP
|A B| = n + m = |A| + |B|;
FT EFDJS TF DVNQMF "

QVFT |A B| = 0. &O FM DBTP HFOFSBM
A B = , BQMJDBNPT MP PCUFOJEP BOUFSJPSNFOUF B MPT DPOKVOUPT A B
Z B MPT DVBMFT TPO EJTKVOUPT OJUPT Z A B = (A B) B QPS UBOUP
|A B| = |A B| + |B|. 1FSP A B Z A B TPO DPOKVOUPT OJUPT Z
EJTKVOUPT DVZB VOJO FT A Z BT |A| = |A B| + |A B| %F FTUBT EPT
MUJNBT JHVBMEBEFT TF EFEVDF "

6TBOEP JOEVDDJO TPCSF FM ONFSP EF DPOKVOUPT TF EFNVFTUSB RVF

MB VOJO EF VO ONFSP OJUP EF DPOKVOUPT OJUPT FT VO DPOKVOUP OJUP
(
k
$PSPMBSJP " 4FB Ai OJUP QBSB i = 1, 2, . . . , k &OUPODFT Ai FT
i=1
VO DPOKVOUP OJUP
" &KFSDJDJPT
%FNVFTUSF FM $PSPMBSJP "
1SVFCF RVF TJ |A| = n N FOUPODFT |P(A)| = 2n , EPOEF P(A)

EFOPUB FM DPOKVOUP EF QBSUFT EF A.
4J A FT VO DPOKVOUP OJUP EF n FMFNFOUPT Z B FT VO DPOKVOUP OJUP

EF k FMFNFOUPT yDVOUBT GVODJPOFT EF A FO B TF QVFEFO EFOJS
y$VOUBT GVODJPOFT JOZFDUJWBT EF A FO B TF QVFEFO FTUBCMFDFS
4FB k N KP %FNVFTUSF RVF N N {k}
4FB A = 1SVFCF RVF A {x} {x} A A.
4FBO A1 , . . . , Ak DPOKVOUPT OJUPT NVUVBNFOUF EJTKVOUPT FT EFDJS

TJ j = i FOUPODFT Aj Ai = %FNVFTUSF RVF
(k k

Ai = |Ai |.
i=1 i=1

"QOEJDF
4FBO A Z B DPOKVOUPT OJUPT &OUPODFT A B FT OJUP Z BEFNT

|A B| = |A||B|
4VHFSFODJB VTF MPT FKFSDJDJPT Z
4FBO A Z B DPOKVOUPT OJUPT DPO A B 1SVFCF RVF |A| |B|.

y&T DJFSUP FM SFDQSPDP
4FBO A, B Z C DPOKVOUPT OJUPT 1SVFCF RVF
|ABC| = |A|+|B|+|C||AB||AC||BC|+|ABC|.
4FB A = VO DPOKVOUP OJUP %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VOB GVODJO

JOZFDUJWB f : A N y&T DJFSUP FM SFDQSPDP
4FB A = VO DPOKVOUP OJUP %FNVFTUSF RVF FYJTUF VOB GVODJO
g : N A TPCSFZFDUJWB y&T DJFSUP FM SFDQSPDP
4J f : A B FT JOZFDUJWB Z A FT JOOJUP QSVFCF RVF B FT JOOJUP
%FNVFTUSF RVF TJ A B B A FOUPODFT A B
4J A FT JOOJUP Z B A FT OJUP FOUPODFT A B FT JOOJUP
" .T TPCSF DBNQPT

&O FTUB TFDDJO TF QSFTFOUBO EF NBOFSB CSFWF BMHVOPT IFDIPT SFMBDJP
OBEPT DPO FM DPODFQUP EF DBNQP *OJDJBNPT DPO BMHVOPT FKFNQMPT
&KFNQMP " 4FB F = {0, 1, 2, 3} Z EFOBNPT FO F MBT PQFSBDJPOFT
Z EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB mn = m + n Z mn = mn EPOEF m
TJHOJDB FM SFTUP BM EJWJEJS m QPS 4 &M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO JNQMJDB
RVF Z TPO PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT -BT TJHVJFOUFT UBCMBT JMVTUSBO UPEPT
MPT SFTVMUBEPT

&KFNQMP " 4FB F FM DPOKVOUP EFM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS EPUBEP DPO MBT
NJTNBT PQFSBDJPOFT Z &T DMBSP RVF 0 FT OFVUSP QBSB MB TVNB FO
DSDVMP Z RVF 1 FT OFVUSP QBSB FM QSPEVDUP FO DSDVMP y&T F, ,
VO DBNQP /P QPSRVF 2 F FT EJTUJOUP EF 0 Z OP FYJTUF b F WFS
UBCMB EF
UBM RVF 2 b = 1 FT EFDJS OP TF DVNQMF FM BYJPNB 1*

&YJTUF VOB NBOFSB EF PCUFOFS DBNQPT OJUPT DPNP TF JMVTUSB FO FM

FKFNQMP RVF TJHVF
&KFNQMP " 4FBO p N QSJNP Z Zp := {0, 1, . . . , p 1} EPUBEP EF
MBT PQFSBDJPOFT CJOBSJBT Z NFODJPOBEBT FO MPT FKFNQMPT BOUFSJPSFT
7FBNPT RVF Zp , , FT VO DBNQP &O FM DBTP QBSUJDVMBS EF VO WBMPS
EF p QPS FKFNQMP p = 3 FODPOUSBNPT RVF QBSB QSPCBS TPMBNFOUF 4"

FM BYJPNB EF MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF OFDFTJUBNPT WFSJDBS 33 JHVBMEBEFT
MP DVBM FT QPDP QSDUJDP y2V IBDFS FOUPODFT QBSB QSPCBS RVF Z
DVNQMFO MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP &YJTUF VO DPODFQUP EF MB SBNB EFM MHF
CSB RVF OPT TFS EF NVDIB VUJMJEBE QBSB MMFWBS B DBCP OVFTUSB QSVFCB
IPNPNPSTNP (SPTTP NPEP FTUF USNJOP EFTDSJCF VOB BQMJDBDJO EF VO
TJTUFNB BMHFCSBJDP FO PUSP RVF QSFTFSWB MB FTUSVDUVSB 6OB DBSBDUFSTUJDB
EF MPT IPNPNPSTNPT FT RVF DVBOEP TF DPOPDF VO DNQVUP FO VOP EF
MPT TJTUFNBT TF QVFEF SFBMJ[BS FM DNQVUP DPO MPT FMFNFOUPT DPSSFTQPO
EJFOUFT FO FM PUSP &T FTB MB JEFB RVF WBNPT B VUJMJ[BS
4FB h : Z Zp EBEB QPS h(m) := m EPOEF m TJHOJDB FM SFTUP PCUF
OJEP BM EJWJEJS m QPS p &M BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO HBSBOUJ[B RVF h FTU
CJFO EFOJEB -B JEFB FT VTBS MB GVODJO h QBSB MMFWBS MBT QSPQJFEBEFT
EF MB TVNB PSEJOBSJB FO Z B MB TVNB EFOJEB FO Zp 1BSB FTUP TF
EFNVFTUSB RVF h FT BEJUJWB FT EFDJS h(m + n) = h(m) h(n) OPUFNPT
QSJNFSP RVF h(x) = x QBSB UPEP x Zp FO QBSUJDVMBS h FT TPCSFZFDUJ
WB
1BSB m, n Z FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO EJDF RVF FYJTUFO OJDPT
FOUFSPT q, q , r Z r DPO 0 r < p Z 0 r < p UBMFT RVF
m = pq + r = pq + m , n = pq + r = pq + n. "
"IPSB CJFO QPS EFOJDJO EF UFOFNPT RVF h(m)h(n) = h(m) + h(n)

Z QPS PUSB QBSUF EF "
TF EFEVDF RVF
h(m) + h(n) = m + n = m + n p(q + q ). "
0CTFSWFNPT RVF TJ c Z FOUPODFT QBSB UPEP z Z TF UJFOF RVF h(z +

cp) = h(z) &O FGFDUP OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO HBSBOUJ[B
RVF z = c p + r DPO 0 r < p Z QPS UBOUP
z + cp = c p + r + cp = (c + c)p + r ;
EF MB EFOJDJO EF h TF TJHVF RVF h(z + cp) = r = h(z). -VFHP EF
"
TF UJFOF RVF
h(m)h(n) = h(m) + h(n) = m + n p(q + q ) = m + n = h(m+n).

&TUP TJHOJDB RVF h FT QFSJEJDB DPO QFSPEP p.

"QOEJDF
6O SB[POBNJFOUP BOMPHP NVFTUSB RVF h FT NVMUJQMJDBUJWB FTUP FT
h(mn) = h(m) h(n).
$PO BZVEB EF FTUBT EPT QSPQJFEBEFT EF MB GVODJO h TF QSVFCBO MPT

BYJPNBT EF DBNQP QBSB Zp 7FBNPT RVF FT BTPDJBUJWB TFBO m, n
Z k FO Zp 1PS MB TPCSFZFDUJWJEBE EF h FYJTUFO m , n Z k FO Z UBMFT
RVF h(m ) = m, h(n ) = n Z h(k ) = k -B DMBWF FT BQSPWFDIBS MB
BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF + FO Z Z MBT QSPQJFEBEFT EF h QBSB USBOTGFSJS FTUB
NJTNB QSPQJFEBE B FO Zp BT
(m n) k = [h(m ) h(n )] h(k ) = h(m + n ) h(k )

= h[(m + n ) + k ] = h[m + (n + k )]
= h(m ) h(n + k )
= h(m ) [h(n ) h(k )] = m (n k).
%F NBOFSB TJNJMBS TF QSVFCBO 1"

4$
1$
Z %
$MBSBNFOUF 0
FT OFVUSP EF Z FM TJHVJFOUF DNQVUP NVFTUSB RVF 1 FT OFVUSP QBSB
TJ m Zp FOUPODFT
m = h(m) = h(m 1) = h(m) h(1) = m 1.
1BSB QSPCBS MB FYJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB OUFTF RVF TJ m Zp DPO

m > 0 FOUPODFT 0 < p m < p FT EFDJS p m Zp "EFNT
m (p m) = m + (p m) = p = h(p) = 0,
QFSNJUF DPODMVJS RVF p m FT JOWFSTP BEJUJWP EF m 'JOBMNFOUF WFB

NPT MB FYJTUFODJB EF JOWFSTPT QBSB TFB m = 0, m Zp &O FTUF
QVOUP VTBSFNPT MB IJQUFTJT EF MB QSJNBMJEBE EF p $PNP m < p TV
.YJNP $PNO %JWJTPS FT 1 Z QPS UBOUP FYJTUFO FOUFSPT x, y UBMFT RVF
mx + py = 1 -VFHP
h(mx + py) = 1 = h(mx) = h(m) h(x) = m h(x).
&T DMBSP RVF h(x) = 0 Z QPS UBOUP m1 = h(x) Zp 2VFEB DPNQMFUB

MB QSVFCB EF RVF Zp , , FT VO DBNQP DVBOEP p FT QSJNP
1 1 3 2
&KFSDJDJP " &O FM DBNQP Z5 , , FODVFOUSF , , ,
2 4 2 4
&KFNQMP " 4FB F VO DBNQP FO FM DVBM 1 + 1 = 0 1PS FKFNQMP
Z2 , , FT VOP EF FMMPT %FNVFTUSF RVF QBSB UPEP a F, a + a = 0
&O FGFDUP a + a = 1 a + 1 a = (1 + 1)a = 0 a = 0

&KFNQMP " %FNPTUSBS RVF FO VO DBNQP F TF DVNQMF

m, n N (1 + 1 + + 1) (1 + 1 + + 1) = 1 + 1 +
+ 1

m WFDFT n WFDFT mn WFDFT
-B QSVFCB TF IBDF QPS JOEVDDJO TPCSF m Z QBSB TJNQMJDBS MB FTDSJ

UVSB VTBSFNPT MB OPUBDJO n 1 FO MVHBS EF 1 + 1 +
+ 1
n WFDFT
4J m = 1 QPS FM BYJPNB 1/
MB BSNBDJO FT DJFSUB 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
QBSB m = k 1 TF DVNQMF MB BSNBDJO Z QSPCFNPT QBSB m = k + 1
"QMJDBOEP MB BTPDJBUJWJEBE EF MB TVNB VO ONFSP OJUP EF WFDFT %

1/
Z MB IJQUFTJT JOEVDUJWB UFOFNPT
(1 + 1 + + 1) (1 + 1 + + 1) = [(k + 1) 1][n 1]

k+1 WFDFT n WFDFT
= [k 1 + 1][n 1] = [k 1][n 1] + n 1
= (kn) 1 + n 1 = (kn + n) 1
= [(k + 1)n] 1
= (1 + 1 + + 1) .

(k+1)n WFDFT
-VFHP MB BSNBDJO TF UJFOF QBSB UPEP m N

&KFNQMP " 4FB F VO DBNQP Z TVQOHBTF RVF QBSB BMHO OBUVSBM k
TF UJFOF
1 + 1 +
+ 1 = 0. "
k WFDFT
%FNPTUSBS RVF TJ p FT FM NFOPS OBUVSBM DPO FTUB QSPQJFEBE FOUPODFT p
FT VO ONFSP QSJNP
&O FGFDUP TFB p FM NFOPS OBUVSBM RVF WFSJDB "
Z TVQPOHBNPT
RVF OP FT QSJNP &OUPODFT FYJTUFO OBUVSBMFT m Z n DPO 1 < m < p Z
1 < n < p UBMFT RVF p = mn 1PS FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS
+ 1 = 1 + 1 +
0 = 1 + 1 + + 1
p WFDFT mn WFDFT
= (1 + 1 + + 1) (1 + 1 + + 1) .

m WFDFT n WFDFT
-B DPOTFDVFODJB $
EF MPT BYJPNBT EF DBNQP 5FPSFNB QH
JNQMJDB RVF
+ 1 = 0
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +
+ 1 = 0.
m WFDFT n WFDFT

"QOEJDF
$VBMRVJFSB EF MBT EPT BMUFSOBUJWBT DPOUSBEJDF MB NJOJNBMJEBE EF p. -VF

HP p FT QSJNP
&O FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS FM NFOPS OBUVSBM p RVF DVNQMF "
TF MMBNB DB
SBDUFSTUJDB EFM DBNQP F &O FM DBTP EF RVF OP FYJTUB UBM OBUVSBM EFDJNPT
RVF MB DBSBDUFSTUJDB FT DFSP
&KFNQMP " $POTJEFSFNPT FM DBNQP Zp , , FTUVEJBEP FO FM &KFN

QMP " &TUF DBNQP OP FT PSEFOBEP QVFT TJ MP GVFSB FM BYJPNB EF
DFSSBEVSB JNQMJDBSB RVF
1 P.
0 = 1 1
p WFDFT
&O SFBMJEBE TJ VO DBNQP FT OJUP FOUPODFT OP QVFEF TFS PSEFOBEP

&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB FTUBCMFDF FTUB BSNBDJO
5FPSFNB " 4J F FT VO DBNQP PSEFOBEP FOUPODFT F FT JOOJUP
%FNPTUSBDJO 4F EFOF MB GVODJO : N F QPS
(n) := 1 + 1 +
+ 1 .
n WFDFT
7FBNPT RVF SFTVMUB JOZFDUJWB &GFDUJWBNFOUF TJ (m) = (n) Z m = n

TJO QFSEFS HFOFSBMJEBE QPEFNPT TVQPOFS m < n
FOUPODFT
+ 1 = 1 + 1 +
1 + 1 + + 1
m WFDFT n WFDFT
Z TFHO MB QSPQJFEBE DBODFMBUJWB
+ 1 = 0,
1 + 1 +
nm WFDFT
DPO n m N &TUP OP QVFEF PDVSSJS QVFT F FT PSEFOBEP 1PS UBOUP

m = n Z BT FT VOP B VOP &T DMBSP RVF (N ) F Z RVF
: N (N )
FT CJZFDUJWB FO DPOTFDVFODJB (N ) N $PNP N FT JOOJUP (N )

UBNCJO MP FT Z FTUP JNQMJDB RVF F FT JOOJUP

" 1PMJOPNJPT
&O FTUB TFDDJO QSFTFOUBNPT BMHVOPT UFNBT FMFNFOUBMFT TPCSF QPMJOP
NJPT DPO MB JOUFODJO EF QSPWFFS BM MFDUPS JOUFSFTBEP MB JOGPSNBDJO
NOJNB SFRVFSJEB TPCSF FTUF QBSUJDVMBS &TU FODBNJOBEP B VOB QSFTFO
UBDJO EF UJQP PQFSBUJWP Z QPS UBOUP MBT QSVFCBT TFSO QPDBT Z MBT SFNJ
UJNPT B SFGFSFODJBT P DVSTPT TVQFSJPSFT EF MHFCSB &YJTUF VOB NBOFSB EF
QSFTFOUBS FM DPODFQUP EF QPMJOPNJP FM DVBM DPOTJTUF FO VTBS TVDFTJPOFT
DVZPT USNJOPT EF VO DBNQP K
TPO OVMPT FYDFQUP VO ONFSP OJUP EF
FMMPT QFSP MB QSFTFOUBDJO RVF IBDFNPT FO FTUF UFYUP QPS SB[POFT EF
TJNQMJDJEBE TFS MB USBEJDJPOBM
%FOJDJO " 4FB K VO DBNQP 1PS VO QPMJOPNJP TPCSF K P DPO
DPFDJFOUFT FO K
FOUFOEFNPT VOB FYQSFTJO GPSNBM RVF UJFOF MB GPSNB
p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 ,
EPOEF n N DBEB DPFDJFOUF ai K Z x FT VOB WBSJBCMF P JOEFUFSNJ
OBEB
4J an = 0 EFDJNPT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP p UJFOF HSBEP n MP DVBM EFOPUB
NPT QPS ;`/ (p) = n 1PS SB[POFT UDOJDBT FM HSBEP EFM QPMJOPNJP DFSP
0xn + 0xn1 + + 0, TF EFOF DPNP .
%FOPUBNPT QPS K[x] FM DPOKVOUP EF QPMJOPNJPT DPO DPFDJFOUFT FO
K &O EJDIP DPOKVOUP TF EFOF MB JHVBMEBE Z MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z
QSPEVDUP EF MB TJHVJFOUF NBOFSB QBSB EPT QPMJOPNJPT p(x) = an xn +
an1 xn1 + + a0 Z q(x) = bm xm + bm1 xm1 + + b0 EFDJNPT
RVF p = q TJ ai = bi QBSB UPEP i TJ QPS FKFNQMP m < n FOUPODFT
am+1 = = an = 0

-B TVNB p + q TF EFOF DPNP
p(x) + q(x) := a0 + b0 + (a1 + b1 )x + + (aN + bN )xN ,
EPOEF N = NY{n, m}. 'JOBMNFOUF FM QSPEVDUP pq TF EFOF DPNP
p(x)q(x) := a0 b0 + (a0 b1 + a1 b0 )x + (a0 b2 + a1 b1 + a2 b0 )x2
+ + ck xk + + an bm xn+m ,

k
EPOEF ck = aj bkj .
j=0
%BEP RVF FO HFOFSBM m = n TJO FNCBSHP QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF
m = n ZB RVF MPT DPFDJFOUFT GBMUBOUFT FO BMHVOP EF MPT QPMJOPNJPT TF
UPNBO JHVBMFT B DFSP

7BTF QPS FKFNQMP <+#> QH P <),>

"QOEJDF
&O MP RVF SFTUB EF FTUB TFDDJO USBCBKBSFNPT TPMP DPO MPT DBNQPT
K = R, K = Q P K = C, B NFOPT RVF TF FTQFDJRVF PUSP
-B SB[O UDOJDB JOUSPEVDJEB FO MB BOUFSJPS EFOJDJO MB DPNQMFNFO
UBNPT DPO MBT DPOWFODJPOFT
+ () = ; + k = Z < k, k N.
"T TJO FYDFQDJPOFT UJFOFO WBMJEF[ MPT TJHVJFOUFT SFTVMUBEPT
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO p Z q QPMJOPNJPT %FNVFTUSF RVF
;`/ (p + q) NY{;`/ (p), ;`/ (q)}.
5FPSFNB " 4FBO p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 Z
q(x) = bm xm + bm1 xm1 + + b0
QPMJOPNJPT &OUPODFT ;`/ (pq) = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q).
%FNPTUSBDJO 4J BMHVOP EF MPT QPMJOPNJPT FT DFSP QPS MBT DPOWFODJP

OFT FTUBCMFDJEBT MB DPODMVTJO TF UJFOF JONFEJBUBNFOUF 4VQPOHBNPT
FOUPODFT RVF BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT TPO OP OVMPT Z TPO UBMFT RVF ;`/ (p) = n
Z ;`/ (q) = m &TUP JNQMJDB RVF an = 0 Z bm = 0. -VFHP EF MB EFOJ
DJO EF QSPEVDUP EF QPMJOPNJPT TF UJFOF RVF
;`/ (pq) = n + m = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q),
DPO MP DVBM TF DPNQMFUB MB QSVFCB

0CTFSWBDJO 4J MPT DPFDJFOUFT OP QFSUFOFDFO B VO DBNQP TJOP B VO

BOJMMP FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OP FT DJFSUP 1PS FKFNQMP DPOTJEFSFNPT MPT
DPFDJFOUFT FO FM BOJMMP Z6 Z MPT QPMJOPNJPT
p(x) = 2x2 1, q(x) = 3x + 2.
&OUPODFT ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) = 3 NJFOUSBT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP
pq = 6x3 + 4x2 3x 2 = 4x2 + 3x + 4
UJFOF HSBEP 2
6O QBS EF DPOTFDVFODJBT TF EFTQSFOEFO EF FTUF UFPSFNB
$PSPMBSJP " 4J p Z q TPO QPMJOPNJPT UBMFT RVF pq = 0 FOUPODFT

BMHVOP EF FMMPT EFCF TFS FM QPMJOPNJP DFSP

%FNPTUSBDJO 4J BNCPT GVFSBO EJGFSFOUFT EF DFSP Z DPNP ;`/ (pq) =

;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) FOUPODFT FM MBEP J[RVJFSEP EF FTUB JHVBMEBE TFSB
NJFOUSBT RVF FM MBEP EFSFDIP TFSB VO OBUVSBM &TUB DPOUSBEJDDJO EF
NVFTUSB FM DPSPMBSJP

&O DBTP EF RVF FM QSPEVDUP TFB VO QPMJOPNJP DPOTUBOUF EJGFSFOUF EF

DFSP UFOFNPT RVF 0 = ;`/ (pq) = ;`/ (p) + ;`/ (q) MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF
0 = ;`/ (p) = ;`/ (q) Z BT BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT p Z q TPO DPOTUBOUFT
$PO FTUP RVFEB QSPCBEP MP TJHVJFOUF
$PSPMBSJP " 4J p Z q TPO QPMJOPNJPT UBMFT RVF TV QSPEVDUP pq FT VO

QPMJOPNJP DPOTUBOUF OP OVMP FOUPODFT BNCPT QPMJOPNJPT TPO DPOTUBOUFT
%FOJDJO " 4FBO K Z
p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 K[x].
4F EFOF p() DPNP p() = an n + an1 n1 + + a0 . %FDJNPT RVF

FT VOB SB[ P VO DFSP EF p(x) TJ p() = 0.
&KFNQMP " 4FB p(x) = ax2 + bx + c K[x] UBM RVF p() = 0

QBSB UPEP K. 7FBNPT RVF p = 0. &O FGFDUP IBDJFOEP = 0, 1, 1
PCUFOFNPT RVF c = 0, a + b = 0 Z a = b SFTQFDUJWBNFOUF %F FTUP TF
EFEVDF RVF a = b = c = 0 Z QPS UBOUP p = 0.
&KFNQMP " &M $PSPMBSJP " OP TF DVNQMF TJ FM DBNQP FT OJUP 1BSB

JMVTUSBS FTUP DPOTJEFSFNPT K = Z2 := {0, 1}, p(x) = x + 1 Z q(x) = x.
&O FTUB JMVTUSBDJO UFOFNPT RVF p(x)q(x) = x2 + x DPO p(x)q(x) = 0
QBSB UPEP x Z2 &TUP JNQMJDB TFHO FM FKFNQMP BOUFSJPS RVF p q = 0
TJO FNCBSHP p = 0 Z q = 0.
&M DPOKVOUP K[x] DPO MBT PQFSBDJPOFT EF TVNB Z QSPEVDUP FO M EF

OJEPT OP FT VO DBNQP QVFT MB QSPQJFEBE JOWFSUJWB OP TF TBUJTGBDF TJO
FNCBSHP SFTVMUB TFS VO EPNJOJP FOUFSP FM DVBM FT TJNJMBS BM EPNJOJP
FOUFSP Z Z FO FTUF IBZ VOB UFPSB EF EJWJTJCJMJEBE QPS UBOUP UFOFNPT
TV BOMPHB FO K[x] &NQF[BNPT FOVODJBOEP FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJ
TJO QBSB QPMJOPNJPT DVZB QSVFCB QVFEF DPOTVMUBSTF QPS FKFNQMP FO
MB SFGFSFODJB <-> QH
5FPSFNB " "MHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO

4FBO p, q K[x] DPO q = 0
&OUPODFT FYJTUFO OJDPT QPMJOPNJPT c(x) FM DPDJFOUF
Z r(x) FM SFTUP

FO K[x] UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)q(x) + r(x) DPO r = 0 P CJFO
;`/ (r) < ;`/ (q).

"QOEJDF
'JKFNPT a K. $PNP VOB BQMJDBDJO JONFEJBUB EFM BMHPSJUNP EF MB

EJWJTJO DPO q(x) = x a FYJTUF VO OJDP QPMJOPNJP c(x) Z VO OJDP
FMFNFOUP r K UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)(x a) + r. 0CTFSWFNPT RVF
r = p(a). $PO FTUP QPEFNPT FOVODJBS FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP

&M SFTUP BM EJWJEJS VO QPMJOPNJP
p(x) QPS x a FT p(a).
%F MP BOUFSJPS TF EFTQSFOEF FM TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP CJFO DPOPDJEP
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB EFM GBDUPS

4J a FT VO DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP
p(x) FOUPODFT FYJTUF VO OJDP QPMJOPNJP c(x) UBM RVF p(x) = c(x)(xa).
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT FM WBMPS EF MB DPOTUBOUF k R EF NBOFSB RVF

x 4 TFB GBDUPS EFM QPMJOPNJP p(x) = 9x4 35x3 + kx2 + kx 4. 1BSB
FTUP CBTUB IBMMBS k UBM RVF p(4) = 0, FT EFDJS 9 44 35 43 + 20k = 4,
MP DVBM TF TBUJTGBDF QBSB k = 3.
4J FO FM MUJNP FKFNQMP RVJTJSBNPT FODPOUSBS FM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF

c(x) yDNP QPEFNPT QSPDFEFS #JFO BEFNT EF MB NBOFSB FTUOEBS QB
SB EJWJEJS QPMJOPNJPT FYJTUFO PUSBT UDOJDBT QBSB IBMMBS EJDIP DPDJFOUF
1SFTFOUBNPT B DPOUJOVBDJO VOB EF FMMBT MMBNBEB MB SFHMB EF 3VGOJ
"OUFT EF QSFTFOUBS EJDIB SFHMB FO BDDJO WFBNPT VO SB[POBNJFOUP RVF
MB FYQMJDB TFBO a R Z
p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 R[x]
VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP n > 0 4BCFNPT RVF FYJTUFO OJDPT c(x) R[x] Z

r R UBMFT RVF p(x) = c(x)(xa)+r. $PNP FT DMBSP RVF ;`/ (c) = n1
TVQPOHBNPT RVF
c(x) = qn1 xn1 + qn2 xn2 + + q1 x + q0
Z IBMMFNPT MPT DPFDJFOUFT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP %F MB JHVBMEBE
an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 = (x a)(qn1 xn1 + qn2 xn2

+ + q1 x + q0 ) + r
= qn1 xn + (qn2 aqn1 )xn1
+ (qn3 aqn2 )xn2 +
+ (q0 aq1 )x + r aq0 ,

PCUFOFNPT RVF
an = qn1 qn1 = an
an1 = qn2 aqn1 qn2 = aqn1 + an1
an2 = qn3 aqn2 qn3 = aqn2 + an2

a1 = q0 aq1 q0 = aq1 + a1
a0 = r aq0 . r = aq0 + a0 .
&TUB MUJNB DBEFOB EF JHVBMEBEFT OPT QFSNJUFO SFTVNJS MB 3FHMB EF 3VG

OJ FO FM TJHVJFOUF FTRVFNB
$PFDJFOUFT EF p(x) an an1 an2 a1 a0

aqn1 aqn2 aq1 aq0
$PFG EF c(x) Z FM SFTUP qn1 qn2 qn3 q0 r
0CTFSWFNPT EPT DPTBT FO FM FTRVFNB BOUFSJPS QSJNFSP MPT USNJOPT

EF MB TFHVOEB MB TF PCUJFOFO NVMUJQMJDBOEP FM ONFSP a QPS FM DPF
DJFOUF EF c(x) QSFWJBNFOUF DPOPDJEP FO MB MUJNB MB
Z TFHVOEP QPS
MBT JHVBMEBEFT EF BSSJCB B MB EFSFDIB DBEB DPFDJFOUF EF c(x) TF PCUJFOF
TVNBOEP MB SFTQFDUJWB DPMVNOB
&KFNQMP " 1BSB JMVTUSBS MB NFDOJDB DPO MB SFHMB EF 3VGOJ IBMMF
NPT FM DPDJFOUF Z FM SFTJEVP BM EJWJEJS FM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = 3x7 + 31x4 x6 + 21x + 5
QPS x + 2. &O FTUF DBTP a = 2. &TDSJCBNPT FTRVFNUJDBNFOUF MB JO

GPSNBDJO MB QSJNFSB MB DPOUJFOF MPT DPFDJFOUFT EFM QPMJOPNJP EBEP
UFOJFOEP FM DVJEBEP EF FTDSJCJS MPT DPFDJFOUFT EF MPT USNJOPT EF NBZPS
B NFOPS HSBEP &M QSJNFS USNJOP EF MB TFHVOEB MB RVF BQBSFDF FO
MB TFHVOEB DPMVNOB
TF PCUJFOF NVMUJQMJDBOEP a = 2 QPS 3 Z BT MB
QSJNFSB DPMVNOB FTU DPOGPSNBEB QPS 1 Z 6 MP DVBM TVNB 7 &TUB
TVNB TF NVMUJQMJDB QPS a = 2 Z FM SFTVMUBEP FT FM USNJOP TJHVJFOUF FO
MB TFHVOEB MB &TUF QSPDFTP TF SFQJUF IBTUB UFSNJOBS &O MB UFSDFSB MB
RVFEBO MPT DPFDJFOUFT EFM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF CVTDBEP FYDFQUP QPS FM
MUJNP ONFSP RVF SFQSFTFOUB FM SFTUP EF MB EJWJTJO
$PFDJFOUFT EF p(x) 1
6 28 6 24
$PFG CVTDBEPT Z FM SFTUP 3 7 6 12 3

"QOEJDF
%F FTUB NBOFSB FM QPMJOPNJP DPDJFOUF CVTDBEP FT
3x6 7x5 + 14x4 + 3x3 6x2 + 12x 3
Z FM SFTUP EF MB EJWJTJO FT 11.
&M TJHVJFOUF SFTVMUBEP QSPQPSDJPOB DPOEJDJPOFT OFDFTBSJBT QBSB RVF

VO SBDJPOBM TFB DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP DPO DPFDJFOUFT SBDJPOBMFT
5FPSFNB " 4FB p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 R[x] EPOEF

DBEB ai Z Z TFB r/s Q DPO (r, s) = 1 VO DFSP EF p(x). &OUPODFT
r | a0 Z s | a n .
%FNPTUSBDJO $PNP
0 = p(r/s) = an (r/s)n + an1 (r/s)n1 + an2 (r/s)n2 + + a0 ,
NVMUJQMJDBOEP QPS sn PCUFOFNPT
an rn + an1 rn1 s + an2 rn2 s2 + a0 sn = 0;
EF FTUP TF EFEVDF RVF
(an1 rn1 + an2 rn2 s + + a0 sn1 )s = an rn .
&TUP JNQMJDB RVF s | an rn Z DPNP (r, sn ) = 1 FOUPODFT s | an . %F NBOFSB

TJNJMBS TF EFNVFTUSB RVF r | a0 .

&KFNQMP " 'BDUPSJDFNPT FO FM DBNQP Q TJ FT QPTJCMF FM QPMJOPNJP

p(x) = 4x3 24x2 + 23x + 18 1BSB FTUP CBTUB RVF FODPOUSFNPT MPT
FWFOUVBMFT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT 4FHO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS TJ r/s Q FT VO
DFSP EF p(x) FOUPODFT MBT SBDFT DBOEJEBUBT EFCFO TBUJTGBDFS RVF r | 18
Z s | 4. 1PS UBOUP FM DPOKVOUP EF MPT QPTJCMFT DFSPT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP FT
1 1 3 3 9 9
{1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18, , , , , , }.
2 4 2 4 2 4
"M FWBMVBS FODPOUSBNPT RVF MPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EF p(x) TPO 1/2, 2 Z
9/2. 4F UJFOF FOUPODFT RVF FM QPMJOPNJP RVFEB GBDUPSJ[BEP DPNP
(x + 1/2)(x 2)(x 9/2).
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMF MPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT TJ FYJTUFO EFM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = x6 x5 8x4 2x3 + 17x2 + 19x + 6.

&KFNQMP " %FNPTUSFNPT RVF OP FYJTUF VO ONFSP SBDJPOBM x UBM RVF

x2 = 3/5. 3B[POFNPT QPS DPOUSBEJDDJO Z TVQPOHBNPT RVF T FYJTUF &O
UPODFT EJDIP ONFSP FT VO DFSP SBDJPOBM EFM QPMJOPNJP p(x) = 5x2 3.
1FSP MPT OJDPT DFSPT SBDJPOBMFT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP TPO 1, 3, 1/5 Z
3/5 6O DIFRVFP EJSFDUP NVFTUSB RVF OJOHVOP EF FMMPT BOVMB FM QPMJ
OPNJP Z QPS UBOUP OP FYJTUF VO SBDJPOBM DPO FTB QSPQJFEBE

&KFSDJDJP " 1SVFCF RVF 2 + 3 FT VO ONFSP JSSBDJPOBM
.VZ JNQPSUBOUF FM SFTVMUBEP RVF QSFTFOUBNPT B DPOUJOVBDJO DVZB
EFNPTUSBDJO QVFEF TFS DPOTVMUBEB FO MB SFGFSFODJB <-> QH
5FPSFNB " 5FPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM MHFCSB
4FB p(x) VO QPMJ
OPNJP FO C[x] EF HSBEP n 1 &OUPODFT p(x) UJFOF VOB SB[ FO MPT
DPNQMFKPT
$PSPMBSJP " 5PEP QPMJOPNJP FO C[x] EF HSBEP n 1 UJFOF FYBDUB
NFOUF n SBDFT DPNQMFKBT
%FNPTUSBDJO 4FB p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a0 C[x] 1PS FM
UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM MHFCSB FYJTUF VOB SB[ r1 C Z QPS FM UFPSFNB
EFM GBDUPS FYJTUF VO OJDP QPMJOPNJP c1 (x) EF HSBEP n1 EF NBOFSB RVF
p(x) = c1 (x)(xr1 ). "QMJDBOEP OVFWBNFOUF FM UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM
MHFCSB BM QPMJOPNJP c1 (x) FODPOUSBNPT r2 C Z VO OJDP QPMJOPNJP
c2 (x) C[x] EF HSBEP n 2 UBM RVF p(x) = c2 (x)(x r1 )(x r2 ). &M
SB[POBNJFOUP TF SFQJUF FO VO ONFSP OJUP EF QBTPT ZB RVF ;`/ (p) =
n
IBTUB DPODMVJS RVF
p(x) = an (x r1 )(x r2 ) (x rn ).
'JOBMNFOUF OP QVFEFO FYJTUJS NT EF n SBDFT ZB RVF TJ C DPO
= ri QBSB UPEP i = 1, 2, . . . , n FOUPODFT p() = 0.

%F MB QSVFCB BOUFSJPS OP RVFEB DMBSP TJ MBT SBDFT TPO EJGFSFOUFT EF
IFDIP QVFEFO TFS UPEBT JHVBMFT DPNP MP FWJEFODJBO NVDIPT FKFNQMPT
p(x) = x3 3x2 + 3x 1 = (x 1)3 UJFOF DPNP SBDFT r1 = r2 = r3 = 1
&TUB TJUVBDJO NPUJWB FM TJHVJFOUF DPODFQUP
%FOJDJO " 4FBO K VO DBNQP Z p K[x] VO QPMJOPNJP OP DPOT
UBOUF %FDJNPT RVF VO FMFNFOUP a K FT VO DFSP EF NVMUJQMJDJEBE m 1
TJ (x a)m | p(x) Z (x a)m+1 p(x)
4J m = 1 TF BDPTUVNCSB EFDJS RVF a FT VOB SB[ TJNQMF

&M UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM MHFCSB GVF EFNPTUSBEP QPS $BSM 'SJFESJDI (BVTT

B MB FEBE EF WFJOUJET BPT (BVTT IJ[P BQPSUFT TJHOJDBUJWPT FO WBSJBT EJTDJ
QMJOBT UFPSB EF ONFSPT HFPNFUSB BOMJTJT BTUSPOPNB Z GTJDB 5PEPT TVT USBCBKPT
EBO QBSB EPDF WPMNFOFT

"QOEJDF
5FOJFOEP FO DVFOUB FTUB EFOJDJO FOUSF MBT n SBDFT EF VO QPMJOP

NJP EF HSBEP n TF DPOUFNQMB MB NVMUJQMJDJEBE EF DBEB SB[ Z BT EJDIP
QPMJOPNJP QVFEF FTDSJCJSTF FO MB GPSNB
an (x r1 )n1 (x r2 )n2 (x rk )nk ,
EPOEF n1 + n2 + + nk = n.
&M TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB NVFTUSB RVF MBT SBDFT DPNQMFKBT EF VO QPMJOP
NJP DPO DPFDJFOUFT SFBMFT WJFOFO QPS QBSFT
5FPSFNB " 4J a + ib FT VO DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP p(x) R[x]
FOUPODFT TV DPOKVHBEP a ib UBNCJO FT VO DFSP EF EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
%FNPTUSBDJO &T DMBSP RVF TJ b = 0 FM UFPSFNB FT JONFEJBUP QPS UBOUP
QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF b = 0. 1SPCFNPT RVF
(x a ib)(x a + ib) = (x a)2 + b2
FT GBDUPS EF p(x) EF MP DVBM TF DPODMVZF RVF p(a ib) = 0 1PS FM
BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO FYJTUFO OJDPT QPMJOPNJPT FM DPDJFOUF q(x) Z FM
SFTJEVP EF MB GPSNB rx + R UBMFT RVF
p(x) = q(x)[(x a)2 + b2 ] + rx + R.
$PNP p(a + ib) = 0 FOUPODFT r(a + ib) + R = 0 Z QPS UBOUP ra +
R = 0 = rb. $PNP b = 0 FOUPODFT r = 0 = R MP DVBM QSVFCB RVF
p(x) = q(x)[(x a)2 + b2 ].
0CTFSWBDJO &M MUJNP UFPSFNB JNQMJDB RVF UPEP QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP

JNQBS DPO DPFDJFOUFT FO R UJFOF QPS MP NFOPT VOB SB[ SFBM

&KFNQMP " 4J 12 (1 + i 3) FT VO DFSP EFM QPMJOPNJP
p(x) = 3x4 10x3 + 4x2 x 6,
FODPOUSFNPT
MBT PUSBT SBDFT 1PS FM UFPSFNB QSFWJP UFOFNPT RVF
1
2 (1 i 3) UBNCJO FT SB[ EF p(x). 1BSB IBMMBS MBT PUSBT EPT SBDFT
CBTUB FODPOUSBS MPT DFSPT EF q(x) EPOEF

p(x) = q(x)(x 1/2 i 3/2)(x 1/2 + i 3/2)
= q(x)(x2 x + 1).
1PS EJWJTJO PSEJOBSJB EF QPMJOPNJPT FODPOUSBNPT RVF
q(x) = 3x2 7x 6,
DVZBT TPMVDJPOFT
TPO 3 Z 2/3 1PS UBOUP MPT DFSPT EF p(x) TPO
1
2 (1 i 3), 3 Z 2/3 &T JNQPSUBOUF BOPUBS RVF UBNCJO QVEP VTBS
TF FM 5FPSFNB " QBSB IBMMBS FTUPT MUJNPT DFSPT

&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP 3 Z DPO DPFDJFOUFT

SFBMFT UBM RVF 1 i FT VOP EF TVT DFSPT y&T OJDP EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
6O IFDIP NVZ QBSFDJEP BM 5FPSFNB " FT QSFTFOUBEP B DPOUJOVB
DJO 4V EFNPTUSBDJO VTB JEFBT TJNJMBSFT B MB QSVFCB EF EJDIP UFPSFNB
Z FT EFKBEB DPNP FKFSDJDJP
5FPSFNB " 4FBO p(x) Q[x] VO QPMJOPNJP DPO DPFDJFOUFT SBDJP
OBMFT Z a, b Q UBMFT RVF a + b
/ Q 4J a + b FT VO DFSP EF p(x)
FOUPODFT a b UBNCJO FT VO DFSP EF EJDIP QPMJOPNJP
-B DPOEJDJO SFTQFDUP B MPT DPFDJFOUFT FO FM UFPSFNB BOUFSJPS OP TF
QVFEF FMJNJOBS DPNP TF FWJEFODJB FO MB TJHVJFOUF JMVTUSBDJO TFB

p(x) = 2 x2 3x 1.

$MDVMPT
EJSFDUPT Z TJNQMFT NVFTUSBO RVF p(1 + 2) = 0 QFSP
p(1 2) = 0.
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO a1 , a2 , . . . , an ONFSPT DPNQMFKPT $MDVMPT EJSFDUPT
BSSPKBO RVF
(x + a1 )(x + a2 ) = x2 + (a1 + a2 ) x + a1 a2
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 ) = x3 + (a1 + a2 + a3 ) x2
+ (a1 a2 + a1 a3 + a2 a3 ) x + a1 a2 a3
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )(x + a4 ) = x4 + (a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 ) x3
+ (a1 a2 + a1 a3 + a1 a4 + a2 a3
+ a2 a4 + a3 a4 ) x2
+ (a1 a2 a3 + a1 a2 a4 + a2 a3 a4
+ a1 a3 a4 ) x + a 1 a 2 a 3 a 4 .
y%FTDVCSJ FM QBUSO /PUF RVF MB MUJNB JHVBMEBE FT FRVJWBMFOUF B MB
JHVBMEBE
(x + a1 )(x + a2 )(x + a3 )(x + a4 ) = x4 + S1 x3 + S2 x2 + S3 x + S4 ,
EPOEF S1 FT MB TVNB EF MPT ONFSPT a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ; S2 FT MB TVNB EF MPT
QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP ONFSPT UPNBEPT EF EPT FO EPT S3 FT MB TVNB
EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP ONFSPT UPNBEPT EF USFT FO USFT Z S4
FT MB TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF FTUPT DVBUSP ONFSPT UPNBEPT UPEPT FTUB
TVNB DPOUJFOF VO TPMP USNJOP QVFT 4 C4 = 1
-B JEFB EF FTUF FKFSDJDJP
FT EFNPTUSBS QPS JOEVDDJO QPS FKFNQMP RVF
(x + a1 )(x + a2 ) (x + an ) = xn + S1 xn1 + S2 xn2 +

S3 xn3 + + Sn1 x + Sn , "

"QOEJDF
EPOEF Sr EFOPUB MB TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MPT n ONFSPT a1 , . . . , an

UPNBEPT EF r FO r, DPO 1 r n.
" DPOUJOVBDJO WBNPT B VTBS FM FKFSDJDJP QSFWJP QBSB EFEVDJS VO
JNQPSUBOUF IFDIP RVF QFSNJUF EFTBSSPMMBS VOB QPUFODJB OBUVSBM EF VO
CJOPNJP 1BSB FTUP OPUFNPT JOJDJBMNFOUF RVF MB TVNB Sr FTU DPNQVFTUB
QPS n Cr USNJOPT Z QPS UBOUP TJ IBDFNPT a1 = a2 = = an = a
FOUPODFT Sr = n Cr ar DPO MP DVBM QPEFNPT DPODMVJS RVF
(x + a)n = xn + n C1 axn1 + n C2 a2 xn2 + n C3 a3 xn3
+ + n Cn1 an1 x + an
n(n 1) n2 2 n(n 1)(n 2) n3 3
= xn + nxn1 a + x a + x a
2! 3!
+ + an
n
n nk k
= x a . "
k
k=0
&TUB GSNVMB SFDJCF SFDJCF FM OPNCSF EF UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP

n 0CTFSWF
NPT RVF DPO k = 0 TF UJFOF FM QSJNFS USNJOP x QVFT
n
0 = 1 Z DPO
k = n TF UJFOF FM (n + 1)TJNP USNJOP an ZB RVF nn = 1.
&KFSDJDJP " %FNVFTUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT JHVBMEBEFT
n
n
n k n
=2 n
Z (1) = 0.
k k
k=0 k=0
&O FM UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP DBNCJBNPT a QPS a Z PCUFOFNPT FM NJT

NP EFTBSSPMMP QFSP DPO MPT TJHOPT BMUFSOBEPT FNQF[BOEP DPO USNJOP
xn QSFDFEJEP EF TJHOP + Z UFSNJOBOEP DPO an QSFDFEJEP EF (1)n .T
QSFDJTBNFOUF

n n1 n n2 2
(x a) = x
n n
x a+ x a + + (1)n an .
1 2
$PO FTUBT JEFBT FO NFOUF WBNPT B PDVQBSOPT BIPSB EF NPTUSBS MB SF
MBDJO FOUSF MPT DPFDJFOUFT Z MBT SBDFT EF VO QPMJOPNJP EF HSBEP n
&TUB SFMBDJO FT EF NVDIB BZVEB DVBOEP TF DPOPDF EF NBOFSB QSFWJB
JOGPSNBDJO EF MBT SBDFT EF VO QPMJOPNJP 4FB p(x) VO QPMJOPNJP FM
DVBM TJO QSEJEB EF HFOFSBMJEBE QPEFNPT TVQPOFS RVF FT EF MB GPSNB
p(x) = xn + An1 xn1 + An2 xn2 + + A1 x + A0 .
4FBO r1 , r2 , , rn MPT DFSPT EF FTUF QPMJOPNJP &OUPODFT
(x r1 )(x r2 ) (x rn ) = 0.

6TBOEP MB SFMBDJO "

Z MB JHVBMEBE FOUSF QPMJOPNJPT DPODMVJNPT RVF
A1 = r1 + r2 + + rn
A2 = -B TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MBT n SBDFT UPNBEBT EF EPT FO EPT
A3 = -B TVNB EF MPT QSPEVDUPT EF MBT n SBDFT UPNBEBT EF USFT FO USFT

(1)n A0 = r1 r2 rn .
&KFNQMP " 3FTPMWBNPT MB FDVBDJO 4x3 24x2 + 23x + 18 = 0

TBCJFOEP RVF MBT SBDFT FTUO FO QSPHSFTJO BSJUNUJDB %FOPUFNPT QPS
a d, a Z a + d MBT SBDFT EF MB FDVBDJO FRVJWBMFOUF
23 9
x3 6x2 + x + = 0.
4 2
1PS MB SFMBDJO FOUSF MPT DPFDJFOUFT Z MPT DFSPT EF VO QPMJOPNJP FODPO
USBNPT RVF
3a = 6
a(a d) + a(a + d) + (a d2 ) = 23/4
2
a(a2 d2 ) = 9/2.
%F MB QSJNFSB Z DVBMRVJFSB EF MBT PUSBT EPT FDVBDJPOFT TF PCUJFOF RVF

a = 2 Z d2 = 25/4 "OBMJ[BOEP MBT EPT QPTJCJMJEBEFT QBSB d MMFHBNPT B
RVF MBT SBDFT CVTDBEBT TPO 1/2, 2 Z 9/2.
&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF MPT DFSPT EFM QPMJOPNJP
18x3 + 81x2 + 121x + 60,
TBCJFOEP RVF VOB EF MBT SBDFT FT MB TFNJTVNB EF MBT PUSBT EPT
&KFSDJDJP " 4FBO a, b Z c MBT SBDFT DPNQMFKBT EF 2x3 3x2 + 4x + 1.

)BMMBS
J
a + b + c, ab + ac + bc Z abc.
JJ
a2 + b2 + c2 , a 3 + b3 + c 3 Z a 4 + b 4 + c 4 .
1 1 1 1 1 1
JJJ
a2 b2 + a2 c2 + b2 c2 , + + Z 2 + 2 + 2.
a b c a b c
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMF MB TVNB EF MBT DVBSUBT QPUFODJBT EF MBT SBDFT EF
x3 + qx + r FO USNJOPT EF q P r

"QOEJDF
&KFSDJDJP " )BMMBS MB DPOEJDJO QBSB RVF FM QPMJOPNJP
x3 px2 + qx r
UFOHB TVT SBDFT FO QSPHSFTJO HFPNUSJDB

&KFSDJDJP " JBMBT`Qv2+iQ R
"WFSJHVF TPCSF MB SFHMB EF MPT TJHOPT
EF %FTDBSUFT Z BQMRVFMB QBSB EFUFSNJOBS FM ONFSP EF QPTJCMFT SBDFT
QPTJUJWBT OFHBUJWBT Z DPNQMFKBT EF MPT TJHVJFOUFT QPMJOPNJPT
J
2x6 + 3x4 + 2x2 + 9
JJ
x5 2x3 + 5x 7
JJJ
3x4 + 12x2 + 5x 4
&KFSDJDJP " 1SVFCF RVF FM QPMJOPNJP 2x7 x4 + 4x3 5 UJFOF BM
NFOPT SBDFT DPNQMFKBT
&KFSDJDJP " JBMBT`Qv2+iQ k
*OEBHVF TPCSF MB EFTDPNQPTJDJO FO
GSBDDJPOFT QBSDJBMFT P TJNQMFT Z BQMRVFMB FO MBT TJHVJFOUFT GSBDDJPOFT
QBSB IBMMBS TV EFTDPNQPTJDJO FO TVNB EF GSBDDJPOFT TJNQMFT SFBMFT
5x 11 x3 6x2 + 10x 5
2x2 + x 6 x4 7x3 + 17x2 21x + 18
3x2 + x 2 4x2 5x 15
(x 2)2 (1 2x) x3 4x2 5x
42 19x x2 + x 1
2
(x + 1)(x 4) (x2 + 1)2 (x 2)
6x3 + 5x2 7 2x4 2x3 + 6x2 5x + 1
.
3x2 2x 1 x3 x2 + x 1
" 3FQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF VO

ONFSP SFBM
&O FTUB TFDDJO OPT WBNPT B PDVQBS EFM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM Z FO PUSBT
CBTFT
EF VO ONFSP SFBM QSJNFSP FO FM DBTP EF VO FOUFSP N Z MVFHP QBSB
DVBMRVJFS SFBM x 4JO QFSEFS HFOFSBMJEBE TVQPOHBNPT RVF N > 0 1PS
FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO FYJTUFO OJDPT FOUFSPT q 0 Z 0 r < 10
UBMFT RVF N = 10 q + r. 4J q < 10 FM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM EFM OBUVSBM N
FTU EBEP QPS N = 10 q + r 100 F JEFOUJDBNPT 10 q + r 100 DPO MB
FTDSJUVSB q r OP FT FM QSPEVDUP FOUSF q Z r
Z BT
N = q r = 10 q + r 100 .

-MBNBNPT BM OBUVSBM q FM EHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT Z BM OBUVSBM r MP MMBNBNPT

FM EHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT "IPSB CJFO TJ q > 10 FOUPODFT QPEFNPT BQMJDBS
OVFWBNFOUF FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO QBSB PCUFOFS q = 10 q1 + r1
QBSB OJDPT OBUVSBMFT q1 Z 0 r1 < 10. 3FFNQMB[BOEP FTUP MMFHBNPT B
N = 102 q1 + 10 r1 + r 100 . "
4J q1 < 10 FOUPODFT "

FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM QBSB N Z MMBNB
NPT B q1 FM EHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT B r1 FM EHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT Z B r FM
EHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT $PNP BOUFT JEFOUJDBNPT MB JHVBMEBE FO "
DPO MB FTDSJUVSB N = q1 r1 r. 4J QPS FM DPOUSBSJP q1 > 10 FM QSPDFTP TF

SFQJUF VO ONFSP OJUP EF WFDFT IBTUB DPOTFHVJS VOB FYQSFTJO EF MB
GPSNB
N = 10j qj1 + 10j1 rj1 + + 10 r1 + r 100 . "
-B FYQSFTJO "
FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM QBSB N Z TF JEFOUJDB
FTUB JHVBMEBE DPO MB FTDSJUVSB N = qj1 rj1 r1 r 1PS FKFNQMP
7289 = 7 103 + 2 102 + 8 101 + 9 100 .
'JKFNPT BIPSB VO ONFSP SFBM x 7FBNPT RVF FYJTUF VOB OJDB SFQSF
TFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF x FO VO TFOUJEP RVF QSFDJTBSFNPT NT BEFMBOUF
#BTUB TVQPOFS RVF 1 > x 0 QVFT QBSB x < 0 UFOJFOEP FO DVFOUB
RVF x = [[ x ]] + ((x)) EPOEF ((x)) [0, 1) FT MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB EF
x IBMMBNPT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF ((x)) Z DPO MP FYQVFTUP QSF
WJBNFOUF QBSB [[ x ]] TF PCUJFOF MB FYQBOTJO EFDJNBM DPSSFTQPOEJFOUF B
x < 0.
4FB n1 FM NBZPS FOUFSP OP OFHBUJWP UBM RVF n1 /10 x 5BM FOUFSP
FT n1 = [[ 10 x ]] RVF FWJEFOUFNFOUF BSSPKB MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
n1 /10 x < (n1 + 1)/10.
$PNP x [0, 1) FOUPODFT 0 10 x < 10 Z QPS UBOUP 0 n1 < 10 FTUP

FT 0 n1 9.
4FB r1 := n1 /10 &T DMBSP RVF 0 r1 Z QPS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT
TF UJFOF RVF
r1 x < r1 + 1/10. "
4FB n2 FM NBZPS FOUFSP OP OFHBUJWP UBM RVF r1 + n2 /102 x 5BM FOUFSP

FTU EBEP QPS n2 = [[ 102 (x r1 ) ]] RVF TJHOJDB MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
r1 + n2 /102 x < r1 + (n2 + 1)/102 .

"QOEJDF
%FOJNPT r2 := r1 + n2 /102 = n1 /10 + n2 /102 &T DMBSP RVF r1 r2 Z

QPS MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT QSFWJBT TF UJFOF RVF
r2 x < r2 + 1/102 .
%F "
TF UJFOF RVF 0 x r1 < 1/10 Z QPS UBOUP
0 102 (x r1 ) < 10
Z BT 0 n2 9 1SPDFEFNPT QPS JOEVDDJO TVQPOHBNPT RVF IFNPT

FTDPHJEP n1 , n2 , . . . , nk DPO 0 nj 9 QBSB j = 1, 2, . . . , k Z UBNCJO
RVF IFNPT FODPOUSBEP 0 := r0 r1 r2 rk UBMFT RVF
rk = rk1 + nk /10k Z nk = [[ 10k (x rk1 ) ]].
%F MB FYQSFTJO QBSB nk TF EFTQSFOEF RVF
rk1 + nk /10k x < rk1 + (nk + 1)/10k ,
MP DVBM JNQMJDB RVF

rk x < rk + 1/10k . "
%FOBNPT nk+1 := [[ 10k+1 (x rk ) ]] &OUPODFT
nk+1 10k+1 (x rk ) < nk+1 + 1,
FT EFDJS
rk + nk+1 /10k+1 x < rk + (nk+1 + 1)/10k+1 .
-VFHP TJ EFOJNPT rk+1 := rk + nk+1 /10k+1 FOUPODFT
rk+1 x < rk+1 + 1/10k+1 .
/PUFNPT RVF "

JNQMJDB RVF nk+1 0 Z UBNCJO TF EFTQSFOEF RVF
0 nk+1 9. &O DPOTFDVFODJB rk rk+1 .
%F FTUB NBOFSB IFNPT DPOTUSVJEP TVDFTJPOFT {nk } N Z {rk } R
UBMFT RVF 0 nk 9, rk rk+1 Z BEFNT
rk = n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + nk /10k , rk x < rk + 1/10k
Z
nk = [[ 10k (x rk1 ) ]].
%F FTUP TF UJFOF FOUPODFT RVF rk x DVBOEP k .
3FTVNJNPT MP BOUFSJPS FO FM TJHVJFOUF UFPSFNB

5FPSFNB " 4FB 0 x < 1 &YJTUF VOB TVDFTJO EF OBUVSBMFT {nk } UBM
RVF QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k 1, 0 nk 9 &YJTUF UBNCJO VOB TVDFTJO
EF SFBMFT {rk } UBM RVF r0 = 0 Z QBSB DBEB OBUVSBM k 1
rk = n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + nk /10k .
"EFNT nk = [[ 10k (x rk1 ) ]] Z rk x DVBOEP k .

4F BDPTUVNCSB VTBS MB FTDSJUVSB x = 0, n1 n2 nk Z MB MMBNBNPT
SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EFM SFBM x [0, 1) &TUB FTDSJUVSB TF JEFOUJDB
DPO n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + nk /10k + .
&O FM DBTP HFOFSBM QBSB x 0 EBEP VOB FYQBOTJO EFDJNBM FTU
EBEB QPS
x = [[ x ]], n1 n2 nk = [[ x ]] + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + nk /10k + .
&KFNQMP " y2V ONFSP SFBM EFOPUB MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM

0, 111111
%FOPUFNPT EJDIP ONFSP QPS x /PUFNPT RVF nk = 1 QBSB UPEP
k 1 -VFHP
x = MN rk = MN (1/10 + 1/102 + + 1/10k )

k k
= (1/10) MN (1 + 1/10 + 1/102 + + 1/10k1 )
k
1 1/10k
= (1/10) MN = (1/9) MN (1 1/10k )
k 9/10 k
= 1/9.
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF x = 17/9.

0CTFSWFNPT RVF x = 17/9 = [[ x ]] + ((x)) = 2 + 1/9 Z QPS UBOUP
CBTUB IBMMBS MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF MB QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB ((x)) =
1/9 RVF QPS FM FKFNQMP QSFWJP FT 0, 11111111 . &O DPODMVTJO MB
SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM EF 17/9 FT
[[ x ]] + 0, 111111 = 1, 8888888
0CTFSWBDJPOFT
4FBO x [0, 1) Z k N &OUPODFT
J
[[ 10k x ]] = 10k rk . &TUP FT DPOTFDVFODJB EF MBT EFTJHVBMEBEFT
10k rk 10k x < 10k rk + 1
RVF TF PCUJFOFO EF "
Z EF MB JHVBMEBE
10k rk = 10k (n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + nk /10k ) N.

"QOEJDF
JJ
%FM MJUFSBM QSFWJP TF EFTQSFOEF PUSB GPSNB EF PCUFOFS nk .T QSF
DJTBNFOUF
[[ 10k x ]] 10[[ 10k1 x ]] = nk
QBSB UPEP OBUVSBM k 1, ZB RVF
[[ 10k x ]] 10[[ 10k1 x ]] =

10k rk 10 10k1 rk1 = 10k (rk rk1 ) = nk .

%BEP VO ONFSP SFBM x 0 1PS MB NBOFSB DPNP IFNPT PCUFOJEP
VO EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM TF UJFOF RVF EJDIP ONFSP OP QPTFF SFQSFTFOUB
DJO EFDJNBM DPO VOB DPMB GPSNBEB TPMBNFOUF QPS FM EHJUP &O FGFDUP
TVQPOHBNPT RVF FYJTUJFSBO x R Z p N UBMFT RVF VO EFTBSSPMMP
EFDJNBM EF x GVFTF EF MB GPSNB
x = n0 , n1 n2 np 99999
= n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + np /10p + 9/10p+1 + 9/10p+2 + ,
DPO n0 = [[ x ]]. &M TJHVJFOUF BSHVNFOUP NPTUSBSB RVF 10p x N QBSB

UPEP m > p
n0 + rm = n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + np /10p + 9/10p+1

+ 9/10p+2 + + 9/10m

p
ni
= + 9/10p+1 (1 + 1/10 + 1/102 + + 1/10mp1 )
10i
i=0

p
p+1 1 (1/10)
ni mp
= + 9/10
10i 9/10
i=0

p
ni
= + 1/10p 1/10m .
10i
i=0

p
ni
)BDJFOEP RVF m DPODMVJSBNPT RVF x = + 1/10p Z BT
10i
i=0
10p x = 10p (n0 + n1 /10 + n2 /102 + + np /10p ) + 1 N.
6TBOEP FTUP Z MB QBSUF JJ

EFM OVNFSBM BOUFSJPS MMFHBSBNPT B MB DPOUSB
EJDDJO
9 = np+2 = [[ 10p+2 x ]] 10[[ 10p+1 x ]] = 10p+2 x 10p+2 x = 0.

-VFHP OP FYJTUF x R DVZB SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM UFOHB DPMB GPSNBEB

QPS FM EHJUP

1PS MP BOUFSJPS Z DPNP [[ 10k x ]] 10[[ 10k1 x ]] = nk CBKP FTUB
DPOTUSVDDJO FM EFTBSSPMMP EFDJNBM EF VO ONFSP SFBM x EBEP FT OJDP
TJ OP BENJUJNPT BRVFMMPT RVF UJFOFO DPMB GPSNBEB QPS FM EHJUP 4JO
FNCBSHP FT QPTJCMF FODPOUSBS EPT FYQBOTJPOFT EFDJNBMFT EJGFSFOUFT RVF
EFOPUFO FM NJTNP SFBM x 1PS FKFNQMP
1
0, 500000 = 0, 499999 =
2

0CTFSWFNPT OBMNFOUF RVF FO MB DPOTUSVDDJO EFM EFTBSSPMMP EF
DJNBM EF VO ONFSP SFBM x FM EHJUP 10 QVFEF TFS TVTUJUVJEP QPS DVBMRVJFS
OBUVSBM b > 1 4J b > 10 TF VTBO MFUSBT NBZTDVMBT A, B, C, D, E, F FO
MVHBS EF b. %FDJNPT FOUPODFT RVF
x = n0 + n1 /b + n2 /b2 + n3 /b3 +
FT MB SFQSFTFOUBDJO FO CBTF b EFM ONFSP SFBM x $PNP TF NFODJPO

DPO FTUB DPOTUSVDDJO OP TF QSFTFOUB FM DBTP EF ONFSPT DPO EFTBSSPMMP
RVF BENJUBO DPMB GPSNBEB QPS FM EHJUP b 1 6TBNPT MB OPUBDJO
(x)b = n0 + n1 /b + n2 /b2 + n3 /b3 + Z (x)10 x.
&KFNQMP " "M BQMJDBS FM BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO FODPOUSBNPT RVF

(15)2 = 1111. /PUFNPT RVF 1 23 + 1 22 + 1 21 + 1 20 = 15.
&KFNQMP " )BMMFNPT FM EFTBSSPMMP UFSOBSJP EF 1/2 FT EFDJS (1/2)3
&O FTUF DBTP nk {0, 1, 2}, n0 = [[ 1/2 ]] = 0 Z QBSB k 1,
nk = [[ 3k (1/2 rk1 ) ]] Z rk = n1 /3 + n2 /32 + + nk /3k .
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7FBNPT QPS JOEVDDJO RVF nk = 1 QBSB UPEP k 1. 4VQPOHBNPT RVF
n1 = n2 = = nk = 1 Z WFBNPT RVF nk+1 = 1. &O FGFDUP

2 1 1 1/3k
rk = 1/3 + 1/3 + + 1/3 =
k
= 1/2 1/(2 3k )
3 2/3
HBSBOUJ[B RVF rk+1 = [[ 3k+1 (1/2 rk ) ]] = [[ 3/2 ]] = 1 &O DPOTFDVFODJB
(1/2)3 = 0, 111111
&KFSDJDJP " &ODVFOUSF MBT TJHVJFOUFT SFQSFTFOUBDJPOFT 1/8, (2/5)2 .
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(0, 122222 )4 .

OEJDF BMGBCUJDP
A DPNQMFUP
BDPUBEP PSEFOBEP
JOGFSJPSNFOUF TVCDBNQP
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BMHPSJUNP EF &VDMJEFT DFSP EF VO QPMJOPNJP
BMHPSJUNP EF MB EJWJTJO DMBTF EF FRVJWBMFODJB
BSHVNFOUP QSJODJQBM DMBTFT SFTJEVBMFT
BSRVJNFEJBOB DMBVTVSB
BTPDJBUJWB DMBVTVSBUJWB
BYJPNB DPMB EF VOB TVDFTJO
EF DBNQP
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EF USJDPUPNB JOEVDUJWP
BYJPNB EF DPNQMFUF[ DPOKVOUP BCJFSUP
BYJPNBT DPOKVOUP DFSSBEP
EF 1FBOP DPOKVOUP EF $BOUPS
DPOKVOUP EF PQVFTUPT
DPOKVOUP OJUP
B DPOKVOUP JOOJUP
CBTF C DPONVUBUJWB
CPMB DPOUJOVJEBE EFM NEVMP
DPQSJNPT
C DPSUBEVSB
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BSRVJNFEJBOP DPUB TVQFSJPS
DBSBDUFSTUJDB EF DVBESBEP QFSGFDUP

DVCSJNJFOUP BCJFSUP H

DVFSQP IPNPNPSTNP
D I
EHJUP EF MBT DFOUFOBT JEFOUJEBE EFM QBSBMFMPHSBNP
EHJUP EF MBT EFDFOBT JNBHJOBSJP QVSP
EHJUP EF MBT VOJEBEFT ONP
EFTJHVBMEBE EF #FSOPVMMJ JOUFSJPS EF VO DPOKVOUP
EFTJHVBMEBE USJBOHVMBS JOUFSWBMP
EJBHSBNB EF "SHBOE BCJFSUP
EJGFSFODJB BDPUBEP
EJWJTPS DFSSBEP
EJWJTPSFT EF DFSP FODBKBEPT
5FPSFNB EFM
OP BDPUBEP
E JOWFSTP BEJUJWP
FKF JNBHJOBSJP JOWFSTP CJMBUFSBM
FKF SFBM JOWFSTP MBUFSBM B EFSFDIB
FMFNFOUP OFVUSP JOWFSTP MBUFSBM B J[RVJFSEB
FOUFSP JNQBS JOWFSTP NVMUJQMJDBUJWP
FOUFSP QBS JTPNPSTNP
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MNJUF EF VOB GVODJO
F MFZ EF DPNQPTJDJO JOUFSOB
GSNVMB %F .PJWSF MFZ EF TJHOPT
GBDUPSJBM MFZ EF USJDPUPNB
GSPOUFSB MPHBSJUNP
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BDPUBEB N
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GVODJO FYQPOFODJBM
GVODJO 4VDFTPS
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HSBEP EF VO QPMJOPNJP NOJNP
HSVQP NOJNP DPNO NMUJQMP
BCFMJBOP NMUJQMP
HSVQPJEF NPEVMBUJWB

OEJDF BMGBCUJDP
NVMUJQMJDBDJO QSPEVDUP EF

NVMUJQMJDJEBE EF VO DFSP TVNB EF
QSJNPT SFMBUJWPT
QSJODJQJP EF JOEVDDJO
N DPNQMFUB
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SBDJPOBMFT SB[ OTJNB EF VO ONFSP DPN
QPTJUJWPT QMFKP
SFBMFT SB[ EF VO QPMJOPNJP
OPUBDJO SB[ TJNQMF
SFHMB EF 3VGOJ
O SFMBDJO DPNQBUJCMF DPO VOB PQF
PQFSBDJO CJOBSJB SBDJO
PSEFO SFMBDJO EF FRVJWBMFODJB
UPUBM SFMBDJO EF PSEFO UPUBM
SFQSFTFOUBDJO EFDJNBM
P
QBSUF FOUFSB S
QBSUF GSBDDJPOBSJB TFHNFOUP EF ONFSPT OBUVSBMFT
QBSUF JNBHJOBSJB TFNJHSVQP
QBSUF SFBM TVCDVCSJNJFOUP
QFSNVUBDJPOFT OJUP
QMBOP DBSUFTJBOP TVCTVDFTJO
QPMJOPNJP TVDFTJO
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JOGFSJPSNFOUF U
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DPOTUBOUF
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DBSBDUFSJ[BDJO EFM TVQSFNP F
ONP
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UFPSFNB EF )FJOF#PSFM
UFPSFNB EFM CJOPNJP
UFPSFNB EFM SFTJEVP
UFPSFNB EFM TBOEXJDI
UFPSFNB EFM WBMPS FYUSFNP
UFPSFNB EFM WBMPS JOUFSNFEJP
UFPSFNB GVOEBNFOUBM EFM MHFCSB

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