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NETWORK
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THEORY
NOTE
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sources included more than once.
Mesh - a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed
path. No components are inside a mesh.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving a node
must be equal to zero,
I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0.
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Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the 2
currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value.
Then this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 - I4 - I5 = 0
"In any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to
the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop" which is also equal to zero. In
other words the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This
idea by Kirchoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
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Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to
the same starting point.
It is important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise
or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero.
We can use Kirchoff's voltage law when analysing series circuits.
**********************************************************
Example No1
Using Kirchoff's Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
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At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchoff's Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
We now have two "Simultaneous Equations" that can be reduced to give us the
value of both I1 and I2
As : I3 = I1 + I2
and the voltage across the resistor R3 is given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
************************************************************.
Example No2
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Solution:
NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal analysis involves looking at a circuit and determining all the node voltages in the
circuit. The voltage at any given node of a circuit is the voltage drop between that node
and a reference node (usually ground). Once the node voltages are known any of the
Approach:
Firstly all the nodes in the circuited are counted and identified. Secondly nodes at which
the voltage is already known are listed. A set of equations based on the node voltages
are formed and these equations are solved for unknown quantities. The set of equations
are formed using KCL at each node. The set of simultaneous equations that is produced
is then solved. Branch currents can then be found once the node voltages are known.
This can be reduced to a series of steps:
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Step 2: Choose a reference node
Step 5: Use KCL to write an equation for each unknown node voltage
This is best illustrated with an example. Find all currents and voltages in the following
circuit using the node method. (In this particular case it can be solved in other ways as
well)
+
V R3
R4
-
Step 1:
There are four nodes in the circuit., A, B, C and D
Step 2:
Ground, node D is the reference node.
Step 3:
Node voltage B and C are unknown. Voltage at A is V and at D is 0
Step 4:
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The currents are as shown. There are 3 different currents
R1 B R2
A C
I1
R4 R3
V
I2
I3
Step 5:
VC VB VB
0
R2 R3
Step 6:
We now have two equations to solve for the two unknowns V B and VC. Solving the
above two equations we get:
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VC V
R1 R2 R1 R3
R3 R4
R1 R4 R2 R4 R3 R4
R4 ( R2 R3 )
VB V
R1 R2 R1 R3 R1 R4 R2 R4 R3 R4
Further Calculations
The node voltages are know all known. From these we can get the branch currents by a
simple application of Ohm's Law:
I1 = (V - VB) / R 1
I2 = (VB - VC) / R 2
I4 = (VB) / R 4
MESH ANALYSIS
Step 2: Write equation for each mesh using KVL and that includes the mesh currents
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Step 3: Solve the equations
Step 1:
The mesh currents are as shown in the diagram on the next page
Step 2:
R1 R2
R4 R3
V I1
I2
KVL can be applied to the left hand side loop. This states the voltages around the loop
sum to zero. When writing down the voltages across each resistor Ohms law is used.
The currents used in the equations are the mesh currents.
KVL can be applied to the right hand side loop. This states the voltages around the loop
sum to zero. When writing down the voltages across each resistor Ohms law is used.
The currents used in the equations are the mesh currents.
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Step 4:
R2 R3 R4
I1 V
R1 R2 R1 R3 R1 R4 R2 R4 R3 R4
R4
I2 V
R1 R2 R1 R3 R1 R4 R2 R4 R3 R4
The individual branch currents can be obtained from the these mesh currents and the
node voltages can also be calculated using this information. For example:
R3 R4
VC I 2 R3 V
R1 R2 R1 R3 R1 R4 R2 R4 R3 R4
1.Thevenins theorem:
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impedances, not just resistors.
Example 3:
Solution:
Step One
Redraw the circuit after finding the resistance, RA of the parallel branch R3||R4.
Redraw the circuit and calculate the voltage across the break AB which is the voltage across RA = VT.
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Remember that 20V is dropped across R1 and also across R2+RA. Since R2 = RA = 5 half of the
voltage is dropped across each resistor VT = 10V
Step Three
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RT = (RAxR2) / (RA+R2) + R5 + R7 = 14.5
Step Five
Determine the value of the current from the Thevenin equivalent circuit
2.Superposition Theorem
The superposition principle states that voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Steps to Apply Superposition Principle:
Step 1:Turn off all independent source except one source. Find the
output(voltage or current) due to that active source using nodal or mesh analysis
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Step 2:Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due
to the independent sources.
Example 2:
iX i Xv i Xc
Example 3:
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v v1 v2
v1 2V ; v 2 8V
v 10V
3.Nortons theorem:
Nortons theorem states the following:
Any two-terminal linear bilateral dc network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current and a parallel resistor.
The steps leading to the proper values of IN and RN.
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between the marked terminals.
5. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the portion of the circuit
previously removed replaced between the terminals of the equivalent
circuit.
A load will receive maximum power from a network when its total
resistive value is exactly equal to the Thvenin resistance of the network applied to the
load. That is,
RL = RTh
Star-Delta Conversion:
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In many circuit applications, we encounter components connected together
in one of two ways to form a three-terminal network: the Delta, or (also known as
the Pi, or ) configuration, and the Star (also known as the Y) configuration.
Step 1:
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Step 3:
Part-A(2 Marks)
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6.Find the resistance between A & B , A & C
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Series RLC Circuit:
The three basic passive components, R, L and C have very different phase
relationships to each other when connected to a sinusoidal AC supply.
In a pure ohmic resistor the voltage is "in-phase" with the current, in a pure
inductance the voltage "leads" the current by 90o and with a pure capacitance the
voltage "lags" the current by 90o.
Reactance X is
Resistor R 0
Inductor 0 L
Capacitor 0
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The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous current
flowing through the loop being the same for each element.
Since the inductive and capacitive reactance's are a function of frequency, the
sinusoidal response of a series RLC circuit will vary with the applied frequency
so the individual voltage drops across each R, L and C element will be "out-of-
phase" with each other as defined by:
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Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit
Example No1
Solution:
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Inductive Reactance, XL.
Circuit Impedance, Z.
Circuits Current, I.
Phasor Diagram.
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Parallel RLC Circuit:
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Phasor Diagram for a Parallel RLC Circuit
Example No2
A 50 resistor, a 20mH coil and a 5uF capacitor are all connected in parallel across a
50V, 100Hz supply. Calculate the total current drawn from the supply, the current for
each branch, the total impedance of the circuit and the phase angle. Also construct the
current and admittance triangles representing the circuit.
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1). Inductive Reactance, ( XL ):
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3). Impedance, ( Z ):
8). Conductance, ( G ):
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11). Admittance, ( Y ):
12). Phase Angle, ( ) between the resultant current and the supply voltage:
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Parallel and Series resonances
Resonance:
Series Resonance:
The graph of inductive reactance against frequency is a straight line linear curve.
The inductive reactance value of an inductor increases linearly as the frequency
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across it increases.
Therefore, inductive reactance is positive and is directly proportional to frequency
( XL )
Electrical resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the two reactances which are
opposite and equal cancel each other out as XL = XC and the point on the graph at
which this happens is were the two reactance curves cross each other.
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In a series resonant circuit, the resonant frequency, r point can be calculated as follows.
The point corresponding to the lower frequency at half the power is called
the "lower cut-off frequency", labelled L with the point corresponding to
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The relationship between resonance, bandwidth, selectivity and quality factor for a
series resonance circuit being defined as:
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5). Bandwidth, (BW)
Example No3
Resonant Frequency, r
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Circuit Current at Resonance, Im
Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW
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The upper and lower -3dB frequency points, H and L
Current Waveform
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Parallel Resonance:
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Parallel Circuit Current at Resonance
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Quality Factor:
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Resonant Frequency, r
Quality factor, Q
Bandwidth, BW
Note that the current at resonance (the resistive current) is only 1.67 amps, while the
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current flowing around the LC tank circuit is larger at 2.45 amps. We can check this
value by calculating the current flowing through the inductor (or capacitor) at resonance.
PART A (2 Marks)
1. What is significance of initial conditions?
2. Write a note on initial conditions in basic circuit elements.
3. What is time constant?
4. Write a note on under damped, over damped and critically damped systems.
5. Define (i) rise time, (ii) time delay in respect of step response of second order
system.
6. What do you mean by resonance?
7. What is Q-factor?
8. What is anti-resonance?
9. Find the value of Q-factor for an Inductor & Capacitor.
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Reg. No. :
Second Semester
(Regulation 2008)
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4. Find the resonant frequency in the ideal parallel LC circuit shown in Fig.1
Fig.1.
8. clearly the difference between N with P channel FETs. Give some applications of
9. tunnel diode.
10. What is meant by photovoltaic cell?
11. (a) (i) State Thevenin's and superposition theorems, mention one
application. (8)
(ii) Find the Thevenin's equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 2. (8)
Fig.2
Or
Fig. 3
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(2)
If Rout = 3 k , find the power delivered to it.
(3) What two different values of R out will have exactly 20mw
delivered to them?
12. (a) In the circuit shown in Fig. 4, determine the complete solution for the
current when the switch is closed at t = 0. Applied voltage is
v(t) 400 cos(500t / 4) , resistance R = 15 , inductance L 0.2H
and capacitance C 3 F . (16)
Fig. 4
Or
2 E 3070
Fig.
5
(ii) Explain how the depletion region at a p-n junction is formed and
explain with relevant sketches for charge density, electric field
intensity and potential energy barriers at the junction. (8)
Or
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(b) (i)
(ii)
Draw the Zener diode characteristics and explain the working of
Zener diode.
Draw the Zener regulation circuit and explain its function for input
regulation and output regulation.
(8)
(8)
14. (a) Explain the input and output characteristics of a common emitter
configuration with a neat sketch. (16)
Or
(b) What is MOSFET? Explain the construction and working principle of
enhancement mode and depletion mode MOSFET with a neat diagram.
(16)
15. (a) What is tunneling phenomenon? Describe the V-I characteristics and
concepts of tunnel diode with application. (16)
Or
(b) Explain the negative resistance characteristics of Unijunction Transistor
with neat sketch. (16)