CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY

D. L. Doushanov
Department of Fuel, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,
Bulgaria
Keywords: Environmental pollution, Sintering, Cokemaking, Ironmaking, Direct reduction,
Steelmaking, Ferroalloy industry, Rolling, Skarfing, Pickling, Iron foundries, Steel foundries,
Alternative technologies.
Contents
Introduction.
1. Sinter production: Control of pollution.
2. Coke production: Control of pollution.
3. Iron production: Control of pollution.
4. Steel production.Control of pollution.
5. Ferroalloy Production: Control of pollution.
6. Rolling: Control of pollution.
7. Iron foundries: Control of Pollution
8. Steel Foundries: Control of Pollution
9. Concluding remarks.
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Abstract
The iron and steel industry causes significant effects on environmental media air, water and
soil. In the sinter plants the dominant emissions generated from material handling, windbox
exhaust, disharge end, and cold screen are particulate emissions - mainly iron oxides, sulfur
oxides, calcium oxides, hydrocarbons, carbonaceous compounds, and chlorides. Emission of
particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, organic compounds and other pollutants
originate from several operations in the coking plants. Emissions from the blast furnace are
generated from the top, in the casting stages, by drilling and plugging the taphole. During the
casting operation, iron oxides, magnesium oxide and carbonaceous compounds are generated.
The most significant emissions from the basic oxygen process are emitted during the oxygen
blow period: iron oxides, mainly heavy metals and fluorides. The operations which generate
emissions during the electric steelmaking are: melting - iron oxide; refining - calcium oxide
from the slag; charging - iron and metallic oxides from alloy in the scrap; dumping slag and
tapping steel - iron oxides and oxydes from the fluxes. During the semifinished product
preparation the pollution is produced from the pouring of the molten steel into ingot molds
and when semifinished steel is scarfed. Open dust sources include vehicle traffic; raw material
handling and wind erosion from storage pile and contribute to the atmospheric pollution. The
polluting emissions in the iron and steel industry are controlled by a variety of evacuation
systems, devices, and methods such as cyclone cleaners, dry or wet electrostatic precipitators,
scrubbers, bag houses, hoods, funrace enclosures; chemical, catalytic and biological methods.

Introduction
The main types of plants involved in iron and steel industry are sintering plants, blast furnaces
and steel works, direct reduction plants, ferroalloy production, rolling, scarfing, pickling, iron
and steel foundry, and other technologies, such as argon - oxygen decarburization, ladle
metallurgy vacuum degassing. Coking plants are considered here as part of this sector, since
coke is produced practically exclusively for the iron and steel industry.
The iron and steel industry causes significant effects on environmental media: air - emissions
of SO2, NO x, CO, H2S, PAH, lead, Ni, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, Se, Hg, PM, etc.; water - process
water with organic matter, oil, metals, suspended solids, benzene, phenol, acids, sulfides,
sulfates, ammonia, cyanides, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, fluorides (scrubber effluent); soil -
slag, sludge, sulfur compounds, heavy metals, oil and grease residues, salts.
The environmental sustainability of the blast furnace with its upstream stages coking and
sintering plants is of great significance if existing capacities are to be retained or new ones are
to be built. The blast furnaces built over the past years thus have a similar standard of
environmental protection, independent of the location. The blast furnace process will remain
the basic member in the technological chain of steel production in a foreseeable future.
The coke production remains an inseparable part of the steel production. The needs for coke
in the future will depend to a great extent on the factors influencing the reduction of these
needs or rather on the possibility for alternative technologies to replace the blast furnace
process. In 1995, about 358 million tones of coke have been produced in the world by 250
coke plants.
Steel will remain the basis for economic development in the world. It is used to produce
everything from sewing needles and tools to automobiles, ships and planes. Steel
consumption will tend to follow the development in gross national product in the world. In
accordance with the IISI,s data the total world steel production in 1997 was 793 million tons.
The Protocol agreed at the Conference in Kyoto (1997) set out commitments to limit
greenhouse gas emissions for industrial countries for the period 2008-2012. For example,
emissions of CO2 only from fossil fuel combustion increased from 14.3 Gt (1971) to 22.1 Gt
(1995) in the world. This document is very important for engineers, scientists and operators to
implement technology strategies and public policies that prevent, reduce, or eliminate adverse
environmental consequences in the iron and steel industry. From the standpoint of the new
millennium there must be realized a change from a technology for fulfilling primary
requirements only, to the development of modern, sustainable iron and steel technology
within human activity in coexistence with environment on a global scale.

1. Sinter Production: Control of pollution

Sinter plants have to fulfill increasing environmental regulations. For this plant manufacturers
and operators had to develop new technical solutions for the reduction of pollution. Presently
relevant new equipment has been installed at several sinter plants. For various pollutants,
especially for dioxins and furanes further efforts are currently undertaken. For the blast
furnace the future availibility of high quality sinter is of great importance because very few
lump ores comply with the quality requirements of the blast furnace. Alternative quality feeds
are limited in supply. This applies for pellets.
The sintering converts fine-sized raw material, iron ore, coke breeze, limestone, mill scale,
and flue dust into an agglomerated product (sinter) at suitable size for charging into the blast
furnace. The raw materials are sometimes mixed with water to provide a cohesive matrix and
then placed on a travelling grate called the sinter strand. A burner hood, at the beginning of
the sinter strand ignites the coke in the mixture. The combustion provides sufficient heat, from
13000C to 1480oC, to cause surface melting and agglomeration of the mix. On the underside
of the sinter strand there is a series of wind boxes that draw combusted air down through the
material bed to a gas cleaning. The fused sinter is discharged at the end of the sinter strand,
where it is crushed and screened. The remaining sinter product is cooled in open air or in a
circular cooler with water sprays or mechanical fans. The cooled product is crushed and
screened for a final time, then the fines are recycled, and the product is sent to the blast
furnaces. Practically two and a half tons of raw materials are required to produce one ton of
product sinter.
The pollution from sinter plants is generated from handling of raw material, wind box
exhaust, discharge, cooler and cold screen. The cleaning of the sintering process gases is one
of the most difficult cleaning problems in the steel industry. The wind box exhaust is the
primary source of particulate emissions, mainly iron oxides, sulfur oxides, carbonaceous
compounds, aliphatic hydrocarbons and chlorides. At the discharge end, emissions are mainly
iron and calcium oxides. A cyclone cleaner, a dry or wet ESP, a wet scrubber or a bag house
absorbs the sinter strand wind box emissions. The cyclone collectors are installed ahead of the
induced-draft fans to remove particles with diameters of 25 m or greater. The dry ESP
opperates with removal efficiencies of up to 99 per cent of the wind box emissions emited
during the production of acid sinters. With the use of oil - bearing mill sclales in the feed
materials, there are increased amounts of condensed hydrocarbon particulate matter in the
wind box gases. Dry ESP is not efficient for hydrocarbons. The wet scrubbers are efficient in
treating wind box gases. The wet scrubbers may remove the particles with diameters of one
m or less and they are capable of capturing the condensable hydrocarbons and other fine wind
box gas particulate matter. The treatment of the scrubber matter requires neutralization of the
acidic components from the scrubber and adding the coagulants for the clarification of the
discharge maters before the re-circulation to the scrubber (see Control of Particulate Matter
in Gaseous Emissions ).

2. Coke production: Control of pollution

Metallurgical coke is produced by destructive distillation without contact with air in coke
ovens until all volatile components in the coal evaporate. All metallurgical coke is produced
using different recovery by-product coke oven systems: Koppers-Becker (Figure 1), Otto,
Willput, PVR-Russia, Carl Steel, Koppers - Becker "underfind" and non recovery by-product
coke ovens systems:
 Figure 1: By-product coke oven battery showing major emission points
"Jewell - Thompson ", "Pennsylvania Coke Technologies Inc. (PACTI)" - USA; "TJ - 75",
"JKH - 97" - China. Process technology for cokemaking in pursuit of the aim to render
innovative contribution to a future oriented steel production is available now: Multi -
Chamber - Systems (MCS) as demonstrated in the Kaiserstuhl, Single - Chamber - System
(SCS), Non - Recovery/Heat Recovery Coke Oven (NR/HR - CO), 2 - Product - Cokemaking
- Plant (2 - PCP).
Conventional by-product recovery coke ovens. Coke manufacturing includes preparing,
charging, heating the coal, removing and cooling the coke product. In addition the coke-oven
gas is processed through a by-product recovery device exhauster consisting primarily of
coolers, naphthalene scrubbers, ammonia absorbers, final coolers, benzene scrubbers and
desulfurization facilities.
The conventional recovery byproduct coke oven has three main parts: coking chambers,
heating chambers and regenerative chambers, which are lined with refractory bricks. The
coking chambers have ports in the top for charging of the coal. Process heat comes from the
combustion of gases between the coke chambers. The maximum temperature attained at the
center of the coke mass is usually 1100o C to 1150o C. After coking is completed the coke in
the chamber is ready to be removed. The doors on both sides of the chamber are opened and
the coke is pushed out of the oven into a quench car. The quench car with the hot coke moves
to a tower where the coke mass is cooled from 1100o C to 80o C. The car then discharges the
coke onto a wharf to drain and continue cooling. Gates on the wharf are opened to allow the
coke to fall onto a conveyor that carries it to crushing and screening. After sizing, coke is sent
to the blast furnace or to storage.
Non recovery and new coke ovens. Cokemaking techniques must be offered and made
available as viable design concepts taking into account the demand for a "lean" and adaptable
process technology in coke production. Many projects are pursued worldwide to reach this
goal.
In the NR / HR-CO "Jewell-Thompson" concept, following complete destruction of coal
volatile matter, flue gas is drown through a spray dryer and a bag house to remove SO2 and
PM before venting to the atmosphere. The ovens operate under negative pressure that
prevents the release of hazardous air pollutants through leaks in the doors and crowns. The by
product can be incinerated but the heat derived is used to generate power (see Management of
Combustible Waste). The U.S. federal regulators have recognized the smog-free nature of the
system. The 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act (USA) specifically identify this process as
setting the standard for MACT.
The high-performance/single chamber system (HP-SCS) has ben
developed within the framework of the European Cokemaking Technology
Center (ECTC). This new system represents a perfect dissolution of the
conventional multiple coking chambers system into an independent heavy-
load-bearing, high efficiency single chamber system to meat the
requirements of a modern, environmentally adaptable "modular
technology".
Conventional coke oven gas treatment in conjunction with coal by-
products recovery involve greater necessity of environmental control while
not offering any satisfactory basis to play an active role in shaping linkage
and structure for future steel plant. Consequently, the development of a "2-
PCP", that is cracking the coke oven gas with oxygen to get "new coke
oven gas" (COG-N) come to a "lean" coke oven of the future. In this
instance it is necessary to present the Japanese project "Super coke oven
for productivity and environmental enhancement toward the 21-st century"
(SCOPE - 21). This process features two stages. The first stage consists of
a rapid- heating fine coal agglomeration process followed by a
carbonisation in a horisontal chamber up to 750o C - 850oC. The second
step is a heat treatment up to 1000o C in a coke dry quenching (CDQ). The
innovative process shall guarantee improved environmental control and
energy saving.
Particulate matter, VOCs, CO and other emissions originate from several
by-product coking operations: coal preparation, coal preheating (if used),
coal charging, oven leakage during the coking period, coke removal, hot
coke quenching and underfire combustion stacks.
Gaseous emissions collected from the ovens during the coking process are subjected to
various operations for separating ammonia, coke oven gas, tar, phenol, benzene, toluene,
xylenes and pyridine. These unit operations are potential sources of VOCs emissions. Small
emissions may occur when transferring coal between conveyors or from conveyors to
bunkers. A few plants preheat the coal to about 2600 C before charging, using a flash drying
column by combustion of coke oven gas. The air stream that conveys coal through the drying
column passes through conventional wet scrubbers for particulate removal before discharging
to the atmosphere. In the conventional wet charging the emissions are similar. Oven charging
can produce significant emissions of particulate matter and VOCs from coal decomposition if
not properly controlled. Charging techniques can draw most charging emissions into a battery
collecting mains. Effective control requires that goosenecks and the collecting main passages
be cleaned frequently to prevent obstructions.
During the coking cycle, VOCs emissions from the thermal distillation process can occur
through poorly sealed doors, charge lids, off-take caps, collecting main, and cracks that may
develop in oven brickwork. Door leaks may be controlled by diligent door cleaning and
maintenance, rebuilding doors, and in some plants, by manual application of lute material.
Charge lid and off-take leaks may be controlled by an effective patching program. Pushing
coke into the quench car is another major source of particulate emissions. If the mass is not
fully coked, VOCs and combustion products will be emitted.
Most facilities control pushing emissions by using mobile scrubber cars with hoods shed
enclosures evacuated to a gas cleaning installation, or traveling hoods with a fixed duct
leading to a stationary gas cleaner. Coke quenching entrains particulate from the coke mass.
The dissolved solids from the quenched water may become entrained in the steam plume
rising from the tower.
Coking plant waste water generated from high temperature coal carbonization, associated gas
purification and chemical processing is very complex in composition. Concentrations of
various pollutants are very high and highly toxic, very hard to treat. Sources of waste water
are: excess ammonia liquor from coal carbonization and raw gas cooling, water from gas
purification such as gas final cooling and crude benzene separation, water from coal tar, crude
benzene refining and other processes.
Waste water separated from raw gas and coal tar contains as much as ten thousands
compounds. Many of these compounds dissolve. Of these dissolved compounds not only large
amounts of inorganic matters are present such as ammonia, sulfide, cyanide, chloride,
thiocyanide radicals and compounds of silicon, calcium, iron, boron, magnesium, potassium,
sodium and germanium, but also organic matter in a still larger amount. Analysis of coking
plant wastewater shows that nearly one thousand compounds are present in a concentration
not higher than one g l-1 . These include not only large amounts of acidic organic matters,
such as phenol, cresol, naphthol and nitrogen containing basic organic matters like pyridine,
aniline, quinoline, carbazole and acridine etc., but also large amounts of PAH, such as BaP.
The typical analysis of a coke plant waste water stream (mg l-1) is following: COD - 2500-
3500; phenols - 280-500; ammonia - 10-70; sulfide - 2-15; thiocyanide - 250-350; cyanide -
10-20.
To clean coke plant waste water dephenolization devices were built on large-scale coke plants.
These extraction processes include, for example: "Phenosolvan"- operates on a low-boiling
solvent (diisopropylether), "Podbielniak" and "Pott-Hilgenstok" - also operate on benzol
caustic solution. In these processes the efficiency degree of phenol scrubbing moves from 93
per cent to 99 per cent. Apart from phenol other organic substances are scrubbed out in the
dephenolization devices causing a reduction (per cent) of: COD - 70-75; BOD - 40-60; total
organic carbon - 52-62. At present, conventional bio-chemical processes are widely used for
coking plant waste water treatment (see Control of Pollution in the Chemical Industry and
Control of Pollution in the Petroleum Industry).

3. Iron production: Control of pollution

3.1. Ironmaking
Iron is produced in blast furnaces by the reduction of iron bearing materials with a hot gas.
During the residence time in blast furnace, coke has to serve different functions: heat
resources, producer and regenerator of reducing gas, supporting structure, carburizing agent
and dust filter. Coke is partly gasified. Carbon and oxygen react to carbon monoxyde (1):
2C + O2 2CO + heat (1)
Carbon monoxyde is used as reducing gas. The CO in the gas then reacts with iron oxyde in
the stack, producing metallic iron and CO2

Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 (2)

At temperatures above 900-1000o C direct reduction starts and CO react with carbon from
coke (3):

C + CO2 2CO (3)

Again CO reduces the iron oxydes. All the phosphorus pentoxide, some of the silica and
manganous oxide are reduced, also, while phosphorus, silicon, and manganese dissolve in the
iron tougether with some carbon from the coke. Then iron oxides, fluxes and coke react with
the blast air to form molten reduced iron, CO and slag.
The large, refractory lined furnace is charged through its top with iron as ore, pellets, (or
sinter); flux (limestone, dolomite) and coke. The molten iron and slag collect in the hearth at
the base of the furnace. The production of one ton of iron requires: 1.4 tons of ore, 0.5 to 0.65
tons of coke, 0.25 tons of limestone (dolomite) and 1.8 to 2 tons of air. Byproducts consist of
0.2 to 0.4 tons of slag, and 2.5 to 3.5 tons of blast furnace gas containing up to 40 kg of dust.
The molten iron and slag are removed, or cast, from the furnace periodically. The casting
process begins with drilling a hole, called taphole, into the clay-filled iron notch at the base of
the hearth. During casting, molten iron flows into runners that lead to transport ladles. Slag
also flows into the clay-filled iron notch at the base of the hearth and also flows from the
furnace to a slag pit. The utilization of water as a coolant for slag quenching, results in H2S
pollution. A reduction in H2S emission can be achieved by increasing the air cooling before
water is used. A reduction in H2S can also be realized by adding caustic or potassium
permanganate to the quench water. It is possible to attain reduction of 80-85 per cent of H2S.
A combination of a 2 -3 days cooling period better the quenching as well as an addition of
KMnO4 to the quench water. The blast furnace by-product gas is collected from the top and
contains CO and particulate. This gas has a heating value about 2800 to 3300 J l-1 and is used
as a fuel within the steel plant. The diagram for the iron and steel industry is presented in
Figure 2.
 Figure 2: General flow diagram for the iron and steel industry
The cleaning of pollution ingredients from the blast furnace creates complex problems for
resolution. The blast furnace gases pass through a dry cyclone to remove about 60 per cent of
the particulate and in the next step, the gases undergo cleaning operations. The primary
cleaner is normally a wet scrubber, which removes about 90 per cent of the remaining
particulate. The secondary cleaner is a Venturi or an ESP, either of which can remove up to 90
per cent of the particulate, which eludes the primary cleaner. These operations provide a clean
fuel of less than 0.06 g m-3 grains. A portion of this gas is fired in the stoves of blast furnace to
preheat the blast air.
The casting operation is the primary source of blast furnace emissions: iron oxides,
magnesium oxide and carbonaceous compounds are generated as particulate. Casting
emissions are controlled by evacuation through retrofitted capture hoods to a gas cleaner, or
by suppression gases like CH4 and N2 at the ladle spot, trough and runner. The principle of
suppression is to eliminate oxygen from contact with liquid iron during casting. Emissions
controlled by hoods and an evacuation system are usually vented to a bag house.
Another source of emissions is the blast furnace top during charging from imperfect bell seals.
A modern charging installation - bell-less Paul Wurth- minimizes this pollution.
Sulfur in the molten iron is sometimes reduced before charging into the steel making furnace
by adding reagents with the formation a floating slag, which can be skimmed off.
Desulfurization may be performed in the hot metal transfer (torpedo) car at a location between
the blast furnace and the BOF, or it may be done in the ladle inside the BOF. Powdered
reagents CaC2, CaCO3 or salt-coated magnesium granules (containing 85 per cent Mg) are
injected into the metal with high-pressure N2. Calcium carbide desulfurizes the hot metal, and
CaCO3 provides the CO2 hich mixes the hot metal and the desulfurizing powder. The Mg-salt
goes through the boiling dissolution during the desulfurization. Most of the reagents are
captured by the slag. The remaining salts are evacuated as a fume. The treatment can reduce
the sulfur level down to less than 0.005 per cent.
Coal injection, together with increasing amounts of oxygen and natural gas, continue to be
adopted in blast furnace operations to reduce coke consumption and increase productivity. In
Germany and Japan was completed the construction of an integrated waste plastics recycling
system in which processed plastics are blown into the blast furnace. In Japan, for example, it
is planned to recycle 30 000 tons of industrial waste plastics (excluding polyvinyl chloride)
annually. A maximum addition of 200 kg of waste plastics ton-1 charge is anticipated. Benefits
include reduced coke consumption, reduced emission of carbon dioxide compared with
current incineration processes, and no generation of harmful by-product gas.
3.2. Direct reduction to iron
The blast furnace is the dominant method of smelting iron from oxides. Steel producers using
EAF based on scrap are moving upscale rolling products that require lower levels of residual
elements available from direct reduiced iron (DRI). The amounts of DRI available of the
number of molten iron facilities grow substantially. In 1999 direct reduction plants produced
17.8 million tons or 3 per cent of world steel production. The first industrial production of hot
metal (molten iron) without the use of coke metallurgy was realized with DRI in the Corex
plant at the 1980 for the production of solid sponge iron. The blast furnace and the Corex
(based on coal) are the only ones smelting reduction processes for the production of liquid hot
metal. The gas from Corex process is similar to coke oven gas and can be used as a fuel in
boilers. The sulfur from the coal forms an agglomeration with the constituents of the slag. A
part of the sulfur leaves the device as H2S. The clean-up system comprising a standard boiler
is used to remove the SO2 and NOx (see Mechanical and Cyclonic Collectors).
The Midrex (Midland Ross Corporation) and HYL - III processes with the charge of lump ore
as well as the Fior, Circored and Finmet processes with the use of fine ores, are used in
practice for the production of sponge iron based on the use of natural gas (NG) in vertical
shaft type plants. In the Midrex process the reducing gas is obtained through the cracking of
the NG in a reformer. The reducing gas is blown into the shaft. The top gas, rich on CO2,
passed through the scrubber and cooled to about 40oC, is used for cracking as well as for
heating the NG in the reformer. One third of the cleaned gas must be purged to remove CO2
and N2. The purged gas from reformer is cleaned by a scrubber or ESP. The sulfur removed
from the reformer cycle may be recovered. The sponge iron is cooled in separate area or is
extracted for hot briqueting. Usually Midrex plants operate with pellets (80 per cent), because
too high percentage of lump ore can increase the dust in the crud gas. The HYL - III operates
similar to the Midrex but in this case the reducing gas contains a large per cent of H2 which is
produced through the reaction of NG with steam. In 1990 Midrex and HYL accounted for 90
per cent of DRI in the world.
The SL/RN and DRC rotary kiln processes as well as the Inmetco rotary hearth process are in
operation for DRI, based on coal. The total dust collected from the raw material and the
product-handling amount to from 250 kg t-1 to 300 kg t-1 of iron produced. The waste gas
contains hydrocarbons, CO and H2. The air in the kiln influence whether the sulfur is present
as oxides or H2S. About one third of the sulfur in the feed reverts to the SO2. The destruction
of PAH is favorized by reducing the temperature from 1200oC to 500oC at the exit. The
exhaust gas is combusted in an afterburner. An afterburner would require a scrubber for PM.
The alternative use of boiler needs the use of ESP for PM removal. The medium heat content
gases do not produce high amounts of NOx. The SO2 and the NOx removing methods are the
same as with the conventional boilers (see Thermal and Catalytic Combustion).
The Finmet process is a further development of the Fior process. In both cases the reducing
gas is produced through the cracking of the NG with steam. The sponge iron production
occurs in a reduction of fine ores in the fluidized beds. The extracted fine-grained sponge iron
is directly briquetted.
The hot metal bath process, Hismelt, differs from the other DRI processes with the influence
of the coal-reactant on the volatile and nonvolatile organic emissions from the furnace. Most
of the sulfur from the coal and the metallic feed would stay with slag and metal. This process
operates at high temperature and in these conditions the N2 from the infiltrated air sometimes
produce high NO2 concentration. The PAH would be destroyed if the temperature at the
mouth of the combustion hood is over 850oC. The SO2 retained by the oxides in the pre-
reduction step. The PM from this device is similar to those from a BOF.
The comparison of the blast furnace route, including the sinter and coking plants, or hot metal
production and DRI shown that the blast furnace route and particularly for integrated steel
production represent the most cost effective route. The production costs of Corex can
approach the more advantageous hot metal costs of the modern blast furnaces. The production
of sponge iron is more favorable from the DRI based on coal rather than NG. Direct reduction
iron plants based on NG can more efficiently produce iron in the countries with cheap energy
sources.

4. Steel production: Control of pollution

4.1. Basic oxygen process
In the basic oxygen process (BOP), molten iron and iron scrap are refined by injecting oxygen
in a furnace. The charge is 70 per cent molten iron and 30 per cent scrap. The oxygen reacts
with carbon and other impurities to remove them from the metal. The CO produced by the
reactions in the BOF can be controlled by combustion at the mouth of the furnace and then
oriented to gas cleaning, as with open hoods, or the combustion can be suppressed, as with
closed hoods. The BOP is conducted in large refractory lined pear shaped furnace with a
capacity up to 400 tons. There are different modifications of the process. The conventional
BOP has oxygen blown into the top of the furnace through a water cooled injection. In the
Quelle Basic Oxygen Process (Q-BOP), oxygen is lanced through tuyeres located in the
bottom of the furnace. The third type is the combined blown ( K-OBM) furnace, where 30 per
cent of oxygen is blown through the bottom. Nitrogen, Ar, NG and powdered lime can also be
injected through the bottom tuyeres. A typical BOP cycle consists of the scrap charge, hot
metal charge, oxygen blow, alloy addition, tapping and slagging. The full cycle ranges from
20 to 50 minutes.
Significant pollution from the BOP occurs during the oxygen blowing period. The
predominantly emitted compounds are iron oxides, but also heavy metals and fluorides are
present. Charging emissions depend on the particular quality and quantity of the scrap charged
to the furnace and on the pour rate. The tapping emissions include iron oxides, sulfur oxides
and other metallic oxides, depending of the grade of used scrap. Hot metal transfer emissions
are mostly iron oxides. The BOF is equipped with a primary hood capture system located
directly over the open mouth of the furnace to absorb the emissions during the period of
oxygen blow. Two types of capture systems are used to collect exhaust gas as it leaves the
furnace mouth: closed hood or open hood.
4.2. Electric Arc Furnace
The electric arc furnaces (EAF) are used to produce carbon and alloy steels. The input
material to an EAF is 100 per cent scrap. EAF are the prime means of recycling steel scrap
into liquid steel. Cylindrical, refractory lined EAF is equipped with carbon electrodes lowered
through the furnace roof. With electrodes retracted, the furnace roof can be rotated aside to
permit the charge of scrap steel by overhead crane. Alloying agents and fluxing materials
usually are added through the doors on the side of the furnace. Electric current between the
electrodes generates heat through the scrap. After melting and refining periods, the slag and
steel are poured from the furnace by tilting. The production of steel in an EAF is a batch
process. Cycles range from about 1 to 5 hours to produce carbon steel and from 5 to 10 hours
to produce alloy steel. Scrap steel is charged to begin a cycle. Alloying agents and slag are
added for refining. Stages of each cycle are charging, melting, refining (oxygen blowing) and
tapping.
The operations, which generate emissions, and dust specially, during the process are melting,
charging scrap, tapping steel and dumping slag. Iron oxide is the major constituent of the PM
emitted during melting. The PM emitted during refining is calcium oxide from the slag. The
charging scrap emissions usually contain iron and other metallic oxides from alloys in the
scrap metals. The constituents of the slag emissions are iron oxides from the fluxes. During
the tapping, iron oxide is the major PM emitted.
The industry uses the following capture systems: direct shell evacuation, side draft hood,
combination hood, canopy hood, and furnace enclosures. Direct shell evacuation consists of
ductwork attached to a separate or fourth hole in the furnace roof, which draws emissions to a
gas cleaner. This system works when the furnace is upright with the roof in place. Side draft
hood collect furnace off gases from around the electrode holes and the doors after gases leave
the furnace. The combination hood incorporates elements from the fourth hole and side draft
systems. An air gap in the ducting introduces secondary air for combustion of CO in the
exhaust gas. The canopy hood captures emissions during charging and tapping. In the
different EAF the canopy hood is incorporated with one of the other preceding systems. The
furnace enclosure surrounds the furnace and evacuates the emissions through hooding in the
top of the enclosure.
4.2.1. Electric Arc Furnace Dust Treatment
Electric arc furnace dust is a hazardous waste because it fails some test for lead, cadmium and
chromium. Electric arc furnace treatment creates different opportunities: a hazardous waste
can be rendered innocuous and its products safely enter again the environmental cycle and the
great quantities of already mined and concentrated zinc, iron, chromium and nickel can be
returned to the economics. For example, in the Italy mini mill dust recycling facilities has the
capacity to process 10 000 tonnes of dust annually, removing 2000 tons of zink. In Japan, the
Kawasaki Steel has a method to recover iron and zink from EAF dust that is similar to the
process in the blast furnace. It utilizes a shaft furnace with two tiers of tueres and a zinc
recovery at the top of the furnace. In the U.S. 700 000 tons year-1 of EAF dust are removed.
This quantity contains 100 000 tons of zink and 200 000 tons of iron. The range of chemical
composition for carbon steel EAF dust in the U.S. is following (per cent): zinc - 15-25, lead -
2-5, cadmium - 0.1-0.2, chlorine - 1-5, and iron - 30-40.
The methods of treating EAF dust are included: pyrometallurgical (kiln, flame reactor, bath
smelting, and plasma and electric based) - Waels kiln, ZTT Ferrolime, MR Electrothermic,
Ausmelt, MetWool, Enviroplas, etc.; hydromatallurgical (acidic or basic leaching alone or
combined with electrowinning) - EZINEX, Resada, Cashman; stabilization using cement and
other additives; glassification; and hybrid hydrometallurgical/pyrometallurgical - MRT and
IBDR - ZIP.
The economics for treating dust depending on the process employed. The main factor ranges
generally apply: tipping fees - $150-200 ton-1 dust; transportation costs - $15-50 ton-1 dust;
operating costs - $100-200 ton-1 dust. Producing high value zinc metall selling for $1000 ton-1
and metallized iron as a scrap replacement selling for $100 to 120 ton-1 rather than leady zinc
oxide ($300 ton-1), iron oxide ($40 to 50 ton-1), or slag ($5 to 15 ton-1) is a prospective
economic direction.
Argon oxygen decarburization processis used for the production of speciaalty steel.The
vessels oo this process are charged with high carbon andccchromium molen steel from
EAF.The process is a converter type that is equipped with gaas injection of oxygen with argon
or nytrogen and air in the bottom.This is necessary for the decarburizing the wwthout
oxxxxxydizing the alloing components.The gas,blown through the bottom into the molten
steel, generates the primary pollution.These emissions are captured in a local hood and
oriented to the EAF fume system. The primary off-gas hood require attentive maintenance if it
is not designed to withstand impringement by the flame of the vessel-mouth.The vessel off-
gas ( CO and the inert injection ) is burned and collect.The hood and ssubsequent ducting are
water cooled.Canopy hood, similar to those of EAF canopy hood, is used to capture the
emissions of processes charging and tapping.
Ladle metallurgy vacuum degassing is used to adjust the composition and the temperature of a
steel heat from aprimary melting furnace such as EAF or BOF. Ladle metallurgy facilities
include a series of processes: injection or addition of fluxes, nonferrous metals and gases;
raking or skimming of slag; degassing by vacuum; and electric arc reheating. These were
introduced to producecleaner steel in response to more stringent standards.The combination of
processesat a different plants depends on the product made, the requirements of the melting
furnace and contnuous caster, the quality desired. The ladle metallurgy facilities includes
deslagging station,ladle furnace,vacuum degasser tank, strong stir-powder-injection station
and wire injection station.The gas emisions are captured similarly to the BOF.The particulate
emissions are collected by baghouses, exept for vacuum degassing systems,which have steam
ejectors and condensers

5. Ferroalloy Production: Control of pollution

A ferroalloy is an alloy of iron and one or more other elements such as Si, Mn, and Cr. Silicon
is used for deoxidation in steel and as an alloying agent in cast iron. Manganese is essential to
counteract the harmful effect of sulfur in the production steels and cast iron. Chromium
provides corrosion resistance to stainless steels. Nickel, molybdenum, cobalt, titanum,
vanadium and the rare earth are also added as ferroalloys. A variety of furnace types produce
ferroalloys: submerged electric arc furnace (SEAF), induction furnace, electrolytic cells, etc.
About 25 percent of all ferroalloys are produced in SEAF. The SEAF s products include:
silvery iron (15-22 per cent Si), ferrosilicon (50 per cent Si), ferrosilicon (65-75 per cent Si),
FeSi (90 per cent Si), high carbon (HC) ferromanganese, HC ferrochrom,
silicon/manganese/zirconium (SMZ), etc. A typical reaction producing ferrosilicon (4) is:

FeO3 + 2SiO2 + 7C 2FeSi + 7CO (4)

The reactants in SEAF process consist of metallic ores (ferrous oxides, chrome oxides, etc.) a
reductant (coke, coal, etc.) and flux, usually-limestone. In the SEAF the carbon source reacts
with the metal oxides to form CO and to reduce the ores to base metal. There is particular
matter from all operations during ferroaloy production: raw material handling, smetling,
tapping and product handling. The organic emissions are generated exclusively from the
smelting operations. Carbon monoxide is formed as a byproduct of the chemical reaction
between oxygen in the metal oxides of the charge and carbon contained in the reducing agent.
The head-induced fume consists of the oxides of the products being produced from the
reducing agent. The fumes are enriched by silicon dioxide, calcium oxide, and magnesium
oxide, if present in the charge.
In an open EAF, all CO and much of the organic matter burn with the induced air at the
furnace top. The remaining fume, captured by hooding above the furnace, is directed to a gas-
cleaning device. Two emission capture systems, not usually connected to the same gas
cleaning installations are necessary for covered furnaces. A primary capture system withdraws
gases from the furnace cover, a secondary system captures fumes released around the
electrode seals and during tapping. Scrubbers are used to control exhaust gas from sealed
furnaces. This gas contains a substantial percentage of the organic emissions, which are much
greater for covered furnaces then open furnaces. The gas from sealed and mix sealed furnaces
is usually flared at the exhaust of the scrubber. The CO-rich gas is used as a fuel in sintering
and kilns. The efficiency of flares for the control of CO and the reduction of VOC is estimated
to be greater than 98 per cent.
Fumes are generated also in tapping. It is usually conducted during 10 to 20 per cent of the
furnace operating time. The most of fumes are a result of induced heat transfer from the
molten metal (slag) as it contacts the runners, ladles, casting beds and ambient air. Some
plants capture these emissions to varying degrees with a main canopy hood. Other plants
employ separate tapping hoods ducted to control device. After furnace tapping is completed, a
reaction ladle is used to adjust the process by oxidation, chlorination and gas mixing.
Reaction ladle emissions are often captured by the tapping control system.
Approximately 50 per cent of ferroalloy devices have a control for dust emissions. Dust
generated from raw material storage may be controlled by several methods: sheltering storage
pile from the wind with block walls or plastic covers. Dust generated by crushing, sizing and
drying is captured by collection devices, such as cyclones, scrubbers or bag houses.

6. Rolling: Control of Pollution

Forming processes convert solidified steel into products useful for different industrial
purposes. There are a numbers of steel-forming processes, including forging, pressing,
drawing, extruding, but the most important one is rolling. Rolling operations are usually
subdivided into hot working and cold working. Semi-finished form (slabs, blooms and billets)
are made by the ingot process or the continuous casting process. In the ingot method, the
finishing stages of steel making begin when ingots are lowered into furnace called soaking
pits that reheat them to the temperature of rolling. The ingot is rolled in a primary mill into
semi-finished slabs or into rectangular shapes called blooms. In the continuous casting
process, steel is poured directly into a tundish, which feeds a curved mold where the steel is
solidified directly into semi-finished products. In this case the end products, also, are slabs,
blooms, or billets. Shaping by rolling consist of passing the steel between two rolls that
revolve at the same speed, but in opposite direction. During hot rolling the steel is heated to
2300oC. All rolling parameters such as temperature, thickness, width, speed of rolling are
computerized.
Air emissions from hot rolling mills consist of water vapor from scale breaking or
metallurgical water spray and are usually uncontrolled. There are potential emissions from
rolling sollution aerosols that are localized to the rolling stand, as well as small pieces of scale
that may become airborne. Steel rolled on the hot strip mill can be fed into a cold rolling mill.
Without reheating the cold mill rolls the steel under great pressure to precision thickness and
specific surfaces. This mill exhibits MACT and is expected to release minimal quantities of
pollutants because of the high level of control devices.
The per cent of control by different measures in the major processing steps is following: PM -
from pinch roll leveler, flash butt wilder and tension leveler - 99 by bag houses; HCl vapor -
from pickling - 99 by scrubbers; spray of water and oil - from tandem cold mill - 80 by mist
eliminator; alkali mist - from electrolytic cleaning - 95 by air washer; oil aerosol - from
electrostatic oiler - 90 by mist eliminator. In hot and cold rolling, one can expect NOx
emissions from combustion boilers, reheat and annealing furnace. These emissions are
controlled generally by reducing flame temperature by means of: flue gas re-circulation from
the boiler outlet into a wind box; low turbulence burner, which rapidly radiate the heat; allow
heat release furnace, which absorb energy from the flame rapidly or by expensive post
combustion method - SCR, where ammonia is used as reducing agent in reaction with oxides
of nitrogen in the presence of catalyst to form N2 and water.
Scarfing. Whatever the production technique, the blooms, billets or slabs undergo a scarfing
which removes surface defects before shaping or rolling. Scarfing may be performed by a
machine applying jets or oxygen to the surface of hot semi-finished steel or with torches by
hand on cold semi-finished steel. The flame is used to melt the steel surface while the oxigen
stream propels the oxidized product from the surface.The device of hot scarfing is placed
before the slab or bloom shears or after the roughing or first billets mill. The device scarfer
removes defects up to 4.5 mm which is sufficient to remove defects such as rolled seam and
light scabs.
During this activity, emissions are produced when molten steel is poured into ingot molds,
and when semi-finished steel is machine or manually scarfed. The smoke of scarfing machine
contains some solids, steam and gases. The submicron particles give the smoke a yellowish-
brown color. Smoke gas contains (per cent): 23.0 - O2, 76.5 - N2, 0.12 - H2, and 0.22 - CO2.
Pollutants emitted are iron, silicon, manganese and other oxides. The teeming emissions are
rarely controlled. The machine scarfing generally use as ESP or water spray scrubbers for
control. Most hand scarfing is uncontrolled. The devices used for the smoke-removal system
shoud be abrasion and corrosion resistant in accordance with the nature of smoke and the
composition of steel scarfed.
Pickling. Pickling is a process of removing scale by contacting steel with acid solution.
During the hot rolling of steel in air, an oxide scale forms that must be removed before
processing procedures. Rods, bars and tubing are immersed in tanks containing sulfuric acid
solutions. For alloy steel the same operation requires the use of nitric or hydrofluoric acids.
Concerning the pollution a droplet of acid is formed during hydrogen evolution and the spray
and water vapor are present in the air. When a hydrochloric acid is used, a hydrogen chloride
vapor is also present. Scrubber and air exhaust systems are used to recover acid components.
The water from the scrubber is used for makeup an addition to the pickling tanks and the
waste acid solution can be regenerated or treated to prepare iron salts for different industrial
use. A performed by Green Technology Group (USA) "Pickliq" process combines diffusion
dialysis, energy transfer and low-temperature crystallization to provide efficient recovery of
acids for reuse in acid pickling operations. The system produces a high-quality by-product of
ferrous sulfate salt suitable for sale.

7. Iron Foundries: Control of Pollution

The iron foundries produce a high - strength casting products for transportation manufacturing
and industrial machinery. Iron foundries cast different type of iron: grey iron, ductile iron,
white iron. Cast iron is an Fe-C-Si alloy, containing from 2 to 4 per cent C, from 0.25 to 3 per
cent Si, and varying percentages of S, P an Mn. Sometimes are used the following additives:
Ni, Cu, Cr, Mo, Ti, fluorspar, etc. Half of the iron castings were used by automotive and truck
manufacturing industry, while approximately 50 per cent of ductile iron castings were
pressure pipe and fitting. The major operations are raw material handling, melting, mold and
core preparation, and casting.
The handling operation consists in the conveying of raw materials to the furnace: metals (pig
iron, iron and steel scrub); fluxes (carbonates, carbide compounds and fluoride) and fuel
(coke, coal, oil, NG). The all raw materials are added to the melting furnaces directly. For
induction furnaces the scrap must be pretreated to remove grease and oil by means of
solvents, centrifugation, or by preheating. The fugitive PM from the handling and preparation
operations can be controlled in the point of disturbance by routing air from enclosures through
bag houses or wet collectors. The preparation of scrap with heat emits smoke, CO, and
organic compounds, while the utilization of solvents degreaser emit organics. About 90 per
cent of the organics and CO are removed by afterburners and catalytic incinerators.
The basic melting operations are charging, melting, refining, removal of slag and molding.
The cupolas, electric arc, and induction furnaces are most widespread in iron foundry.
Cupola. The incomplete combustion of coke causes CO and SO2. According to American
Foundrymens Society the average emissions from an uncontrolled cupola were from 6 kg to
7.7 kg of particulate per melted ton. The dust composition and amount depend on the cupola
types. The dusts include some or all of the materials: Fe, Si, Mg, Mn, Ca, Zn oxides, Cd and
Pb. The fluorine emitted cause corrosion with dust collectors. When CO2 reacts with water
vapor, the carbonic acid formed cause corrosion as well. Scrubbers and bag houses are used to
remove PM and achieve efficiencies of 95 and 98 per cent, respectively. The afterburner
oxidizes CO and burns organics and tars. Teflon-coated glass-fiber bags are used on a cupola
because of their high temperature resistance. Catridge collectors and pulse-jets can also be
used to collect pollutants from sand and casting cleaning operations. In comparison with other
melting furnaces, cupola emit the most hazardous organic and inorganic constituents.
Arc and induction melting furnaces. Electric arc furnaces are large, steel welded cylindrical
vessels equipped with a removable roof through which three carbon electrodes are inserted.
During melting in electric arc furnace, metal and mineral oxides generate PM by the
transformation of mineral additives and vaporization of iron. CO results from combustion of
graphite and carbon added to the charge. Hydrocarbons result from vaporization and
incomplete combustion of oil remaining on the charged scrap. The PM is removed by bag
houses and scrubbers. Typical dust loading from EAF range from 4.5 to 6.8 kg per ton melted.
In the induction furnaces the heating and melting occur through low-, or high - frequency
alternating current. These furnaces have lower emissions per ton of melted metal and as result,
in spite of lower capacity, they have supplanted cupola in many foundries.
Pouring, Casting, and Finishing. Particulate emissions can be generated during the treatment
and inoculation of molten iron before pouring. The addition of Mg to molten iron to produce
ductile iron causes a reaction between the Mg and molten iron with emissions of magnesium
oxides and metallic fumes. Some techniques, such as the tundush method, result in a
considerable diminution of the emissions than others. The emissions from pouring consist of
metal fumes, CO, organic compounds and particulates evolved from the mold and core
materials. Arsenic, Cr, halogenated and aromatic hydrocarbons are released in the refining
process. The pouring emissions are captured by a collection system and the treated gases are
vented to the atmosphere. Emissions continue as the molds cool and during the shakeout
operation. The major pollutant emitted in mold and core production is particulates from sand
preparation, sand mixing with additives, and mold and core forming. Organics, CO, and
particulates are emitted from core baking and organic emissions from mold drying. Bag
houses and scrubbers are used to remove the particulate from mold and core production.
Organics and CO emissions are controlled by afterburners and catalytic incinerators.
In addition to organic binders, mold and cores may be held together in the desired shape by
means of a organic polymer network. This material undergoes thermal decomposition when
exposed to the 1400o C. At this temperature occurs pyrolysis of the binder which results in
different free radicals which recombine to form a wide range of chemical compounds.
Emissions during pouring include decomposition products of PM, resins and organic
compounds. Finishing operations emits PM during the removale of burrs, gates and risers, and
during shot blast cleaning. These particulates consist of iron, iron oxide and abrasive media.
Cyclon separators and bag houses are controled these emissions.

8. Steel Foundries: Control of Pollution

Steel foundry produces steel castings for a large utilization in machinery, transportation and
many other industries. Steel castings are divided into 3 types: carbon steel, low-alloy steel and
high-alloy steel. The major operations of a steel foundry are: raw materials handling, melting,
alloying, molding, casting and finishing. Raw material handling operations include receving,
unloading, storing, and conveying all raw materials for the foundry. Some of the raw materials
used by steel foundries are iron and steel scrap, foundry returns, metal turnings, alloys, carbon
additives, fluxes (limestone, soda ash, flourspar and calcium carbide), sand, sand additives
and binders. These raw materials are received in ships, railcars, trucks, and containers, and are
transferred by trucks, loadrs, and conveyors to both open- pile and enclosed storage areas.
They are then transferred by similar means from storage to the subsequent processes.
Metal melting process operations include: scrap preparation; furnace charging, in which
metal, scrap, alloys, carbon, and flux are added to the furnace; melting, during which the
furnace remains closed; backcharging, which is the addition of more metal (alloys); refining
by oxidizing slag or by oxidizing and reducing slagging operations; oxygen lancing into the
molten steel to adjust the chemistry of the metal and speed up the melt; and tapping the
molten metal into a ladle or directly into molds.
In steel foundry the electric furnaces are used exclusively for melting steel. There are 2 types
of electric furnaces: direct arc and induction. A small per cent of the secondary steel industry
uses crucible and pneumatic converter. In the end of the melting process, the molten metal is
tapped and poured into a ladle. The molten metal may be treated in the ladle by adding alloys
and other chemicals. The treated metal is then poured into molds and allowed to cool. When
cooled, the castings are placed on a vibrating grid and the sand of the mold and core is shaken
away from the casting. In the cleaning and finishing process, burrs, risers, and gates are
broken or ground off to match the contour of the casting. Afterward, the castings can be shot-
blasted to remove remaining mold sand and scale.
Emissions from the raw materials handling operations are fugitive particulates generated from
receiving, storing, and conveying all raw materials for the foundry. These emissions are
cotrolled by enclosing the major emission points and routing the air from the enclosures
through bag houses. Emissions from scrap preparation consist of smoke, organics, and CO if
heating is used and consist of hydrocarbon if solvent degreasing is used. In this case catalytic
incinerators and afterburners of approximately 95 percent control efficiency for CO and
organics are used. Emissions from melting furnaces are particulates, carbon monoxide,
organics, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and small quantities of chlorides and fluorides. The
particulates, chlorides, and fluorides are generated by the flux. Scrap contains VOC and dirt
particles, along with a oxidized phosphorus, silicon, and manganes. In addition, organics on
the scrap and the carbon additive increase CO emissions. There are also trace constituents
such as nickel, hexavalent chromium, lead, cadmium, and arsenic.
The highest concentrations of furnace emissions occur when the furnace lids and doors are
opened during charging, backcharging, alloying, oxygen lancing, slag removal, and tapping
operations. These emissions escape in the furnace building and are vented through roof vents.
Controls for emissions during the melting and refining operations focus on venting the
furnace gases and fumes directly to an emissions collection duct and control system. Controls
for fugitive furnace emissions involve either the use of building roof hoods or special hoods
near the furnace doors, to collect emissions and route them to emission control system.
Emission control systems commonly used to control particulate emissions from electric arc
and induction furnaces are bag filters, cyclones, and venturi scrubbers.
Molten steel is tapped from a furnace into a ladle. Alloying agents such as aluminium,
titanium, zirconium, vanadium, and boron can be added to the ladle. Ferroalloys are used to
produce steel alloys and adjust the oxygen content while the molten steel is in the ladle.
Emissions consist of iron oxides during tapping in addition to oxide fumes from alloys added
to the ladle. The major pollutants from mold and core production are particulates from sand
reclaiming, sand preparation, sand mixing with binders and additives, and mold and core
forming.

9. Concluding Remarks
In the iron and steel industry environmental issues now command center stage. Decisions to
maintain or to modify current sinter, coke, iron and steel utilization and to develop sustainable
environmental strategy must positively respond to public and regulatory concerns over how
iron and steel technology may adversely affect human health and local, regional, and global
ecosystems.

Related Chapters
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Glossary
BaP : benzo(a)pyrene
BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand
BOF : Basic Oxygen Furnace
COD : Chemical Oxygen Demand
DRI : Direct Oxygen Reduction
EAF : Electric Arc Furnace
ESP : electrostatic precipitator
Gt : giga tons (109 tons)
KMnO4 : potassium permanganate
LAER : Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
MACT : Maximum Achievable Control Technology
MCS : Multi-Chamber-System
: micron (10-6)
NG : natural gas
NR/HR : CO-Non Recovery/Heat Recovery-Coke Oven
PAH : polycyclic organic hydrocarbon
PM : particulate matter
POM : polycyclic organic matter
: battery systems with enlarged flues and crossover gas
PVR
circulation.
SCR : selective catalytic reduction
SCS : Single Chamber System
VOC : volatile organic matter

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Biographical Sketch

Doushko Doushanov is Charman of the Bulgarian Society of Petrochemists, Sofia, Bulgaria.His graduate thesis
ilustrated the mathematical simulation of large scale technological systems. He has worked several years in
Metallurgical works "Kremikovtzi", Departement of Fuel-Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, as associate professor
in the National University in Algeria (Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum). He has worked also as
consultant to the UNIDO on cokemaking and metallurgical problems. In this capacity he has contributed to the
real improvement and protection of the environmental media - air, water and soil from the iron and steel plants.
His interests include also the Petrochemical Processes, Gazification, Pyrolysis (Adsorbents), Picling, and
Rolling. The results of Doushanov, s researches have been reported in numerous scientific publications also in
the Official Journal of Balkan Environmental Association ( B.EN.A.).

To cite this chapter

D. L. Doushanov, (2006), CONTROL OF POLLUTION IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY, in
Pollution Control Technologies, [Eds. Bhaskar Nath, and Georgi St. Cholakov], in Encyclopedia of Life Support
Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK,
[http://www.eolss.net] [Retrieved July 6, 2007]