Capitulo 1 Bow In this chapter, the basics of heat transfer are introduced and discussed. The science of thermodynamics deals with the amount of heat transfer asa system undergoes a process from ‘one equilibrium state o another, whereas the science of heat transfer deals with the rate of heat transfer, which isthe main ‘quantity of interest inthe design and evaluation of heat transfer ‘equipment, The sum of al forms of energy of a systems called total energy, and it includes the internal, kinetic, and potential ‘energies. The internal energy represents the molecular energy ‘ofa system, and it consists of sensible, latent, chemical, and nuclear forms, The sensible and latent forms of internal energy ‘can be transfered from one medium to another asa result of & temperature difference, and are refered to a heat or thermal ‘energy. Thus, heat transfers the exchange of the sensible und Tntent forms of internal energy between two mediums as 2 re- sult ofa temperature difference. The amount of heat transferred per unit time is called heat transfer rate and is denoted by 0. ‘The rate of heat transfer per unit area is called heat flux, ‘Assystem of fixed mass is called a closed system and a sys- tem that involves mass transfer aeross is houndaries is called an open system or control volume. The first law of thermody ‘namics of the energy balance for any system undergoing any process can be expressed as Ey E E, ‘When a stationary closed system involves heat ransfer only and no work interactions across its houndary, the energy bal= ‘ance relation reduces to O=mcar where Q isthe amount of net heat transfer to or from the sys= tem. When heat is transferred at a coastant rate of Q, the ‘mount of heat transfer during a time interval At ean be deter- mined from Q = Gd Under steady conditions and in the absence of any work in- teractions, the conservation of energy relation fora control vol- ume with one inlet and one exit with negligible changes in Kinetic and potential energies ean be expressed as o niCAT wheres = pVA. isthe mass flow rate and Q is the rate of net, heat transfer into or out of the control volume. Heat canbe transferred in thee diferent modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction isthe transfer of energy from the more energetic particles ofa substance tothe adjacent less energetic ones a a result of interactions between the part les, and is expressed by Fourier’ law of heat conduction as ar Goi = AE where k is the thermal conductivity ofthe material, A is the area normal tothe diction of heat transfer, and did isthe temperature gradient. The magnitude ofthe rate of heat con- ‘duction across a plane layer of thickness Lis given by ar Doni = kA Where ATis the temperature difference aeross the layer ‘Convection i the move of heat transfer between a solid su face and the adjacent liquid of gas that isin motion, and in- solves the combined effets of conduction and fluid maxion ‘The rate of convection heat transfer i expressed by Newion's law of cooling as Qamecie = HA, (F, ~ Te) where his the convection heat tanger coefficient in Win? °C ‘or Biuvh f= °F, A, isthe surface area through which con- ‘ection heat tansfer takes place, 7 isthe surface temperature, tnd Tis the temperature of the flu suicienty far from the surface ‘Radiation isthe enorey emited by matter in the form of, cleetromagnetic waves (or photons) asa result ofthe changes, in the electronic configurations ofthe atoms or molecules. The ‘maximum rate of radiation that can he emitted fom a surface atan absolute temperature 7 is given bythe Stefan-Boltemann {ai 38 Ora wn = AT where 0 5467 X 10-* Wim -K* for OATES 10 Buh» AE RY is the Stefn-Boltomann ‘When a surface of emissivity « and surface area A, at an ab- solute temperature 7, i completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface a absolute temperature Ty, separated by a {2 (Guch a i) that doesnot intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is given by Gna = 204, (TS Thy) In this ease, the emissivity and the surface area of the sur rounding surface do not have any effect on the net radiation heat transfer, “The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined from Ossert = 0 sen WHERE Oy the rate a which ra diation is incident on the surface and eis the absorptivity of| the surface.Capitulo 2: Ain In this chapter we have studied the heat conduction equation tnd its solutions. Heat conduction in a medium is sid to be steady when the temperate does nt vary with Gime and ‘steady or transient when it des. Heat conduction ina medium is sid tobe one-dimensional when conduction is significant in one dimension only and negligible in the other two di ‘mensions Its sti o be rwo-dimensional when conduction in the third dimension is negligible and thre-dimensional whe, conduction in all dimensions is significant. In heat transfer tnalysis, the conversion of electrical, chemical, or nuclear ‘energy into heat (or thermal) energy i characterized as heat generation. “The heat condition equation can be derived by performing tan energy balance on a differential volume elemeat. The one ‘dimensional heat conduston equation in restanguar,eind- ‘al, and spherical coondinatesjstems forthe case of constant thermal conductivities are expressed as where the property = Apis the thermal difsiviy of the ‘materi The solution of a heat conduction problem depends on the conditions atthe surfaces, and the mathematical expeesions forthe thermal conditions at the boundaries are called the Inslation thermal symmetry 70) ant i i a Convection 70) a) OO = nit.) TO) and — Oe = bTL) ~ Tsk ‘where and rate the convection heat transfer coefficients and Ta, and Tay are the temperatures ofthe surounding mei ‘ums onthe tv sides of he plat, Radiation: ec ROL and w 2 = oor) The] where; and es are the emisivities of the boundary surfaces, @ = 5667 x 10-* Wim? K*is the Stfan- Boltzmann constant, fad Tay A Tuy» A the average temperatures Of the SUE Faces Sirounding the to sides of the plate. In radiation ealey- lations, the temperatures must bein Kor R Interface of two vies And B in perfect contact at = 5 T.t09)= Ty) amd Ky where Ay and ky are the therm ‘and 8. “eat generation is usually expressed per uni volume ofthe ‘medium and is denoted by, whose unit Wri’. Under teady conditions, the surface temperature T, ofa plane val of thick ness 2 cinder of outer radius, and sphere of rats, in which hea is generated ata constant rae of por unit vol. ume ina surrounding medium at can be expressed as conductivities of the layers ‘boundory conditions. The solution of transient heat condi problems also depends on the condition ofthe medium atthe beginning of the heat conduction process. Such a contin, which is usually specified at time ? = 0s called the initial ‘condition, which sa mathematical expression for the tempet- ‘ture distribution ofthe medium intaly. Complete mathemat- ical deseripion of « heat conduction problem requires the Specification of two boundary conditions foreach dimension along which beat conduction is significant and anil con ition when the problem is transient. The most common boundary conditions are the specified temperature specified ‘heat fus, convection, and radiation boundary conditions. A boundary srface, n general, may involve specitid heat ha, ‘convection, and radiation atthe same time. For steady one-dimensional heat ansfer through a pte of thickness Z, te various types of boundary conditions atthe surfaces at = Oand x ~ [ean he expressed as Specified temperature: TO=T and T= Where 7) and 7; are the specified temperatures at surfaces at r= Oande= L Specified hea fu: pf Where gy and i are the specifiod heat fluxes at surfaces at s=Oandx=L where his the convection heat transfer coefficient, The maxi ‘mum temperature rise between te surface and the midsection ofa medium is given by ST pn” ATi Mae = GE ‘When the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature (Tis know, the average value ofthe thermal conductivity in the temperature range between 7; and 7, can be determined from if * acnar at ‘Thea the rte of steady heat transfer though a plane wall, ‘ylinrical aye, or spherical layer canbe expresses 8 [Pana 2eL_(* ~tirsny ), MO Sone = Hh R= ‘The variation of thermal conductivity of material with temperature ean often be approximated aalinear fnetion ad expressed as ken = kal + 87) Where is called the temperature coefficient of thermal conductvy,(One-dimensional heat transfer though a simple or composite body exposed to convection from both sides to mediums at temperatures T,, and T= ean be expressed as w) Where Ryo is the total thermal resistance between the two ‘mediums: For a plane wall exposed to convection on both sides, the toal resistance is expressed as R + Rowe + Raat + Ra: aft ia Ele ple ia ‘This relation can be extended to plane walls that consist of wo ‘or more layers by adding an additional resistance foreach ad- litonal layer. The elementary thermal resistance relations can be expressed as follows: ak Conduction resistance (plane wall): Rasy = Eq Inert) Conduction resistance cylinder): Rey = SE Fannk Conduction resistance (sphere): Convection resistance: Interface resistance: Renee = GA Raalition resistance: Roa a Tah Finned surfaces are commonly used in practice to enhance heat transfer. Fins enhance heat transfer from a surface by ex- posing a larger surface area to convection. The temperature Uistribution along the fn for very long fins and for fins with negligible heat transfer at the fin ae given by Tw)-Te Very long fn SPRE ron Te) Te _coshatl Adiabatic fn tip: aa Tae where a = \V/RpTER,,p is the perimeter, and A, isthe cross sectional area of the fin, The rates of heat transfer for both cases are given to be Very a long Orme =—KeE| = VIERA, Te) ‘Adiabatic a Fit Qranseg = “RA = VIPAT, ~ T=) anh ab a ef Fins exposed to convection at their tips can be treated as fins with insulated tps by using the corrected length = L + Alp instead ofthe actual fin length. ‘The temperature of afin drops along the fin, and thus the heat transfer from the fin will be less because of the decreasing temperature difference toward the fin ip. To aecount forthe e- fect of this decrease in temperature on heat transfer, we define Sin efficiency as on _ Actual heat anser rate fom the fi Braun” Weal heat wanstr rate from the nif the ene fin were at base temperstare ™ When the fin efficiency is available, the rate of heat transfer from a fin can be determined from Gn = oO aan = Melty Ty ~ Te) where is the thermal contact conductance, Ris the thermal contact resistance, and the radiation heat transfer coefficient is defined as hag = 00(T? + TaD, + Ta) (Once the rate of heat transfers available, the temperature drop across any layer can be determined fom Ar= OR “The thermal resistance concept can also be used to solve steady heat transfer problems involving parallel layers or combined series-parallel arrangements ‘Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or aspherical shell will inrease the rate of heat transfer ifthe outer radius of the insulation is less than the critical radius of insulation, defined as ‘The effectiveness of an insulation is often given in terms of| its R-value, the thermal resistance ofthe material per unit sur face area, expressed as -t Revalue = (flat insulation) where isthe thickness and kis the thermal conductivity ofthe material “The performance of the fins is judged om the basis of the en ‘hancement in heat transfer relative to the no-fin case and is eX pressed in terms ofthe fin effectiveness ty defined as Heat transfer rate from the fin of base area A, Heat transfer rate rom the surface of area A, Gee Gee Tay, Gn Here, A, i the cross-sectional are of the fin atthe base and Gum Fepresents the rate of heat transfer from this area if 0 | fins are attached to the surface. The overall effectiveness for finned surface is delined a the ratio ofthe total heat transfer from the finned surface tothe heat transfer fom the same sur- face if there were no fins, Gent Greist WA win + Twa Aoa)To = To) Tsim T= Tod Fin efficiency and fin effetiveness are related to eachother by Certain multidimensional heat transfer problems involve two surfaces maintained at constant temperatures T; and T, The steady rate of heat transfer between these two surfaces is ex pressed as 6 = sur, 1) where $ isthe conduction shape factor that has the dimen- sion of length and kis the thermal conductivity ofthe medium between the surfacesInthis chapter we considered the variation of temperature with time as well as position in one- or multidimensional systems. We first considered the fumped systems in which the tempera- ture varies with time but remains uniform throughout the sys- tem at any time. The temperature of a lumped body of arbitrary shape of mass m, volume V, surface area 4,, density p, and specific heat G, initially at @ uniform temperature 7; that is ‘exposed to convection at time ¢ = 0 in a medium at tempera- ture 7, with a heat transfer coefficient is expressed as TR) -T. where h an tN) is a postive quantity whose dimension i (time). Ths rela tion can be used to determine the temperature T() of a body at time or, alternately, the time r required forthe temperature to reach a specified value Tt). Once the temperature Ti) at time 1s available, the rte of convection heat transfer between the body and its environment at that time can be determined from Newton's law of cooling as OM= mI) -T. Ow) “The ral amount of heat transfer between the body and the sur- rounding medium over the time interval = 0 to is simply the ‘change in the energy content ofthe body, Using a one-term approximation, the solutions of one- dimensional transient heat conduction problems are expressed ‘analytically as Plane wall: 86%, Dyatt Hat Te Ayer cos (ail), > 02. Cylinder: —— (7 yy = REP vta Sphere (6, ga = Riel where the constants A, and Ay are funetions of the Bi number only, and their values are listed in Table 41 against the Bi ‘umber forall three geometries. The error involved in one- term solutions i less than 2 percent when + > 0.2. Using the one-term solutions, the fractional hea transfers in diferent geometries are expressed as rinewst: (2) 1 nat cyte (GE) tn ll Sphece: ( zz) hse The analytic solution for one-dimensional transient heat conduction in a semi-infinite solid subjected to convection is maby Q=meiny- Ts) ‘The amount of heat transfer reaches its upper limit when the body reaches the surrounding temperature T.. Therefore, the ‘maximum beat transfer between the body and its surround- ings is nn mC,(T4—T)) (sd) ‘The error involved in lumped system analysis is negligible when alls Bi= the surface temperature 7, ‘becomes equal to the Fluid temperature 7, and the above equa tion reduces to Ta.) - 7, (7, = constant) (Ra) Using a clever superposition principle called the product so- luzon these charts can also be used to construct solutions for the nvo-dimensional transient heat conduction problems en- ‘countered in geometries such asa short cylinder, long rectan- gular bar, or a semi-infinite cylinder or plate, and even three-dimensional problems associated with geometries such as a rectangular prism or a semi-infinite rectangular bar, pro- ¥ided that ll surfaces of the solid are subjected to convection {o the same fluid at temperature T, with the same convection heat transfer coefficient h, and the body involves no heat ‘generation, The solution in such multidimensional geometries fan be expressed as the product of the solutions for the ‘one-dimensional geometries whose intersection is the multi- dimensional geometry The total hea transfer to or from a multidimensional geom- etry can also be determined by using the one-dimensional val- ‘ues. The transient heat transfer fora two-dimensional geometry Tormed by the intersection of two one-dimensional geometries * (be) +b) oI ‘Transient heat transfer fra three-imensional bly formed by the intersection of three one-dimensional bodies 1,2, and 3 is given by & a