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2.

KUNCI TAKSONOMIK
TAXONOMIC KEYS
I. Introduction to identification

A. Mustard and flamingos.


Let's start with a quote from Lewis Carroll's, Alices Adventures in
Wonderland:

"Very true", said the Duchess: "Flamingos and


mustard both bite. And the moral of that is 'Birds of
a feather flock together.'"
"Only mustard isnt a bird", Alice remarked.
"Right as usual, said the Duchess: "what a clear way
you have of putting things!"
"Its a mineral, I think," said Alice.
"Of course it is" said the Duchess, who seemed ready
to agree to everything Alice said: "theres a large
mustard-mine near here. And the moral of that is
'The more there is of mine, the less there is of
yours!'"
"Oh, I know!" exclaimed Alice, who had not attended
to this last remark, "its a vegetable. It doesnt look
like one, but it is".

B. The need for identification.


We share the planet with at least 1.5 million (some estimates are
as high 30 million) other species. In order to communicate, retrieve,
store, and accumulate information about our co-inhabitants like
flamingoes and mustard, it has been necessary for biologists and
others to: (1) identify these organisms; (2) name them; and (3)
place the organisms into groups that reflect our current knowledge
of their evolutionary relationships. As we know, collectively these
activities - identification, nomenclature and classification - make up
the discipline of taxonomy. Here we'll focus here on identification.
II. Identification.
Suppose that you didn't know that the large bird Alice is carrying
is a flamingo. How could you identify this creature that "bites"? The
answer is simple in theory - we would compare the "mystery bird "
to other "known" or "reference" or "type" birds until we find one that
matches. If, after an exhaustive search, we don't find a match we
may be studying a species new to science. The process of matching
a mystery organism to known ones can be accomplished by:
A. Asking an expert.
Consult an individual who has spent his/her life studying birds
(ornithologist). This method usually provides a reliable and accurate
answer because it is based on the wisdom and years of experience
of a professional. "Experts" are typically found in botanical gardens,
museums, herbaria, colleges, universities, etc. Unfortunately,
experts are not always available (or willing) to help, so you must be
prepared to do your own identifications. Note, it is common even for
professional taxonomists to send "difficult" specimens to experts.
B. Hunting-and-Pecking.
In this case, we search through a field guide, museum or zoo for a
bird that matches our mystery bird. Although we may get lucky, this
method is the least satisfactory because of the small probability that
we will stumble upon the match. This can be time-consuming and is
not very efficient. Picture books are designed for hunting-and-
pecking.
C. Using a taxonomic key.
A key is a device, which when properly constructed and used,
enables a user to identify an organism. There are two types of keys
that we will discuss; (a) dichotomous and (b) polyclave (also called
multiple access or synoptic).
III. Dichotomous keys.
(di - two; chotomy - forked). These keys, which are the most
common, were probably first published by Jean Baptiste-Lamarck in
1778 (remember him, Mr. Acquired Traits?). They consist of a series
of paired statements, termed couplets, that describe some feature
of the organism. The statements, or leads, are in direct contrast
(i.e., mutually exclusive). To use the key, begin with the first couplet
and select the statement that best fits your specimen. This will
direct you to another couplet and ultimately provide the identity of
your specimen.
A. Types.
There are two types of dichotomous keys. They differ in the
method by which the couplets are organized and how the user is
directed to successive choices.
1. Indented Keys (also called yoked) - indents the choices (leads) of the
couplet an equal distance from the left margin. The two choices of the
couplet are usually labeled 1 and 1' or 1a and 1b. It is not necessary
that the choices are numbered, but it helps. The user goes to the next
indented couplet following the lead that was selected. For an example,
check out Figure 1.

2. Bracketed keys - provides both choices side-by-side. The choices of


the couplet must be numbered (or lettered). It is very helpful if the
previous couplet is given. Note: in some bracketed keys alternate
couplets are indented; in others, all couplets begin at the left margin.
The user proceeds to the couplet that is indicated by the lead selected.
For an example, check out Figure 2.

3. Examples of both types of keys will be shown in class. In general,


botanists prefer indented keys. Advantages of indented keys include:
(a) similar specimens are grouped together; (b) it is harder to get lost or
loose your place; (c) they are faster to use; and (d) it is easier to retrace
your steps if you make a "wrong turn". Which kind is used in our
texts? Which type do you prefer? Why?
B. Using a dichotomous key.
To demonstrate how a key works we will identify some of the
creatures (i.e., Flamingo, Gryphon, Mock turtle, Cheshire Cat,
Dormouse) from Lewis Carroll (see Figure 1 and Figure 2). Tips for
using a key:
1. don't guess - be sure that you understand the meaning of any terms that are
used in the key;
2. read both choices;
3. measure;
4. watch for "weird" (abnormal) specimens and remember the natural variability
in all organisms;
5. when in doubt, try both choices;
6. check your answer with a description or photo or herbarium specimen.

C. Problems using dichotomous keys.


Aside from being poorly written (see below), a key may be
difficult to use because:
1. the key doesn't include all potential variations in the species;
2. the key relies on features not present in that season;
3. the key doesn't include "all" species of interest;
4. you misinterpret a feature or make a mistake.

All of these mistakes can lead to frustration. But, try, try again!
D. Writing a dichotomous key.
First collect your data by: (a) laying out the plants to be keyed in
front of you; and/or (b) recording data on note cards or in a
computer spreadsheet or database; and/or (c) creating a table
listing the species to key along one side and the characters to study
along the other side (see Table 3 for the data used to created the
keys to Lewis Carroll's creatures). Once you have collected your
data, start to group the objects. It is best to start with a feature that
separates the things to be keyed into two groups of similar number
and then subdivide these groups until individuals are distinguished.
Other tips for key writing:
start each couplet with a noun;
avoid unnecessary words;
avoid negatives;
avoid trichotomies;
use "absent" vs. "not present";
quantify;
the two statements of couplet should refer to the same feature;
each couplet should include all of the potential variations in the feature;
the two statements of the couplet should be mutually exclusive;
remember that keys are for identification and are not designed to show
evolutionary relationships (i.e., keys are "artificial") - thus, don't worry about
maintaining "natural" groupings;
avoid vague terms;
season of use should be consistent within the key;
don't include taxonomic names (i.e., plant a gymnosperm);
use obvious features, avoid obscure or highly technical ones;
use fixed features, avoid variable ones;
start each couplet with the noun; and
start with the most distinctive features
the finished key should have n-1 couplets (where n equals the number of units
in the key)..

Figure 1: Bracketed Key to Some Characters


from the "Alice" stories by Lewis Carroll
1a. Wings present ..................................2
1b. Wings absent ...................................3

2a Body covered only with


(1) feathers............Flamingo
2b. Body covered with feathers and
fur........Gryphon

3a. Fur absent, animal usually


(1) crying...........Mock Turtle
3b. Fur present, animal rarely crys.............4

Able to disappear, usually with a


4a. grin......Cheshire Cat
(3) Unable to disappear, usually
4b. asleep........Dormouse

Figure 2: Indented Key to Some Characters from the


"Alice" stories by Lewis Carroll
1a. Wings present
2a. Body covered only with
features........Flamingo
2b. Body covered with feathers and
fur...Gryphon
1b. Wings absent
3a. Fur absent, animal usually crying........Mock
Turtle
3b. Fur present, animal rarely crys
4a. Able to disappear, with a
grin.......Cheshire Cat
4b. Unable to disappear, usually
asleep...Dormouse

Table 3: Table of characters and states for characters


from the "Alice" Stories
Characters/States
Taxon Wings Fur Unique Behavior(s)
Cheshire absent + disappears, grins
Cat
Dormouse absent + usually asleep
Gryphon present +
Flamingo present -
Mock
absent - usually crying
Turtle

IV. Polyclave/Random Access/Synoptic Keys.


A. General.
Another type of key is termed multiple access or polyclave or
synoptic key. The advantage of these keys is that they allow the
user to enter the key at any point. These keys are a relatively new
alternative to dichotomous keys and are becoming increasingly
popular, especially because of the ease of computerizing them.
Identifying organisms with a polyclave is a process of elimination.
In a written polyclave key there is a series of characters and
character states. Each state is followed by a number or code for the
species that possess that feature. The user selects any character
and then copies down the list of species that possess the feature.
Then the user selects another character and eliminates any species
not common to both lists. This process continues until the specimen
is identified.
It's easy to imagine how these keys are computerized. Consider a
series of standard playing cards. Imagine each card has four holes
punched into it along the top margin. If the card is a spade we cut
the first hole through to the margin; if a club, the second hole is
notched to the margin; a heart the third hole is notched; and finally
if it is a diamond the fourth hole is notched. Further imagine that
along the bottom of the card we punch 14 holes (2 - 10, J, K, Q, A)
and cut a notch for the appropriate number. Thus, the Queen of
Hearts will have a notch cut into the third hole on the top of the
card, and the Queen notch on the bottom of the card.
Now, let's use our punch card deck of cards to identify an
unknown card. Shuffle another deck of cards and pick any card.
Let's assume that this "unknown" card is the Ace of Spades. To
identify this unknown, we analyze the characters and two are
obvious, suit and number. Let's start with suit - take a long needle
and stick it through the "spades hole". Since, only spades are
notched, the other suits will remain on the needle and spades will
drop out of the deck. Cool. Now, collect the spades cards and put a
needle through the next character, the Ace. And, viola, the Ace of
Spades falls out. This is the general principle of how the
computerized version of polyclave keys work. The main difference is
that a computer allows for countless holes (characters) and notches
(states) to be included and does the needlework for us.
B. Advantages.
The advantages of a polyclave (multiple-access) key are:
1. easy to use;
2. multi-entry - meaning the user can start anywhere. This is a significant
advantage because the user can rely on characters that are most easy to
observe, rather than having to deal with characters that may not be
present in the specimen or are poorly developed;
3. order-free - meaning the user can work in any direction with any
character;
4. faster; and
5. easily computerized. In fact, these keys are most commonly used in
this form. Paper versions are typically large and unwieldy because each
character needs to list all possible taxa.

C. Example.
Click here for an example of a "paper version" of a synoptic key
to pollination systems follows. To use this key:
1. Read through the list of characters to become familiar with the possibilities;
2. Scan the list to find a character with a state that you observe in your specimen.
Start with a readily identifiable character that has only a few numbers (taxa)
associated with it;
3. Write a brief description of the character and state and the numbers of the taxa
that can be described by this state;
4. Choose another character and state that describes your taxa. Write a brief
description of this state below the name of the first state chosen. Then, scratch
off the original list any taxon that doesn't appear in the second;
5. Continue this process until just one taxon remains for all of the states. If there
is no single taxon described by the states chosen, and two or more remain, go
back and check for errors;
6. Read the name of the taxon after its number in the list of taxa. Check your
identification with a description in a manual or the herbarium.

There are several computer programs for preparing interactive


computerized keys (see Interactive Keys - MJ Dallwitz et. al. and
Programs for Interactive Keying and Information Retrieval
compiled by MJ Dallwitz) and these have been reviewed
(Comparison of interactive Keys - MJ Dallwitz). Some of the
available programs includes:
Intkey
PollyClave
MEKA
XID authoring system.
LucID
PCTaxon

References:
Glasenapp, D. J. 1986. The nuts and bolts of classification. American Biology
Teacher 48: 362-3.
Harrington, H.D. 1957. How to Identify Plants. Swallow Press, Chicago.
Dallwitz, M, TA Paine, EJ Zurcher. 2000. Principles of Interactive Keys.
On-line
Dallwitz, M. 2000. A comparison of interactive identification programs. On-
line.
General Leaf Key - University of Vermont

Polyclave Key to Pollination Type


Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from one flower to
another. Since plant can't move, they utilize vectors such as wind,
water and animals to accomplish this process for them. Flowers are
specialized by shape, color, odor, nectar reward in order to
maximize the chance that a certain vector will accomplish
pollination. These flower adaptations are collectively known as
pollination syndromes or systems.
Plants differ in the degree of their specialization for a particular
pollination system. For example, many orchids are pollinated by only
a single type of bee. Other flowers are not as specialized and may
be pollinated by a variety of bees or perhaps beetles. In other cases,
insects may visit flowers without actually transferring pollen. These
factors make it difficult to determine with absolute certainty the
pollination system by the polyclave key.
To illustrate how to use a polyclave key, let's determine the
pollination system of a dandelion.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS DANDELION EXAMPLE
Let's choose FLOWER COLOR
1. Select any one of the FLOWER
CHARACTERS in the key. Note: you
can choose the characters in any
order (i.e., multi - entry)
Dandelions are Yellow
2. Choose the character state
(description) that matches the flower
you are observing
BE,BU,BI
3. Write down the possible pollination
systems for this feature
4. Select another feature NECTAR
b. present...WI,FM,BE,BA
5. Choose the character state
description that matches your flower
BE,BU,BI
6. Eliminate from the first character Thus, dandelions are bee pollinated
state selected the pollination systems
not found on both lists. Continue this
process until the pollination system is
identified. Note: in some cases it will
not be possible to narrow the choices
to just one.

Polyclave Key to Pollination Systems.


(Adapted from Tyrell, L. 1989. Journal College Science Teaching, May
378-383)
FLOWER SYMMETRY

a. radial ....... WI,BT,FM,FS,BE,BU,MO,BI,BA


b. bilateral .............. WI,BE,(BU),BI,BA

FLOWER SHAPE

a. tubular ............... FS,BE,BU,MO,BI,BA


b. not tubular .....BI,BT,FM,FS,BE,(BU),(BI)

FLOWER SIZE

a. small/inconspicuous ............ WI,FM,FS


b. showy, large, conspicuous, or small in a conspicuous group
.......BT,(FM),FS,BE,BU,MO,BI,BA

FLOWER COLOR

a. white .......... BT,FM,(BE),BU,MO,(BI),BA


b. yellow ......................... BE,BU,BI
c. blue ................. BT,BE,BU,(MO),(BI)
d. red ......................(BE),BU,(MO),BI
e. dull or dark ..... WI,BT,FM,FS,MO,(BI),BA

WHEN FLOWER IS OPEN

a. night only ...WI,BT,FM,FS,(BE),(BU),MO,BA


b. day only ...... WI,BT,FM,FS,BE,BU,(MO),BI
c. day and night..WI,BT,FM,FS,BE,BU,MO,BI,BA

ODOR

a. no odor ............... WI,BT,FM,BE,BU,BI


b. putrid ................... BT,FM,FS,BE,BU
c. fragrant .............. BT,FM,BE,BU,MO,BA

POLLEN

a. few grains ......... BT,FM,FS,BE,BU,MO,BI


b. abundant ..... WI,BT,FM,FS,BE,BU,MO,BI,BA

NECTAR

a. none ........................ WI,BT,FM,FS


b. present...................... WI,FM,BE,BA

NECTAR GUIDES*

a. present .......................... BE,BU


b. absent ............ WI,BT,FM,FS,MO,BI,BA

NECTAR CONTENT**
a. low sugar............. WI,BT,FM,FS,BU,MO
b. low amino acids ....WI,BT,FM,FS,BE,BI,BA

________________________________________________________________
* May only appear under UV light ** Taste can provide a clue.

Abbreviation Code::
WI Wind pollination (anemophily); BT Beetle pollination (cantharophily); FM Fly
pollination (syrphid and bee flies; myophily); FS Fly pollination (carrion and dung
flies; sapromyophily); BE Bee pollination (mellittophily); BU Butterfly pollination ;
(psychophily); MO Moth pollination (phalaenophily & sphingophily); BI Bird
pollination (ornithophily); BA Bat pollination (chiropterophily)

Dichotomous Key Writing - Checklist


Does the key.........

start each couplet with a noun?


avoid unnecessary words?
avoid negatives?
avoid trichotomies?
use "absent" vs. "not present"?
quantify when possible?
have couplets that refer to the same
feature?
have couplets that include all of the
potential variations in the feature?
have mutually exclusive statements in
each couplet?
remember that keys are for
identification and not designed to show
evolutionary relationships (i.e., keys are
"artificial") thus, don't worry about
maintaining "natural" groupings?
avoid vague terms?
rely on features from the same season?
avoid the use of taxonomic names (i.e.,
plant a gymnosperm)?
use obvious features and avoid obscure
or highly technical ones?
use fixed features, avoid highly variable
ones?
start with the most distinctive features?
have n -1 couplets?

Keying Out Unknowns


During the course you will be asked to use Gleason's &
Cronquist's key to identify several unknown specimens. We will use
the format outlined below when we do formal identification work.
Designate a section of your field notebook for identifying
unknowns. On the top left-hand corner of the left hand page write
the unknown number (i.e., Unknown Number 1). Then, sketch the
plant. Don't spend an excessive amount of time doing artwork. Your
sketch should simply be "recognizable". Use the entire page for your
sketch. I encourage you to make sketches of the individual parts
such as flowers, fruits, leaf margins, or whatever. On the top left
corner of the right-hand page, write "Family:". Complete the family,
including scientific and common name, when you know it.

Then, begin your key work. Start in the key at the appropriate
place. Typically this would be the beginning of the key, but in some
cases we will begin keying specimens in a particular family or
genus. Record the title of the section that you are working in. List
the key steps and a brief description of the features of that couplet
as you proceed through the key. Indent each couplet choice as you
proceed. The following is an example for keying out False Solomon's
seal in Gleason & Cronquist (1991).

Unknown #1. Family: Liliaceae Lily Family

Section 1

1'. Seed plants


2'. Angiosperm
3'. Rooting in soil
4'. Without syndromes
9' Bearing flowers
10. Monocot . . . . . .
.Section 6

Section 6

1'. Perianth present


19'. Flowers perfect
24. Ovary superior
25'. Ovary one
sketch here 28'. Flowers regular
30'. Perianth not
differentiated
34'. Stamens 6
35'. Infl and
perianth not white-wooly
36'.
Leaves annual . . . . .Liliaceae

Liliaceae

1'. Ovary superior


6'. Flwr or infls terminal
10'. Lvs alternate
12. Lvs cauline and alt.
13'. Stem not branched
15. Tepals less than
2.5 cm
16. Fls in
raceme, fruit a berry
17'. Tepals
6 . . . . .. . . .Smilacina

Smilacina

1'. Fls in raceme


2. Leaves 6 or more . . . . . . . . . . S.
stellata (L.) Desf.

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