Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Introduction
Compounds are formed when different elements react
chemically. This chemical interaction involves the outermost
electrons of the atoms of each element. To understand the
differences between chemical compounds, we must have a
sound understanding of the structure of the atom and the
way electrons behave.
In this chapter
3.1 The structure of the atom page 53
3.2 Ions and ionic bonding page 57
3.3 Molecules and covalent bonding page 65
Figure 3.1
Compounds of transition metals, such as copper and
chromium, are highly coloured.
Figure 3.2
The three physical states of matter.
Solids have a definite shape and
volume; liquids have a definite volume
but an indefinite shape; and gases have
an indefinite shape and volume.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 53
Protons are positively charged particles and neutrons have no charge.
These particles have similar masses: mass of proton (mp) = 1.007 atomic
atomic mass unit (amu): mass units (amu); mass of neutron (mn) = 1.008 amu.
1 amu = 1.661 x 1027 kg
The atomic number (Z ) of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus.
Atomic diameter The mass number (A) of an element is the total number of protons and
100 pm neutrons in the nucleus.
The electrons occupy stable energy levels around the nucleus.
Nuclear Positive nucleus The electrons occupy the greatest volume of the atom.
diameter
0.001 pm K shell Electrons are negatively charged particles.
L shell Electrons have a very small mass (me = 0.00055 amu)
M shell compared with protons and neutrons. They move so rapidly
Electron shells N shell that they are sometimes referred to as an electron cloud.
contain negative
electrons.
The number of protons in neutral atoms equals the number
Figure 3.4 of electrons.
Sub-structure of the atom
Nuclear symbols
Each element has its own unique atomic number (Z ). This is the number
used to organise the elements in the periodic table.
Any element E can be represented by the following symbol:
A
E
where A is the atomic mass and Z is the atomic number. The number of
neutrons in any element can be determined by subtracting Z from A.
SOLUTION
12
(a) (i) C (ii) neutrons = A Z = 12 6 = 6
6
(b) (i) 8 (ii) neutrons = 16 8 = 8
3
(c) (i) 11 Na (ii) neutrons = 23 11 = 12
Isotopes
Many elements have isotopic forms. These isotopes have slightly different
isotopes: atoms of an element masses due to differences in the number of neutrons present in the
that have different mass
numbers (A) due to the nucleus. For example, natural carbon consists of three isotopic forms:
presence of different numbers 2 3 4
6 , 6 , 6 . Carbon-12 is the most abundant (98.9%) of these forms.
of neutrons
Carbon-13 has one more neutron in its nucleus than carbon-12; carbon-14
has two more neutrons in its nucleus than carbon-12.
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
N shell 32 electrons
Energy
M shell
18 electrons
L shell 8 electrons
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 55
(a) Lithium (Z = 3) (b) Chlorine (Z = 17) (c) Potassium (Z = 19)
Energy Energy Energy
N N N 1
M M 7 M 8
L 1 L 8 L 8
Figure 3.6
Electron configuration diagrams K 2 K 2 K 2
Table 3.3
Z Element Electron configuration
2 He 2
10 Ne 2, 8
18 Ar 2, 8, 8
36 Kr 2, 8, 18, 8
54 Xe 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
86 Rn 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8
Apart from helium, which has a filled K shell, the remaining noble gases
have eight electrons (an octet) in their outer shell.
It is apparent that an octet of electrons in the outer shell confers
stability to an atom. Noble gases are the most unreactive elements.
The outer shell of the atom is called the valence shell. Electrons in this
valence electrons: electrons that shell are called valence electrons.
occupy the outer (valence) shell In the next section, we will examine how other elements can achieve a
of an atom
stable octet in their valence shells.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 57
Cations are positively charged ions formed by atoms losing one or more
Key content electrons.
By the end of this section, you
should be able to: Example: Sodium loses one electron. Its ionic half-equation is
describe the formation of ions
in terms of atoms gaining or Na Na+ + e.
losing electrons
apply the periodic table to Anions are negatively charged ions formed by atoms gaining one or
predict the ions formed by
atoms of metals and non-metals more electrons.
apply Lewis electron dot Example: Chlorine gains one electron. Its ionic half-equation is
structures to the formation
of ions Cl + e Cl.
describe the formation of ionic
compounds in terms of the Metals tend to form positive ions. Non-metals tend to form negative
attraction of ions of opposite
charge ions.
construct formulae for
compounds formed from ions Ions and the valence shell
construct ionic equations
showing metal and non-metal Metals lose their valence shell electrons to achieve noble gas electron
atoms forming ions
apply systematic naming of configurations. Having lost these valence shell electrons a stable shell is
inorganic compounds as now exposed.
they are introduced in the
laboratory. Example: In each of the following cases,
the ion formed has the same electron
configuration as a neon atom.
Na Na+ + e
2, 8, 1 2, 8
Mg Mg2+ + 2e
2, 8, 2 2, 8
Al Al3+ + 3e
2, 8, 3 2, 8
Non-metals gain electrons
into their valence shell to achieve
a noble gas configuration.
Example: In each of the following
cases, the ion formed has the
same electron configuration as
an argon atom.
Cl + e Cl
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8
S + 2e S2
2, 8, 6 2, 8, 8
P + 3e P3
2, 8, 5 2, 8, 8
The gain and loss of electrons
can be visualised using diagrams
known as Lewis electron dot
structures. These diagrams show
the arrangement of valence shell
electrons only; the inner shells are
not shown. Figure 3.8 shows some Figure 3.7
examples of Lewis electron dot The mineral fluorite contains the ionic
structures for elements gaining compound calcium fluoride, CaF2, as its main
component. Its beautiful crystals are often cubic
and losing electrons.
in shape and appear in a variety of colours.
K Br
] +
K ] Br
Potassium Bromine
loses gains Potassium Bromide
one electron. one electron. ion ion
Ba S
] Ba2+ ] S
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.2 When a potassium atom (Z = 19) loses two electons, it forms an
ion. Use electron configurations to discuss the stability of the ion
formed.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 59
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.3 The first four members of group VII of the periodic table are
fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
(a) Use the periodic table to obtain their atomic numbers and write
the electron configuration of each of these four elements.
(b) Write the symbols for the most stable ions of this group. Justify
your answer.
(a) The atomic numbers are 9, 17, 35 and 53. The electron
SOLUTION configurations are:
F 2, 7
Cl 2, 8, 7
Br 2, 8, 18, 7
I 2, 8, 18, 18, 7.
(b) All elements of group VII have seven valence electrons. This is
one short of a stable octet. Thus, each atom needs to gain one
electron to form a stable ion with a noble gas configuration. The
stable anions are:
F 2, 8
Cl 2, 8, 8
Br 2, 8, 18, 8
I 2, 8, 18, 18, 8.
Table 3.5 Some of the common stable ions of the periodic table*
I II III IV V VI VII
H+
H
Li+ Be2+ N3 O2 F
(a)
Na + Cl Na+ + Cl
Figure 3.9
(a) Lewis electron dot (b)
structure showing the
formation of sodium chloride
(showing the outer shells only)
(b) Sodium and chlorine bond to
make sodium chloride.
2. Magnesium oxide
Magnesium atoms have two valence electrons in their M shells. Oxygen
atoms have six valence electrons in their L shells. When a magnesium
atom reacts with an oxygen atom, two electrons are transferred from the
magnesium atom to the oxygen atom so that the ions formed have noble
gas configurations. Therefore,
Mg + O Mg2+ + O2 Mg2+O2
2, 8, 2 2, 6 2, 8 2, 8 magnesium oxide
The chemical formula for the ionic compound formed is MgO.
Figure 3.10 shows a Lewis electron dot structure of this reaction.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 61
Mg + O Mg2+ + O2
Figure 3.10
Lewis electron dot structure
showing the formation of The magnesium ion The oxide ion
magnesium oxide (showing has a smaller radius has a larger radius
the outer shells only) than the magnesium atom. than the oxgen atom.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.4 The chemical formula of potassium sulfide is K2S. It is formed when
potassium atoms react with sulfur atoms.
(a) Use the periodic table to identify the atomic numbers of potassium
and sulfur.
(b) Write the electron configurations of these elements.
(c) Use symbols to write a balanced chemical equation to show how
many atoms of potassium react with one atom of sulfur. Justify your
answer by writing the electron configurations of the ions formed.
(d) Draw a Lewis electron dot structure for this chemical reaction and
for the ionic compound formed
K + K + S K+ + K+ + S2
(a)
Potassium Sulfur atoms
2
atoms have one have six valance (b)
valance electron electrons in the ] ]
K+ S
in the N shell. M shell. 2
Figure 3.11 Lewis electron dot structures showing (a) the reaction between
potassium and sulfur and (b) potassium sulfide
copper (I), Cu+ barium, Ba2+ aluminium, Al3+ bromide, Br oxide, O2 nitride, N3
hydrogen, H+ calcium, Ca2+ iron (III), Fe3+ chloride, Cl sulfide, S2 phosphide, P3
lithium, Li+ iron (II), Fe2+ fluoride, F
potassium, K+ lead (II), Pb2+ hydride, H
silver, Ag+ magnesium, iodide, I
sodium, Na+ Mg2+
tin (II), Sn2+
Chemical formulae
Table 3.6 showing valencies can be used to construct the chemical
formulae of ionic compounds. The following rule should be used:
The sum of positive and negative valencies of ionic compounds is zero.
Examples:
1. Calcium fluoride
Valency of Ca2+ = +2
Valency of F = 1
To have a zero sum of valencies in calcium fluoride, there must be two
fluoride ions for each calcium ion. So,
(+2) + (1) + (1) = 0
Thus, the chemical formula is CaF2.
2. Silver sulfide
Valency of Ag+ = +1
Valency of S2 = 2
To have a zero sum of valencies in silver sulfide, there must be two silver
ions for each sulfide ion. So,
(+1) + (+1) + (2) = 0
Thus, the chemical formula is Ag2S.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.5 An ionic salt formed between aluminium and a non-metal X has the
formula Al2X3. Calculate the valency of element X.
Aluminium has a valency of +3. Let x be the valency of X. The sum
SOLUTION
of the valencies is zero, so
2(+3) + 3(x) = 0
x = 2
So, the valency of X is 2.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 63
Examples:
1. BaH2 Cation: barium ion; anion: hydride ion; name: barium hydride
2. FeO Cation: iron (II) ion; anion: oxide ion; name: iron (II) oxide
3. Cu2S Cation: copper (I) ion; anion: sulfide ion; name: copper (I) sulfide
4. CuS Cation: copper (II) ion; anion: sulfide ion;
name: copper (II) sulfide
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.6 An ionic compound forms between barium ions and permanganate
ions. Its chemical formula is Ba(MnO4)2. Calculate the charge on the
permanganate ion and write the symbol for this ion.
SOLUTION The valency of barium ions = +2. Let the valency of the permanganate
ion equal x.
As the valencies sum to zero,
(+2) + 2x = 0
x = 1
Thus, the valency of the permanganate ion is 1 and the charge is
1. The symbol is MnO4
(#( - / , % # 5 , % 3 ! . $ # /6! , % . 4
"/.$).'
Remember
Types of molecules
Before beginning this section, Molecules have previously been defined as the smallest part of a
you should be able to: pure substance that can exist separately. Another way of saying this
identify that a new compound
is formed by rearranging is that molecules are particles that can move independently of one
atoms rather than creating another.
matter Some molecules are elements and some are compounds. Here are some
classify compounds into
groups based on common examples of molecules:
chemical characteristics
construct word equations monatomic molecules
from observations and helium atoms, He
written descriptions of a argon atoms, Ar
range of chemical reactions.
diatomic molecules
oxygen, O2
nitrogen, N2
hydrogen iodide, HI
carbon monoxide, CO
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 65
triatomic molecules
Key content ozone, O3
By the end of this section, you
should be able to: water, H2O
describe molecules as sulfur dioxide, SO2
particles that can move carbon dioxide, CO2
independently of each other
distinguish between molecules tetra-atomic molecules
containing one atom (the white phosphorus, P4
noble gases) and molecules
with more than one atom ammonia, NH3
describe the formation of When you examine the list of molecules above, you will observe that
covalent molecules in terms
of electron sharing they are composed of non-metals. Non-metal atoms can bond to other non-
apply Lewis electron dot metal atoms and achieve stable electronic arrangements. This is discussed
structures to the electron in the next section.
sharing in some simple
molecules
analyse information by
constructing or using models
Sharing electrons and covalent bonding
showing the structure of Non-metal atoms can achieve electron shell stability by sharing electron
metals, ionic compounds and pairs with other non-metals. Stable octets are achieved by this process.
covalent compounds
apply systematic naming of The sharing of electron pairs between neighbouring atoms is called a
inorganic compounds as covalent bond.
they are introduced in the
laboratory. There are three types of covalent bond:
single bond One electron pair is shared.
double bond Two electron pairs are shared.
triple bond Three electron pairs are shared.
H H H H
H Cl H Cl
Figure 3.15
Lewis electron dot structure of covalent bond formation in hydrogen chloride molecules
(showing the outer shells only)
Figure 3.16
Lewis electron dot structure of O C O O C O
covalent bond formation in carbon
dioxide molecules (showing the
outer shells only) Double covalent bonds
Structural formulae
Another way of showing the bonding arrangements in molecules is to draw
structural formulae. In structural formulae, the electron pair notation is
replaced by bond-line representation as follows:
single bond:
double bond:
triple bond: xx
Figure 3.17 shows examples of structural formulae of some common
molecules.
H
O H C H
H H O O O C O
H
Water Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide
Figure 3.17 H C N N N
Structural formulae of some
molecules Hydrogen cyanide Nitrogen
Molecular compounds
Molecular compounds are often referred to as covalent molecular
compounds. This reinforces the idea that the bonding between atoms is
due to the sharing of electron pairs.
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 67
elements are from the same group. (Note: There are some exceptions to
this rule involving oxygen in molecular compounds with Cl, Br or I.)
hydrogen, (H) 1
fluorine, F 1
chlorine, Cl 1 (3, 5, 7)
bromine, Br 1 (3, 5, 7)
iodine, I 1 (3, 5, 7)
oxygen, O 2
nitrogen, N 3, 5 (1, 2, 4)
phosphorus, P 3, 5
sulfur, S 2, 4, 6
carbon, C 4
Examples:
1. Nitrogen trichloride
N has a valency of 3 and chlorine has a valency of 1. Thus, three atoms
of chlorine are required so that the total valency of chlorine matches the
valency of nitrogen.
3=31
The chemical formula is NCl3. Note that nitrogen, which is in group V, is
written before chlorine, in group VII.
2. Bromine pentafluoride
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3.7 Calculate the valency of the nominated element in each of the
following molecular compounds.
(a) N in N2O
(b) I in HIO4
(a) Oxygen has a valency of 2. Let the valency of each nitrogen atom
SOLUTION equal x.
Thus, 2x = 2
x=1
So, the valency of nitrogen in N2O is 1.
(b) Oxygen has a valency of 2 and hydrogen has a valency of 1. Let
the valency of iodine equal x.
Thus, 1 + x = 4 2
x=7
So, the valency of iodine in HIO4 is 7.
NH3 ammonia
CH4 methane
NO nitric oxide
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 69
SYLLABUS FOCUS
6. USING INSTRUCTION TERMS CORRECTLY
When answering questions, it is important to know what the instruction
terms (verbs) require you to do. Here is an example.
Describe
This instruction term requires you to provide characteristics and
features of substances, processes or concepts.
Example:
Describe the process of covalent bond formation between two
non-metals such as hydrogen and fluorine.
Answer:
The hydrogen atom has one valence electron and the fluorine atom
has seven valence electrons.
lattice: the geometric Each atom donates one electron to form a shared pair between
arrangement of particles in a them. This shared electron pair is called a covalent bond.
crystal
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 71
DATA ANALYSIS
3.1
Ionic crystals
DATA Figure 3.20 shows two different models of the
ANALYSIS crystal lattice of sodium chloride. One is a
ball-and-stick model and the other is a
ANALYSING CRYSTAL space-filling model.
STRUCTURES 1. Explain what the sticks in figure 3.20a
represent?
Chemists use different types of models to help
2. Identify the number of sodium ions that are
visualise the structure of materials. We have
immediate neighbours to each chloride ion in
already seen how Lewis electron dot structures
the bulk of the lattice.
can help us understand the arrangement of
valence electrons around each atom.
In the following examples, the models (a)
represent the arrangement of atoms, ions or Sodium ion (Na+)
molecules in the solid crystalline state. These Chloride ion (Cl)
structures are also called crystal lattices.
You will look at lattices in greater depth in
chapter 5 so you may elect to complete this
data analysis after studying that chapter.
Metallic crystals
(b)
Figure 3.19 shows models for the crystal lattice
structures of iron and zinc. Chloride ion (Cl)
1. Explain how each lattice shows that these
Sodium ion (Na+)
substances are elements.
2. Describe the lattice structure of each metal and
identify any major differences.
Xenon
Fluorine
CHAPTER 3 COMPOUNDS 73