CHAPTER 13 APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS Page 1/9

CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE
CHAPTER 13: APPLICATIONS AND PROCESSING OF CERAMICS

CONCEPT CHECK
1. The figures at right show a glass (Pyrex) and a
glass-ceramic (Pyroceram). Explain from
microstructural point of view why in general
glasses are transparent whereas glass-ceramics
are opaque.
Ans:
Glass is amorphous and thus, transparent like
water since there are no grain boundaries to
refract light rays. On the other hand,
glass-ceramics are polycrystalline and may not be transparent because light will be scattered at grain
boundaries in a polycrystalline material if the index of refraction is anisotropic, and when those grains
adjacent to the boundary have different crystallographic orientations. It should be noted that glass-ceramics
may become transparent if the size of the crystals are smaller than the wavelength of visible light.
2. Upon consideration of the SiO2 Al2O3 phase
diagram shown at right for the following pair
of compositions, which would you judge to be
the more desirable refractory? Justify your
choice.
20 wt% Al2O3 80 wt% SiO2
25 wt% Al2O3 75 wt% SiO2
Ans:
The 25 wt% Al2O3 75 wt% SiO2 will be
more desirable because the liquidus
temperature will be greater for this
composition (1740C vs. 1710C); therefore,
at any temperature within the mulliteliquid
region on the phase diagram, there will be a
lower fraction of the liquid phase present than
for the 20 wt% Al2O3 80 wt% SiO2 composition, and, thus, the mechanical integrity will be greater.
3. Explain why it is important to grind cement into a fine powder.
Ans:
It is important to grind cement into a fine powder in order to increase the surface area of the particles of
cement. The hydration reactions between water and the cement occur at the surface of the cement particles.
Therefore, increasing the available surface area allows for more extensive bonding.

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4. How does the thickness of a glass ware affect the magnitude of the thermal stresses that may be introduced?
Why?
Ans:
The thinner the thickness of a glass ware, the lower the thermal stresses that are introduced when it is either
heated or cooled. The reason for this is that the difference in temperature across the cross-section of the
ware, and, therefore, the difference in the degree of expansion or contraction will decrease with a decrease
in thickness.
5. Thick ceramic wares are more likely to crack upon drying than thin wares. Why is this so?
Ans:
Thick ceramic wares are more likely to crack upon drying than thin wares because of the differential in
shrinkage from the surface to the interior of a cross-section will be greater for a thick ware. The reason for
this is that the water being eliminated during drying has a longer distance to travel from the interior to the
surface for the thicker ware.
6. Explain why a clay, once it has been fired at an elevated temperature, loses its hydroplasticity.
Ans:
The phenomenon of hydroplasticity results when water molecules form a thin film around the small clay
particles. During firing, these individual particles become fused together by the viscous liquid that fills in
the pore volume between the particles; that is, the pore volume that was occupied by water in the
hydroplastic state. This viscous liquid forms a glass matrix on subsequent cooling.

QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS

Glasses/Glass-Ceramics
Cite the two desirable characteristics of glasses.
Ans:
Two desirable characteristics of glasses are optical transparency and ease of fabrication.
(a) What is crystallization in glasses/glass-ceramics?
(b) Cite two properties that may be improved by crystallization.
Ans:
(a) Crystallization is the process whereby a glass material transforms to a crystalline solid, usually as a
result of a heat treatment.
(b) Two properties that may be improved by crystallization are:
1) a lower coefficient of thermal expansion, and
2) higher strengths

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If the conditions are favorable, glasses may be crystallized to form glass-ceramics. Compared to the center
of a glass, will the surface of the same glass have (a) a better chance, (b) about the same chance, (c) a worse
chance to be crystallized. Explain why.
Ans:
In order for a glass to become a glass-ceramic, the material will need to go through a heat treatment process
for crystallization. That is nucleation and growth of crystalline phase particles at two different temperatures
isothermally, i.e., at a slow constant cooling rate. Since compared to the center, the cooling rate at the
surface is higher and more difficult to maintain constant, the surface will have (c) a worse chance to be
crystallized than the center of the glass.
Refractories
For refractory ceramic materials, cite three characteristics that improve with and two characteristics that are
adversely affected by increasing porosity.
Ans:
For refractory ceramic materials, three characteristics that improve with increasing porosity are:
1) decreased thermal expansion and contraction upon thermal cycling,
2) improved thermal insulation, and
3) improved resistance to thermal shock.
Two characteristics that are adversely affected are:
1) load-bearing capacity and
2) resistance to attack by corrosive materials.
The primary ingredients for fireclay refractories are
SiO2 and Al 2O3 . The phase diagram of this binary
ceramic system is shown at right. Compared to the
composition: 20 wt% Al 2O3 -80 wt% SiO2 , will the
composition: 40 wt% Al 2O3 -60 wt% SiO2 be (a)
better, (b) about the same, (c) worse for fire
retardation? Explain why.
Ans:
Although both compositions have the same eutectic
temperature: 1587C, the 40 wt% Al 2O3 -
60 wt% SiO2 will be (a) better because the liquidus
temperature will be greater for this composition
(1810C vs. 1710C); therefore, at any temperature
within the mullite liquid region on the phase diagram, there will be a lower fraction of the liquid phase
present for the 40 wt% Al 2O3 -60 wt% SiO2 composition than for the 20 wt% Al 2O3 -80 wt% SiO2
composition, and thus, the mechanical integrity will be more desirable.

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Cements
Compare the manner in which the aggregate particles become bonded together in clay-based mixtures
during firing and in cements during setting.
Ans:
For clay-based aggregates, a liquid phase forms during firing, which infiltrates the pores among the
unmelted particles; upon cooling, this liquid becomes a glass, that serves as the bonding phase.
With cements, the bonding process is a chemical, hydration reaction between the water that has been added
and the various cement constituents. The cement particles are bonded together by reactions that occur at the
particle surfaces.
Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics
What is the distinction between glass transition temperature and melting temperature?
Ans:
The glass transition temperature is, for a noncrystalline ceramic, that temperature at which there is a change
of slope for the specific volume versus temperature curve (Fig. 13.11). For a crystalline material, the
melting temperature is the temperature at which there is a sudden and discontinuous decrease in the specific-
volume vs. temperature curve.
(a) Explain why residual thermal stresses are introduced into a glass when it is cooled.
(b) Are thermal stresses introduced upon heating? Why or why not?
Ans:
(a) Residual thermal stresses are introduced into a glass when it is cooled because surface and interior
regions cool at different rates, and, therefore, contract different amounts; because the material will
experience very little, if any deformation, stresses are established.
(b) Yes, thermal stresses will be introduced because of thermal expansion upon heating for the same reason
as for thermal contraction upon cooling.
Explain why residual stresses are introduced into a freely-suspended glass piece when it is cooled in an ice
bath. Do you expect this residual-stress field to be (a) all tensile, (b) all compressive or (c) partially tensile
and partially compressive? Why.
Ans:
Residual thermal stresses are introduced into a glass piece when it is cooled because the surface and interior
regions cool at different rates, and therefore, contract different amounts. Since the material will experience
very little, if any deformation, residual stresses are thus established.
The residual-stress field will be (c) partially tensile and partially compressive since the glass piece is freely
suspended in an ice bath. As a matter of fact, if the gravitational effect is ignored, the tensile-compressive
residual stress field is in self-equilibrium.
Borosilicate glasses and fused silica are resistant to thermal shock. Why is this so?
Ans:
Borosilicate glasses and fused silica are resistant to thermal shock because they have relatively low
coefficients of thermal expansion; therefore, upon heating or cooling, the difference in the degree of
expansion or contraction across a cross-section of a ware that is constructed from these materials will be
relatively low.

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Explain how residual stresses are introduced into a soda-lime glass when its Na cations (ionic radius:
0.102 nm) are replaced by K cations (ionic radius: 0.138 nm). Do you expect this residual-stress field to be
(a) all tensile, (b) all compressive or (c) partially tensile and partially compressive? Why?
Ans:
This procedure to strengthen a glass is called chemical tempering. With this procedure, the glass surface is
put in a state of compression by exchanging some of the near the surface Na cations with other monovalent
cations with a slightly larger diameter. From Table 12.3, p. 471, K fits these criteria, having an ionic radius
of 0.138 nm, which is larger than the ionic radius of Na (0.102 nm). In fact, soda-lime glasses are
chemically tempered by a K-Na ion exchange, which introduces (b) an all compressive residual stress
field.
Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products
Cite the two desirable characteristics of clay minerals relative to fabrication processes.
Ans:
Two desirable characteristics of clay minerals relative to fabrication processes are as follows:
1) they become hydroplastic (and therefore formable) when mixed with water; and
2) during firing, clays melt over a range of temperatures, which allows some fusion and bonding of the
ware without complete melting and a loss of mechanical integrity and shape.
Some modern kitchen cookware is made of ceramic materials. List at least three important characteristics
required of a material to be used for this application.
Ans:
The important characteristics that are required of a ceramic material to be used for kitchen cookware are the
following:
1) it must have a high resistance to thermal shock in order to withstand relatively rapid changes in
temperature;
2) it must have a relatively high thermal conductivity;
3) it must be relatively strong and tough in order to endure normal kitchen use; and
4) it must be nontoxic.
From a molecular perspective, briefly explain the mechanism by which clay minerals become hydroplastic
when water is added.
Ans:
Clays become hydroplastic when water is added because the water molecules occupy regions between the
layered molecular sheets; these water molecules essentially eliminate the secondary molecular bonds
between adjacent sheets, and also form a thin film around the clay particles. The net result is that the clay
particles are relatively free to move past one another, which is manifested as the hydroplasticity
phenomenon.

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(a) What are the three main components of a whiteware ceramic such as porcelain?
(b) What role does each component play in the forming and firing procedures?
Ans:
(a) The three components of a whiteware ceramic are clay, quartz, and a flux (such as feldspar).
(b) With regard to the role that each component plays:
Quartz acts as a filler material.
Clay facilitates the forming operation since, when mixed with water, the mass may be made to become
either hydroplastic or form a slip. Also, since clays melt over a range of temperatures, the shape of the
piece being fired will be maintained.
The flux facilitates the formation of a glass having a relatively low melting temperature.
(a) Name three factors that influence the degree to which vitrification occurs in clay-based ceramic ware.
(b) Explain how density, firing distortion, strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal conductivity are
affected by the extent of vitrification.
Ans:
(a) Three factors that influence the degree to which vitrification occurs in clay-based ceramic ware are:
1) composition (especially the amount of flux present);
2) the temperature of firing; and
3) the time at the firing temperature.
(b) Density will increase with degree of vitrification since the total remaining pore volume decreases.
Firing distortion will increase with degree of vitrification since more liquid phase will be present at the
firing temperature.
Strength will also increase with degree of vitrification inasmuch as more of the liquid phase forms,
which fills in a greater fraction of pore volume. Upon cooling, the liquid forms a glass matrix of
relatively high strength.
Corrosion resistance normally increases also, especially at service temperatures below that at which the
glass phase begins to soften. The rate of corrosion is dependent on the amount of surface area exposed to
the corrosive medium; hence, decreasing the total surface area by filling in some of the surface pores,
diminishes the corrosion rate.
Thermal conductivity will increase with degree of vitrification. The glass phase has a higher
conductivity than the pores that it has filled.
The figure at right shows a clay jar made by the hydroplastically formed or
slip-casting technique. Will it be (a) preferable, (b) undesirable or (c) making no
difference if a rapid rate of drying is chosen for the hydroplastically formed or
slip-casting process to fabricate the clay product? Explain why.
Ans:
It is important to control the rate of drying inasmuch as if the rate of drying is too
rapid, there will be non-uniform shrinkage between surface and interior regions,
such that warping and/or cracking of the ceramic ware may result. Hence
choosing a rapid rate of drying for clay products during the hydroplastically
formed or slip-casting fabrication process is (b) undesirable.

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Cite three factors that influence the rate of drying, and explain how each affects the rate?
Ans:
Three factors that affect the rate of drying are temperature, humidity, and rate of air flow. The rate of drying
is enhanced by increasing both the temperature and rate of air flow, and by decreasing the humidity of the
air.
Cite one reason why drying shrinkage is greater for slip cast or hydroplastic products that have smaller clay
particles.
Ans:
The reason that drying shrinkage is greater for products having smaller clay particles is because there is
more particle surface area, and, consequently, more water will surround a given volume of particles. The
drying shrinkage will thus be greater as this water is removed, and as the interparticle separation decreases.
Powder Pressing
Some ceramic materials are fabricated by hot isostatic pressing. Cite some of the limitations and difficulties
associated with this technique.
Ans:
The principal disadvantage of hot-isostatic pressing is that it is expensive. The pressure is applied on a pre-
formed green piece by a gas. Thus, the process is slow, and the equipment required to supply the gas and
withstand the elevated temperature and pressure is costly.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
As the porosity of a refractory ceramic brick increases,
(A) strength decreases, chemical resistance decreases, and thermal insulation increases
(B) strength increases, chemical resistance increases, and thermal insulation decreases
(C) strength decreases, chemical resistance increases, and thermal insulation decreases
(D) strength increases, chemical resistance increases, and thermal insulation increases
Ans: A. As the porosity of refractory ceramic bricks increases, strength decreases, chemical resistance
decreases, and thermal insulation increases.
Which of the following are the two primary constituents of clays?
(A) Alumina Al2O3 and limestone CaCO3
(B) Limestone CaCO3 and cupric oxide CuO
(C) Silica SiO2 and limestone CaCO3
(D) Alumina Al2O3 and silica SiO2

Ans: D. The two primary constituents of clays are alumina Al2O3 and silica SiO2 .

There is a definite temperature at which a liquid solidifies to form a glassy (or noncrystalline) solid.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: False. Unlike crystalline materials, a glassy or noncrystalline material does not solidify at a definite
temperature. Rather, upon cooling from the liquid, a glass becomes more viscous as the temperature
decreases.
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Silica refractory ceramics are often used for the containment of slags that are rich in
(A) Magnesia MgO
(B) Silica SiO2
(C) Calcia CaO
(D) All of the above
Ans: B. Silica refractory ceramics are often used for the containment of slags that are rich in silica.
Which of the following property combinations is required for abrasive ceramics?
(A) High melting temperature, high hardness, and high ductility
(B) High fracture toughness, high melting temperature, and high hardness
(C) High fracture toughness, high hardness, and low coefficient of thermal expansion
(D) High melting temperature, high ductility, and low coefficient of thermal expansion
Ans: B. The important properties required for abrasive ceramics are high fracture toughness, high melting
temperature, and high hardness.
The hardening of Portland cement results from which of the following:
(A) a drying process.
(B) a chemical reaction involving water (i.e. hydration).
(C) a chemical reaction involving a compound other than water.
Ans: B. The hardening of Portland cement results from a chemical reaction between the cement and water
(i.e. hydration).
For a clay-based ceramic body, if the rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of water diffusion through
the body, the surface will dry more rapidly than the interior.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: True. For a clay-based ceramic body, if the rate of evaporation is greater than the rate of water
diffusion through the body, the surface will dry more rapidly than the interior.
Glass rods are fabricated by which of the following techniques?
(A) Drawing
(B) Pressing
(C) Blowing
Ans: A. Glass rods are fabricated by drawing.
During thermal tempering, a glass is heated to a temperature:
(A) Below the glass transition temperature.
(B) Above the glass transition temperature.
(C) Below the softening point.
(D) Above the softening point.
(E) Both A and D.
(F) Both B and C.
Ans: F. During thermal tempering, a glass is heated to a temperature above the glass transition temperature
and below the softening point.

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As the degree of vitrification of clay-based products increases, which of the following also increase(s)?
(A) Porosity
(B) Strength
(C) Density
(D) Amount of shrinkage
(E) All of the above
(F) A, B, and C
(G) B, C, and D
(H) A, C, and D
Ans: G. As the degree of vitrification of clay-based products increases, strength, density, and amount of
shrinkage increase.
For powder pressing of ceramics, degree of compaction is maximized when a mixture of large and small
particles is used.
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: True. Degree of compaction is maximized when a mixture of large and small particles is used.
If a ceramic is desired that is dense and, in addition, is to experience very little or no grain growth during its
processing, which of the following powder pressing techniques should be used?
(A) Uniaxial pressing, followed by firing.
(B) Isostatic pressing, followed by firing.
(C) Hot pressing.
Ans: C. If a ceramic is desired that is dense and, in addition, is to experience very little or no grain growth
during its processing, then it should be hot pressed.

ME 46100: ENGINEERING MATERIALS CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE