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CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 1/8

CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE
CHAPTER 7: DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
CONCEPT CHECK
1. Which of the following is the slip system for the simple cubic (SC) crystal structure? Why?
{100}110
{110}110
{100}010
{110}111
(Note: A unit cell for the simple cubic crystal structure is shown in Fig. 3.3.)
Ans:
The slip system for some crystal structure corresponds to the most densely packed crystallographic plane,
and in that plane, the most closely packed crystallographic direction. For simple cubic, the most densely
packed atomic plane is the {100}-type plane; the most densely packed direction within this plane is a 010
type direction. Therefore, the slip system for simple cubic is {100}010.
2. Explain the difference between resolved shear stress and critical resolved shear stress.
Ans:
Resolved shear stress is the shear component of an applied tensile (or compressive) stress resolved along a
slip plane that is other than perpendicular or parallel to the stress axis. The critical resolved shear stress is
the value of resolved shear stress at which yielding begins; it is a property of the material.
3. When making hardness measurements, what will be the effect of making an indentation very close to a
preexisting indentation? Why?
Ans:
The hardness measured from an indentation that is positioned very close to a preexisting indentation will be
too large. The material in this vicinity was cold-worked when the first indentation was made.
4. Would you expect a crystalline ceramic material to strain harden at room temperature? Why or why not?
Ans:
No, it would not be expected. In order for a material to strain harden it must be plastically deformed.
Because ceramic materials are brittle at room temperature, they will fracture before any plastic deformation
takes place.
5. Explain why some metals (i.e., lead, tin) do not strain harden when deformed at room temperature.
Ans:
Metals such as lead and tin do not strain harden at room temperature because their recrystallization
temperatures lie below room temperature (Table 7.2).
6. Would you expect it to be possible for ceramic materials to experience recrystallization? Why or why not?
Ans:
No, recrystallization is not expected in ceramic materials. In order to experience recrystallization, a material
must first be plastically deformed, and ceramic materials are too brittle to plastically deform.

ME 46100: ENGINEERING MATERIALS CLOSED-BOOK PRACTICE


CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 2/8

QUESTIONS & PROBLEMS


Basic Concepts & Characteristics of Dislocations
Consider two edge dislocations of opposite sign and having slip planes that are separated
by several atomic distances, as indicated in the diagram. That is, the two edge dislocations
are not on the same plane. Briefly describe the defect that results when these two
dislocations become aligned vertically with each other.
Ans:
When the two edge dislocations become aligned, a planar region of vacancies will exist between the
dislocations as shown below at left.

Is it possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate each other? Explain your answer.
Ans:
It is possible for two screw dislocations of opposite sign to annihilate one another if their dislocation lines
are parallel. This is demonstrated in the figure above at right.
The originally perfect grid of a metallic lattice microstructure is distorted by an edge dislocation line, as
shown in the figure at right. Draw on the figure the resulting residual strain fields, including the sense of
tension/compression. Explain why.
Ans:

As shown in the figure above at left, the grids above the edge dislocation line contract in, resulting in a
compressive residual strain field, whereas below the dislocation line expand out to become a tensile residual
strain field.

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For each of edge, screw and mixed dislocations, cite the relationship between the direction of the applied
shear stress and the direction of dislocation line motion.
Ans:
For the various dislocation types, the relationships between the direction of the applied shear stress and the
direction of dislocation line motion are as follows:
edge dislocation: parallel
screw dislocation: perpendicular
mixed dislocation: neither parallel nor perpendicular
Slip Systems
(a) Define the term slip system and explain its relation with dislocation motion.
(b) Do all metals have the same slip system? Why or why not?
Ans:
(a) A slip system is a crystallographic plane (usually the most densely packed and is called the slip plane)
and within that plane, a crystallographic direction (usually also the most densely packed and is called the
slip direction) along which dislocation motion (or slip) occurs.
(b) All metals do not have the same slip system. The reason for this is that for most metals, the slip system
will consist of the slip plane (i.e., the most densely packed crystallographic plane), and within that plane
the slip direction (i.e., the most closely packed direction). This slip plane and direction will vary from
crystal structure to crystal structure.
The figure at right shows the simple cubic (SC) crystal structure.
Determine if a combined system of crystallographic plane {100} and
crystallographic direction <110> forms a slip system. Explain why. <110>
Ans:
A slip system is formed by a slip plane, which is the most densely {100}
packed crystallographic plane (i.e., the highest planar density PD), and
a slip direction, which is the most densely packed crystallographic
direction (i.e., the highest linear density LD) within that plane. For the
SC crystal structure, the crystallographic plane {100} is the most
packed, thus a slip plane. However, within that plane, the slip direction
is <100>. Hence the combination of {100} plane and <110> direction is NOT a slip system for SC.
Deformation by Twinning
List four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip relative to
mechanism, conditions of occurrence, and final result.
Ans:
Four major differences between deformation by twinning and deformation by slip are as follows:
1) with slip deformation there is no crystallographic reorientation, whereas with twinning there is a
reorientation;
2) for slip, the atomic displacements occur in atomic spacing multiples, whereas for twinning, these
displacements may be other than by atomic spacing multiples;
3) slip occurs in metals having many slip systems, whereas twinning occurs in metals having relatively few
slip systems; and

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CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 4/8

4) normally slip results in relatively large deformations, whereas only small deformations result for
twinning.
Solid-Solution Strengthening
The figure at right shows an interstitial impurity atom (the dark circle) would be situated in the vicinity of
an edge dislocation. It should be noted that the impurity atom is smaller than the host atoms (the white
circles). Explain the effect of the interstitial impurity on the original edge-dislocation-induced lattice strain
field.
Ans:

As shown in the figure above at left, the grids above the edge dislocation line contract in, resulting in a
compressive residual strain field, whereas below the dislocation line expand out to become a tensile residual
strain field. Since compressive lattice strains are introduced by the impurity atom, there will be a net
reduction in lattice strain energy when these lattice strains partially cancel the tensile strains associated with
the edge dislocation; such tensile strains exist just below the bottom of the extra half-plane of atoms.
Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
Explain why small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as are
high-angle grain boundaries.
Ans:
Small-angle grain boundaries are not as effective in interfering with the slip process as are high-angle grain
boundaries because there is not as much crystallographic misalignment in the grain boundary region for
small-angle, and therefore not as much change in slip direction.
When compared to FCC and BCC metals, are HCP metals typically more brittle or ductile? Explain why.
Ans:
Hexagonal close packed (HCP) metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC metals because there
are fewer slip systems in HCP. There are only 3 to 6 slip systems in HCP whereas at least 12 in FCC or
BCC. Hence dislocation movements are limited and it is more difficult to have plastic deformation.

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CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 5/8

Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are positioned right next to each other in the Periodic Table. Although copper is
FCC while zinc is HCP, they both have many comparable properties, such as atomic number/weight/radius,
density, electronegativity, Youngs modulus, heat capacity, speed of sound, etc. At room temperature, do
you think (a) Cu is more ductile than Zn, (b) Zn is more ductile than Cu, or (c) they have about the same
ductility. Explain why.
Ans:
Hexagonal close packed (HCP) metals are typically more brittle than FCC metals because there are only
3 to 6 slip systems in HCP while there are 12 in FCC. Hence in HCP dislocation movements are limited and
it is more difficult to have plastic deformation than in FCC. Thus, (a) Cu is more ductile than Zn even
though they both have many other comparable properties.
Strain Hardening
If a hardness reading is measured from an indentation, which is positioned very close to a pre-existing
indentation, compared to the correct hardness value, will this reading be (a) too large, (b) too small, or
(c) about the same. Explain why.
Ans:
The hardness measured from an indentation that is positioned very close to a pre-existing indentation will be
(a) too large since the material in this vicinity was cold-worked when the first indentation was made. Thus,
the material was strengthened and the yield strength was increased.
Recovery/Recrystallization/Grain Growth
Cite the differences between the recovery and recrystallization processes.
Ans:
For recovery, there is some relief of internal strain energy by dislocation motion; however, there are
virtually no changes in either the grain structure or mechanical characteristics. During recrystallization, on
the other hand, a new set of strain-free grains forms, and the material becomes softer and more ductile.
Explain the differences in grain structure for a metal that has been cold worked and one that has been cold
worked and then recrystallized.
Ans:
During cold-working, the grain structure of the metal has been distorted to accommodate the deformation.
Recrystallization produces grains that are equi-axed and smaller than the parent grains.
(a) What is the driving force for recrystallization?
(b) What is the driving force for grain growth?
Ans:
(a) The driving force for recrystallization is the difference in internal energy between the strained and
unstrained material.
(b) The driving force for grain growth is the reduction in grain boundary energy as the total grain boundary
area decreases.

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CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 6/8

The figures below show three photomicrographs of the same magnification factor taken for a C26000 brass
alloy during annealing.
i) Tensile strength and hardness: Rank them from the highest to the lowest. Why?
ii) Ductility and toughness: Rank them from the highest to the lowest. Why?
iii) Annealing time: If the annealing temperature is the same for all three cases, rank the annealing time
required from the shortest to the longest. Why?
iv) Annealing temperature: If the annealing time is the same for all three cases, rank the annealing
temperature required from the lowest to the highest. Why?
Repeat the ranking for the three photomicrographs of a 33%CW brass alloy during annealing.
C26000 brass alloy

(a) (b) (c)


33%CW brass alloy

(d) (e) (f)


Ans:
i) Tensile strength and hardness: (a) > (b) > (c) and (d) > (e) > (f) since the tensile strength (hence the
hardness) is inversely proportional to the grain size. A metal with smaller grain size possesses more
grain boundaries to impede dislocation motion. Hence, smaller grain size implies higher strength.
ii) Ductility and toughness: (c) > (b) > (a) and (f) > (e) > (d) since the ductility (hence the toughness) is
directly proportional to the grain size. A metal with smaller grain size possesses more grain boundaries
to impede dislocation motion. Hence, smaller grain size implies higher strength and less ductility.
iii) Annealing time: (a) < (b) < (c) and (d) > (e) > (f) since at the same annealing temperature, grain growth
is directly proportional to the annealing time since more energy is available for grain growth.
iv) Annealing temperature: (a) < (b) < (c) and (d) > (e) > (f) since at the same annealing time, the grain
growth is also directly proportional to the annealing temperature, which provides more energy for grain
growth.

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The table below shows the recrystallization temperature TR and crystalline structure at room temperature
(25C) of six metals. Assume these metals have all undergone extensive metal working at room
temperature. Determine which metal(s) will remain ductile with the original yield strength if the metals stay
at room temperature for a long time. Explain why.
Metal Aluminum (Al) Copper (Cu) Iron (Fe) Lead (Pb) Tungsten (W) Zinc (Zn)
Crystalline
FCC FCC BCC FCC BCC HCP
Structure
TR (C) 80 120 450 4 1200 10
Ans:
As shown in the table, only lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) have a recrystallization temperature TR lower than room
temperature (25C). The yield strengths of all other four metals (Al, Cu, Fe & W) will increase due to
cold-work. However, the crystalline structure of zinc is HCP, making zinc brittle. Hence, lead (Pb) is the
only metal, whose yield strength will remain the same since it is undergone hot-working and
recrystallization.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING
Plastically deforming a metal specimen near room temperature generally leads to which of the following
property changes?
(A) An increased tensile strength and a decreased ductility
(B) A decreased tensile strength and an increased ductility
(C) An increased tensile strength and an increased ductility
(D) A decreased tensile strength and a decreased ductility
Ans: A. Plastically deforming (or strain hardening) a metal increases the dislocation density; this produces
an increase in tensile strength and a decrease in ductility.
A dislocation formed by adding an extra half-plane of atoms to a crystal is referred to as:
(A) a screw dislocation
(B) a vacancy dislocation
(C) an interstitial dislocation
(D) an edge dislocation
Ans: D. A dislocation formed by adding an extra half plane of atoms to a crystal is referred to as an edge
dislocation.
The atoms surrounding a screw dislocation experience which kinds of strains?
(A) Tensile strains
(B) Shear strains
(C) Compressive strains
(D) All of the above
(E) Both B and C
Ans: B. The atoms surrounding a screw dislocation experience only shear strains.
What are the two fundamental types of dislocations?
Ans: The two fundamental types of dislocations are edge and screw.

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CHAPTER 7 DISLOCATIONS AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS Page 8/8

The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion is called ________?
Ans: The process by which plastic deformation is produced by dislocation motion is called slip.
The direction of motion of a screw dislocation's line is:
(A) perpendicular, or
(B) parallel
to the direction of an applied shear stress.
Ans: A. The direction of motion of a screw dislocation is perpendicular to the direction of an applied shear
stress.
For a particular crystal structure, the slip direction is that direction in the slip plane having the
(A) lowest linear density
(B) highest linear density
Ans: B. For a particular crystal structure, the slip direction is that direction in the slip plane having the
highest linear density.
Increased hindering of dislocation motion makes a metallic material
(A) harder
(B) softer
Ans: A. Increased hindering of dislocation motion makes a metallic material harder.
As the impurity concentration (in solid solution) of a metal is increased, the tensile and yield strengths
(A) decrease
(B) increase
Ans: B. As the impurity concentration (in solid solution) of a metal is increased, the tensile and yield
strengths increase.
On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are
(A) repulsive
(B) attractive
Ans: A. On the average, dislocation-dislocation strain interactions are repulsive.
During the recovery of a cold-worked material, there is a reduction in the number of dislocations
(A) True
(B) False
Ans: A True. During the recovery of a cold-worked material, there is a reduction in the number of
dislocations.
For pure metals, the recrystallization temperature is normally about
(A) 0.1Tm
(B) 0.2Tm
(C) 0.3Tm
(D) 0.4Tm
where Tm is the absolute melting temperature.
Ans: C. For pure metals, the recrystallization temperature is normally about 0.3Tm.

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