Contents

Contents............................................................................................................... 1
Executive Summary..............................................................................................2
1. Introduction....................................................................................................... 3
1.1. What is groundwater?..................................................................................4
1.2. Availability and use of groundwater............................................................5
1.2.1. Industrial Demand....................................................................................5
1.2.2. Habitation.................................................................................................5
1.2.3. Agriculture................................................................................................5
2. Sources of Groundwater Contamination............................................................6
2.1. Natural Sources...........................................................................................6
2.2. Agricultural Activities...................................................................................6
2.3. Human Activities..........................................................................................7
2.3.3. Saline Water Intrusion............................................................................10
3. Regulatory, Institutional and Policy Framework...............................................12
4. Ways to manage Groundwater........................................................................15
4.1. Groundwater Recharge..............................................................................15
4.2. Recycling and wastewater treatment........................................................16
4.2.1. Evolution of Technologies.......................................................................17
4.2.2. Performance of various Technologies.....................................................18
5. Case Study.......................................................................................................20
5.1. Case Study I: Ambuja Cement Limited .....................................................20
5.2. Case Study II: Bosch Limited – Safe Drinking Water..................................22
6. Recommendations...........................................................................................24
7. Way Forward....................................................................................................26
8. Bibliography.....................................................................................................28
 Executive Summary

Water is inextricably linked with every facet of human development. Its

unavailability, deterioration in quality and neglect drastically impedes the quality
of human life. The India's accelerated and continuous growth has led to an
unprecedented stress on the finite and fragile water resources that are on the
verge of depletion on account of overexploitation. Sectoral demands for water
are growing rapidly in line with urbanization, population increase, rising income
and industrial growth. One of the major sources of drinking water is underground
water. The poor management of water calls for action by all stakeholders. In the
advent of a water crisis, industry will be hard hit and, it is, therefore, incumbent
upon the same to undertake pro active measures toward effective water
management.
Despite massive outlays for drinking water and sanitation in India, access to safe
drinking water remains a challenge. Institutional challenges in rural and urban
drinking water and sanitation remain a major hurdle. These include addressing
leakages in official spending, monitoring of progress and creating linkages
between different agencies.
There are concerns on groundwater and surface water sustainability, with
emerging concerns of inequity in access that is both intra-rural and rural-urban.
The crisis has become intense over the past decade affecting both rural and
urban sectors. With two-thirds of India being drought prone, increasing demands
on available water from intensive agriculture and industry and increasing levels
of groundwater and surface water pollution, drinking water availability is
emerging as a constraint in many places. Access and delivery of safe drinking
water varies from state to state and even within a state.

We hope the report will provide a roadmap to various stakeholders on embarking

and forging partnerships towards sustainable management of our critical
underground water resources.

2
 Management of Groundwater Contamination

1. Introduction
The last century of the bygone millennium, especially its later half, has seen
unbelievable scientific and technological developments in improving the quality
of life of mankind. People are looking for the state-of-the art equipment and
accessories, which are available in urban centers, to have comfort in day-to-day
life. As a consequence, there is a tremendous stress in urban infrastructure
services, be it housing, water supply, waste management, transportation, power
generation, telecommunication or any other system. The more the stress, the
more is the failure rate in the provision of these services. The ill effects of such
fall-outs then boomerang on the management of the services adversely affecting
the various components of environment out of the ‘uncared for’ residues which
reach the natural water bodies through direct and indirect routes polluting them.
India, on the whole, is not well off in water resources. The country has 16% of
the world’s population, accommodated in 2.45% of the worlds land area. The
total water resources available to India are about 4% of the world’s resources.
Groundwater, which is 38.5% of the available water resources of the country,
plays an important role in irrigation, rural water supply and even in meeting
industrial demands and drinking water needs. Groundwater is an open access
common property natural resource and anyone can bore a well and pump out
water without limit. This inevitably leads to excessive extraction and as a result
the ground water table has gone down in many parts of the country.
The per capita availability of water is declining progressively owing to increasing
population. Accordingly, the per capita availability of water for the country as a
whole has witnessed a fall from 5177 m3 /year in 1951 to 1654 m3 /year in 2007.
Groundwater is generally less susceptible to contamination and pollution when
compared to surface water bodies. Also, the natural impurities in rainwater,
which replenishes groundwater systems, get removed while infiltrating through
soil strata. But, In India, where groundwater is used intensively for irrigation and
industrial purposes, a variety of land and water-based human activities are
causing pollution of this precious resource. Its over-exploitation is causing
aquifer contamination in certain instances; while in certain others its unscientific
development with insufficient knowledge of groundwater flow dynamic and geo-
hydro chemical processes has led to its mineralization.

3
A UNICEF report on Indian water scenario also indicates there will be
intense competition over water amongst various stakeholders. Thus
there is an obvious urgency about managing groundwater in a
sustainable way.

1.1. What is groundwater?

When rain falls to the ground, the water does not stop moving. Some of it flows
along the surface to streams or lakes, some of it is used by plants, some
evaporates and returns to the atmosphere, and some sinks into the ground.
Imagine pouring a glass of water onto a pile of sand. Where does the water go?
The water moves into the spaces between the particles of sand.
Groundwater is water that is found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil,
sand and rock. Groundwater
is stored in--and moves slowly
through--layers of soil, sand
and rocks called aquifers.
Aquifers typically consist of
gravel, sand, sandstone, or
fractured rock, like limestone.
These materials are
permeable because they have
large connected spaces that
allow water to flow through. The speed at which groundwater flows depends on
the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are connected.
The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone (or saturation
zone). The top of this zone is called the water table. The water table may be
located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit hundreds of feet
down.
Groundwater can be found almost everywhere. The water table may be deep or
shallow; and may rise or fall depending on many factors. Heavy rains or melting
snow may cause the water table to rise, or heavy pumping of groundwater
supplies may cause the water table to fall.
The largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops. It is important to learn to
protect our groundwater because of its importance as a source of water for
drinking and irrigation.

4
1.2. Availability and use of groundwater
Of the 1,869 trillion liters reserves, only an estimated 1,122 trillion liters can be
exploited due to topographic constraints and distribution effects. The per capita
availability of water has significantly come down and is likely to come down
further with the growing population and demand. As per the Ministry of
Water Resources per capita water availability in 2025 and 2050 is likely
to come down by almost 36% and 60% respectively of the 2001 levels.
1.2.1. Industrial Demand
Rapid industrialization is resulting in a significant increase in the industrial
demand for water. Industrial water demand is expected to grow by 17%
annually, from ~40 BCM currently to ~ 250 BCM by 2025.
1.2.2. Habitation
In India average water availability in major cities is around 4-5 hours. Only 25%
of the total population in urban areas are metered which means most of the
water supplied by the utilities is non-revenue water. Pricing of water to domestic
consumers is not adequate which results in wastage. Growing population and
rapid unplanned urbanization has not only increased the demand for drinking
water but also sewage treatment. Urban population is expected to grow from 29
% of the total population in 2007 to 55.2 % by 2050.
1.2.3. Agriculture
Inherent dependence of Indian agriculture on unpredictable monsoon puts
immense pressure on the water table. Production of water-intensive crops is
expected to grow by 80% between 2000 and 2050. This would further aggravate
the problem of wastewater from agriculture.

5
2. Sources of Groundwater Contamination
Groundwater contamination occurs when man-made products such as gasoline,
oil, road salts and chemicals get into the groundwater and cause it to become
unsafe and unfit for human use. Some of the major sources of these products,
called contaminants, are storage tanks, septic systems, hazardous waste sites,
landfills, and the widespread use of road salts, fertilizers, pesticides and other
chemicals.

2.1. Natural Sources

Groundwater commonly contains one or more naturally occurring chemicals,
leached from soil or rocks by percolating water, in concentrations that exceed
drinking water standards or otherwise impair its use.

2.2.Agricultural Activities
Agriculture is one of the most widespread human activities that affects the
quality of groundwater.
2.2.1. Fertilizers
Fertilizers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium and if nitrogen supply
exceeds nitrogen uptake by crops, excess nitrogen can be leached to
groundwater. In such areas, local nitrate-nitrogen concentrations may exceed
drinking water standard
of 10 mg/L
2.2.2.
Pesticides
Pesticides have been
used since long to
combat a variety of
agricultural pests. In
addition to crop
applications, infiltration
of spilled pesticides can
cause contamination in
locations where
pesticides are stored,
and where sprayers and other equipment used to apply pesticides are loaded
and washed. Pesticides most frequently detected in groundwater are the

6
fumigants ethylene dibromide (EDB) and 1,2-dichloropropane; the insecticides
aldicarb, carbofuran and chlordane; and the herbieides alachlor and atrazine.
2.2.3. Feedlots
Feedlots confine livestock and poultry and create problems of animal-waste
disposal. Feedlot wastes often are collected in impoundments from which they
might infiltrate to groundwater and raise nitrate concentrations. Runoff from
farmyards may also directly enter an aquifer along the outside of a poorly sealed
well easing.
2.2.4. Irrigation
Percolation of irrigation water into soils dissolves soil salts and transports them
downward. Vaporization of applied water from the root zone concentrates salts in
the soil and increases the salt load to the groundwater.
Chemigation, the practice of mixing and distributing pesticides and fertilizers
with irrigation water, may cause contamination if more chemicals are applied
than crops can use. It may also cause local contamination if chemicals back-
siphon from the holding tank directly into the aquifer through irrigation well.

2.3. Human Activities

Contaminants can enter groundwater from more than 30 different generic
sources related to human activities. These sources commonly are referred to as
either point or nonpoint sources. Point sources are localized in areas of an acre
or less, whereas nonpoint sources are dispersed over broad areas.
2.3.1. Waste Disposal Practices
Perhaps the best-known sources of groundwater contamination are associated
with the storage or disposal of liquid and solid wastes. The organic substances
most frequently reported in groundwater as resulting from waste disposal in
decreasing order of occurrence, are:
• trichloroethylene (TCE)
• chloroform
• benzene
• pentachlorophenol
• tetrachloroethylene (PCE)
• creosote
• phenolic compounds
• l,l,l-trichloroethane
• toluene

7
• xylene
Waste disposal can take a number of forms:
• septic systems
• municipal and industrial landfills
• surface impoundments
• waste-injection wells
• direct application of stabilized wastes to the land
In addition to these regulated forms of disposal, a considerable amount of
unregulated disposal, such as illegal dumping and accidental spills, contributes
to groundwater contamination.
Septic Systems
Septic systems are used by homes, offices or other buildings that are not
connected to a city sewer system. Septic systems are designed to slowly drain
away human waste underground at a slow, harmless rate. An improperly
designed, located, constructed, or maintained septic system can leak bacteria,
viruses, household chemicals, nitrate, phosphorus, chloride and organic
substances, including organic solvents such as trichloroethylene that are sold
commercially to "clean" the systems.
Also systems may be spaced so densely that their discharge exceeds the
capacity of the local soil to assimilate the pollutant loads.
Landfills
Landfills are the places that our garbage is taken to be buried. Landfills are
supposed to have a protective bottom layer to prevent contaminants from
getting into the water. However, if there is no layer or it is cracked, contaminants
from the landfill (car battery acid, paint, household cleaners, trace metals,
volatile organic compounds, pesticides etc.) can make their way down into the
groundwater, which may cause significant local contamination.
About 150 million tons of municipal solid waste and 240 million tons of industrial
solid waste are deposited in 16,400 landfills each year. Some hazardous waste
material may be deposited in municipal landfills and underlying groundwater
may become contaminated. Wastes deposited at industrial landfills include a
large assortment of trace metals, acids, volatile organic compounds and
pesticides, which may cause significant local contamination.
Surface impoundments
Surface impoundments are used to store, treat or dispose of oil and gas brines,
acidic mine wastes, industrial wastes (mainly liquids), animal wastes, municipal

8
treatment plant sludges and cooling water. For the most part, these
impoundments contain nonhazardous wastes; however, hazardous wastes are
known to be treated, stored and disposed of by 400 facilities involving about
3,200 impoundments. Some of these impoundments have significant potential
for contaminating groundwater.

Injection Wells
In some parts of the country, injection wells dispose of liquid wastes
underground. Of particular concern is the widespread use of drainage wells to
dispose of urban storm water runoff and irrigation drainage. Contaminants
associated with drainage wells include suspended sediments; dissolved solids;
bacteria; sodium; chloride; nitrate; phosphate; lead, and organic compounds,
including pesticides.
Land Application of Wastes
In many places, solid and liquid wastes are placed or sprayed on the land,
commonly after treatment and stabilization. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has estimated that more than 7 million dry tons of sludge from at
least 2,463 publicly owned waste treatment plants are applied to about 11,900
parcels of land each year. Contamination can occur from improper land-disposal
techniques.
2.3.2. Storage and Handling of Materials and Wastes
Groundwater contamination as the result of storage and handling of materials
includes leaks from both above-ground and underground storage tanks, as well
as unintentional spills or poor housekeeping practices in the handling and
transferring of materials on industrial and commercial sites.
Possibly as many as 7 million steel tanks are used to store petroleum products,
acids, chemicals, industrial solvents and other types of waste underground. The
potential of these tanks to leak increases with age. About 20 percent of existing
steel tanks are more than 16 years old, and estimates of the total number that
presently leak petroleum products range from 25 to 30 percent. Underground
storage tanks appear to be a leading source of benzene, toluene and xylene
contaminants, all of which are organic compounds in diesel and gasoline fuels.
Transporting and Stockpiling
Many materials and wastes are transported and then temporarily stored in
stockpiles before being used or shipped elsewhere. Precipitation can leach

9
potential contaminants from such stockpile; storage containers can corrode and
leak; and accidental spills can occur - as many as 10,000 to 16,000 per year,
according to EPA estimates.
Mining Practices
Mining of coal, uranium and other substances and the related mine spoil can lead
to groundwater contamination in several ways:
• Shafts and tunnels can intersect aquifers.
• Exposing coal to oxygen can form sulfuric acid, which can degrade water
quality.
• Contaminants from tailings can leach into groundwater.
Oil-Well Brines
Since the 1800s, hundreds of thousands of exploratory and production wells
have been drilled for oil and gas in the United States. During production, oil wells
produce brines that are separated from the oil and stored in surface
impoundments. EPA estimates that 125,100 brine-disposal impoundments exist
that might affect local groundwater supplies.

2.3.3. Saline Water Intrusion

The encroachment of saline water into the freshwater part of an aquifer is an
ever-present threat when water supplies are developed from the highly
productive coastal plain aquifers of the United States, or from aquifers underlain
by saline water in the interior of the country. Local incidents of saline water
intrusion have occurred on all coasts of the United States.
Of course there are a number of materials that can contaminate groundwater.
The table below shows examples of wastes commonly generated by specific
businesses that may contaminate groundwater.

Business Problem Waste generated

All Businesses Sanitary sewage
Vehicle Service and Body Oil, antifreeze, solvents, fuels, paints, metal
Repair residues
Car/Truck Wash Road salt, gasoline, antifreeze, oil-laden wash
and rinse waters, cleaners
Metal Parts Cleaning Alkaline solutions, solvents, phosphate
solutions, metal residues, rinse waters, oil and
greases
Laundromat Dirty wash water, detergents, laundry pre-
wash solvents

10
Dry cleaning Solvents, filters
Furniture Repair and Solvents, paints, varnishes, shellac
Refinishing
Photo Finishing/Silk Process chemicals, inks
Screening/Printing
Paint Mixing Paints, solvents, pigments
Food processing Food scraps and juices, wash water, cooling
water, salt

11
3. Regulatory, Institutional and Policy Framework
Responsibility of the water sector is divided among the three tiers of the
Government. The Ministry of Water Resources is responsible for policy
formulation, development and regulation of national water resources. The
Ministry of Urban Development is responsible for water supply and sanitation.
State Governments are responsible for policy, regulation, and implementation of
various water source development projects in their states. ULBs are responsible
for provision of water supply and sanitation in their respective areas.
Though the Constitution, through the 73rd and 74th Amendment, placed
responsibility of provision of services to the ULBs, they are in most cases
dependent on the states for funding. Most projects are still implemented by
state engineering agencies such as the Public Health Engineering Departments
(PHED) and State Water Boards. There is little incentive to these organizations
for implementing cost effective projects, since the projects are transferred to the
respective ULB for operations. In some cases, even after completion of projects,
ULBs do not take charge of the project due to issues such as insufficient cost
recovery and lack of adequate manpower. This leads to a situation where no
single entity has sole responsibility for operations and maintenance of the asset.
Thus to overcome these challenges, following measures can be taken:
a) Full responsibility needs to be devolved to the ULB for provision
of water supply and sanitation services
There are multiple agencies related to water supply and sanitation
services at the State level. Sometimes, there is an overlap between policy
making, regulation, financing, and implementation, operation of assets
and ownership of infrastructure.
b) Clear roles and responsibilities need to be defined for each entity
in the Sector. All agreements between these entities need to be
on an arm’s length basis
The water supply and sanitation services are one of many functions of
ULBs. It is important that the services are viewed as a commercial
operation and accounting for these services is performed separately.
c) Accounting for water supply and sanitation services need to be
prepared separately
The move towards full cost recovery for water services needs to be
gradual; additionally communication with the various consumer groups is

12
 essential. This needs to be accompanied by a genuine intent to improve
service quality through higher investments, reduction of losses and
improvement in processes and systems.
d) The move towards full cost recovery for water supply and
sanitation services needs to be initiated
Agricultural users are provided with highly subsidized power. This has
resulted in the proliferation of pumps leading to excess withdrawal of
water and depletion of the groundwater level. While some states have
taken up groundwater recharge initiatives, these need to be undertaken
on a sustained basis. Some states have enacted Groundwater Acts, but
enforcement of these acts is problematic.
e) Metering of all agricultural electricity consumption needs to be
implemented uniformly. Additionally, electricity subsidies need to
be given in a more focused manner
While many states have enacted Water Regulatory Authority Acts, in many
cases the Water Regulatory Authority has not been setup or is yet to
formulate bulk water pricing mechanisms. Pricing of bulk water needs to
be based on sound commercial principles. Certainty of bulk water pricing
is a key requirement for increased private sector participation.
f) Water Regulatory Authorities need to be setup in each state and
bulk water prices should be determined on a commercial basis
The Water Act 1974 established the Pollution Control Boards at the central
and state level. The Water Cess Act 1977 provided the Pollution Control
Boards with a funding tool, enabling them to charge the water user with a
cess designed as a financial support for the board's activities. The
Environment Protection Act 1986 is an umbrella legislation providing a
single focus in the country for the protection of environment and seeks to
plug the loopholes of earlier legislation relating to environment. The law
prohibits the pollution of water bodies and requires any potentially
polluting activity to get the consent of the local SPCB before being started.
Two forms of consent are required 1) Consent to Establish or CTE and 2)
Consent to Operate or CTO
g) Standards need to be enforced more rigorously by the State
Pollution Control Boards
There have been several studies that point to poor performance of SPCBs
with regards to enforcement. A report released by the Center for Science

13
an Environment in 2009 cites the following as evidence. The root causes of
poor enforcement performance include- lack of adequate manpower, lack
of trained technical manpower, poor finances, excessive control over
finances exerted by state governments and lack of oversight on the part of
central or state agencies. The report calls for wide-ranging reforms to
enable the PCBs to be effective in their role as environmental stewards.
Improvements in enforcement will lead to greater investment in
wastewater treatment systems.

14
4. Ways to manage Groundwater
In view of the increasing thrust on development of ground water resources, there
is an urgent need to augment these depleting resources in the active recharge
zone.
The first step towards evolving measures to prevent and cure
groundwater quality deterioration is generating reliable and accurate
information through water quality monitoring (WQM) to understand the
actual source/cause, type and level of contamination. However, there are
a few observation stations in the country that cover all the essential parameters
for water quality and hence the data obtained are not decisive on the water
quality status. Secondly, WQM involve expensive and sophisticated equipments
that are difficult to operate and maintain and require substantial expertise in
collecting, analyzing and managing data. Since water technology is still not
advanced in India, it is very likely that the available data is less
reliable. The existing methodology for WQM is inadequate to identify
the various sources of pollution. Integration of data on water quality with
data on water supplies, which is very important from the point of view of
assessing water availability for meeting various social, economic and
environmental objectives, is hardly done. And finally, in the absence of any
stringent norms on water quality testing, results can change across agencies
depending on sampling procedure, time of testing, and testing instruments and
procedure.

4.1. Groundwater Recharge

This can be augmented through natural or artificial recharge. Rainfall is the main
source of both types of recharge. The rainfall occurrence in different parts of
India is limited to a period ranging from about 10 to 100 days. The natural
recharge to ground water reservoir is restricted to this period only and is not
enough to keep pace with the excessive continued exploitation. Since large
volumes of rainfall flows out into the sea or get evaporated, artificial recharge
has been advocated to supplement the natural recharge. Artificial Recharge is
the process by which the ground water reservoir is augmented through
increased infiltration by using artificial structures. It may be noted however that
to the extent artificial recharge reduces water flowing into existing
lakes/ponds/reservoirs lower down the catchment, it is not a net addition to

15
 available groundwater but only a re-distribution across different areas, which
might be socially desirable.
The dominant method of artificial recharge is through the use of civil structures
(such as percolation tank, check dams, recharge shafts etc) that arrest or slow
down surface runoff, under suitable hydro-geological and hydrologic conditions.
Another method involves creation of additional bank storage in the flood plains
of perennial rivers by withdrawal of ground water during non-monsoon season
and facilitating recharge/infiltration of a fraction of floodwater during rainy
season.
Artificial recharge through rain water harvesting is being practiced in different
parts of the country. However, it is seen that the selection of sites and type of
recharge structures are not always compatible with hydrological and hydro
geological conditions. As a result, the desired benefits have not been realized.
A consolidated summary of costs and benefits resulting from implementation of
different types of artificial recharge structures is given below
Type of Capital
Recharge Area of Implementation Benefits Investment –
Structure Cost of recharge
Water recharged 2 TCM (Thousand
A.P., Karnataka, Kerala,
cubic meters) -225 TCM Cost range 20 to 193 (on the
Madhya Pradesh,
Percolation Tank Rs.1.55 lakhs to Rs.71 lakhs Area basis of 16 case
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
benefited* 10-500 Ha. Rise in studies)
West Bengal
water level <1 up to 4m
Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Water recharged 1TCM-2100 TCM
73 to 290 (on the
Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Cost range Rs.1.5 lakhs to Rs.1050
Check dams basis of 5 case
Pradesh, Maharashtra, lakhs Area benefited* 3-30 Ha.
studies)
Delhi and Rajasthan Rise in water level <1 - 2.5 m
Water recharged <1TCM-1550
Andhra Pradesh, 2.5 to 80 (on the
Recharge trench/ TCM Cost range Rs.1 lakh to Rs.15
Chandigarh, Haryana, basis of 6 case
shaft/well lakhs Rise in water level 0.25-0.7
Kerala and Punjab studies)
m
Water recharged 2TCM-11.5 TCM
Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, 158 to 455(on the
Sub-surface Cost range Rs.7.3 lakhs to Rs.17.7
Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and basis of 4 case
barrier/dyke lakhs Rise in water level <1 - 3.8
West Bengal studies)
m
Renovation of
creeks and sub- Orissa coastal area Water impounded 798 TCM
creeks

4.2. Recycling and wastewater treatment

With decreasing water availability, water recycling assumes critical importance.
Additionally, higher adoption of effective wastewater treatment technologies will

16
reduce the negative environmental impact of wastewater. Wastewater from both
industrial and municipal sources can be
a) recycled i.e. used internally by the original user prior to discharge to a
treatment system or other point of disposal
b) reused i.e. when a user other than the discharger withdraws the
wastewater
Each recycling may be through a succession of lower quality uses with little or no
treatment as part of the cycle or it may include treatment to maintain a certain
quality.
The concept of wastewater recycling and reuse is relatively new to India though
it is gradually gaining attention from all concerned. The following section
discusses various technologies which have evolved over time, performance of
these technologies and issues related to adoption.

4.2.1. Evolution of Technologies

Physical, chemical and biological methods are used to remove contaminants
from waste-water in order to achieve different levels of contaminant removal.
a) Physical unit operations
This is among the first treatment methods used and physical factors are
applied to remove contaminants. Screening, mixing, flocculation,
sedimentation, floatation, filtration, and gas transfer are examples of
physical unit operations.
b) Chemical unit operations
Removal or conversion of contaminants is brought about by the addition of
chemicals or by other chemical reactions. It is always used in conjunction
with physical unit operations and biological processes. The main chemical
unit processes include chemical precipitation, adsorption, disinfection and
de-chlorination.
c) Biological unit operations
Biological operations are used to convert the finely divided and dissolved
organic matter in wastewater into settle-able organic and inorganic solids.
In these processes, micro-organisms, particularly bacteria, convert the
dissolved organic matter into various gases and into cell tissue which is
then removed in sedimentation tanks. Biological processes are usually
used in conjunction with physical and chemical processes, with the main
objective of reducing the organic and nutrient content.

17
 The processes mentioned above are grouped together to provide various levels
of treatment – preliminary wastewater treatment, primary wastewater treatment,
secondary wastewater treatment, tertiary wastewater treatment. Tertiary
treatment is generally not carried out for disposal of sewage in water, but it is
carried out, while using the river stream for collecting water for re-use or for
water supplies for purposes like industrial cooling and groundwater recharge.
For the purpose of developing a vision for the sector, we have selected 6
technologies that are presently used in India. Based on their history of use and
primary processes, these have been classified as Conventional, Advanced or
Alternative Technologies.

Wastewater Treatment Technologies

used in India

Conventional Advanced Alternative

Up-flow Membrane Constructed

Anaerobic Bioreactor Soil Filter or
Waste Activated Sludge Blanket Systems Reverse Soil
Stabilization Sludge digestion (MBR) Osmosis (RO) Biotechnology
Ponds Process (UASB)

4.2.2. Performance of various Technologies

Alternative
New / Advanced
Conventional Technologies Technologi
Technologies
es
Constructe
Parameter Up-flow Membran
Revers d Soil
Activate Anaero e
Stabilizati e Filter or
Sludge bic Bioreacto
on Ponds Osmosi Soil
Process Sludge r
s Biotechnol
Blanket Systems
ogy
Quality of Output
(Removal of BOD,
High Medium Medium High High High
suspended solids
etc)
Land Requirement High Low Low Low Low High
Construction Cost Low High Medium High High Low
Operation Cost Low High Medium High High Low
Maintenance Cost Low High High High High Low
Energy Demand Low High Low High High Low
Ease of High High High High Medium High
Implementation-
(Domestic –

18
 Alternative
New / Advanced
Conventional Technologies Technologi
Technologies
es
Constructe
Parameter Up-flow Membran
Revers d Soil
Activate Anaero e
Stabilizati e Filter or
Sludge bic Bioreacto
on Ponds Osmosi Soil
Process Sludge r
s Biotechnol
Blanket Systems
ogy
Centralized /
Community /
Municipal)
Ease of
Implementation-
(Domestic – De-
Low Medium Medium High Low Low
centralized /
Household /
Building)
Ease of
Implementation- Low High Low High High Low
(Industrial)
Skilled Resources
Low Medium Medium High High Low
required for O&M

There are, however, challenges that water utilities would face such as building
technical and managerial skills to design, install, operate and manage water
treatment systems, making people pay for treated water and building knowledge
and awareness among communities about groundwater quality issues and
treatment measures. For the long run, policies need to be focused on building
scientific capabilities of line agencies concerned with WQM, water supplies, and
pollution control; and restructuring them to perform WQM and enforcement of
pollution control norms effectively and to enable them implement environmental
management projects.

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5. Case Study
Contributing to the efforts of the Sub Group on Water Projects, various industrial
houses have shared their initiatives on water, implemented with the involvement
of the communities.
As a part of CSR activity, various industries have implemented water related
projects with the participation of the community. It is essential to disseminate
this information among other stakeholders to facilitate replication of such
initiatives in accordance with area specific requirements. The uniqueness of
these projects is the involvement of the community from the very inception, for
ensuring sustainability. In order to motivate other industries, the following case
studies have been captured:

5.1. Case Study I: Ambuja Cement Limited

Project Title: Salinity Mitigation and water management in Junagarh: A case
story in water resource management
Industry Profile: Cement manufacturing. The Company possesses 5 integrated
manufacturing sites, 6 grinding units and 3 shipping terminals. The gross annual
turnover for 2008 was Rs.7090 Crores.
Background of the project: In the villages dotting the coast of Junagadh and
adjacent districts the problem of salinity had taken a serious turn about three
decades ago. The serious nature of the problem of salinity was showing a
detrimental effect on all aspects of rural life making it unnecessarily arduous and
reducing the quality of life. The situation became so grave that villagers began
seeking solutions and saw the need of taking constructive steps to curtail this
problem. Thus the project was started in 2002 and is being implementation
presently too. The objective of the project was to reduce the salinity ingress in
and around the coastal regions of Junagadh, Gujarat and mitigate the ill-effects
of this manmade problem to improve the livelihoods of the rural people.
Problems/ Issues faced: To organize the villagers, convince them and
motivate them for cooperation, participation and support for making the same
successful was a big task. The other challenge faced was that of land acquisition.
For construction of some of the structures required for the project, individual
farmers had to sacrifice tracts of private land. Naturally many of them were not
willing to do so. To convince them, meetings were held to make them aware of
the essential nature of their contribution to the project and the benefits that

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would accrue to all community. After many rounds of discussion and debate,
these challenges were overcome.
Project partners: Besides the Government of Gujarat, Sir Ratan Tata Trust and
AKRSP (I) were partners in the project.
Project Methodology/ strategy: The overall project plan was developed with
the participation of the villagers. Traditional knowledge about the local water
resources, the monsoons, the soil quality etc was taken from them and Ambuja
Cement Factory (ACF) added the latest scientific know-how, technical inputs,
trained professional personnel and finances. The actual implementation of the
project was carried out by the people and ACF. The villagers contributed to the
project in various ways- they offered free labour, gave away tracts of their land,
and in some cases even collected money as community contribution towards the
project.
Check dams were built in the seasonal rivers of the region to allow for better
percolation and recharge of underground water. Existing village ponds were de-
silted and deepened and inter-linked. Goma River, a link channel was excavated
from Panch Pipalava bhandara to Jantrakhadi village, and underground pipeline
was laid from Shingoda River to recharge Barda bhandara. The used mines of the
Company were converted into reservoirs of water. These too were interlinked to
maximize water storage. Mine reclamation in this form is a unique feature of this
water management project as there has no other interventions like this in the
area previously. Other interventions such as the promotion of micro irrigation
systems like drip and sprinkler irrigation, training sessions for farmers,
demonstrations of multi and mixed cropping for the benefit of farmers were also
organized. These aimed at optimizing water utilization by the community
members.
Outcome: The project has given positive results / impacts in all social,
environmental & economical aspects of life of local community; few of them are
as under:
• Agricultural productivity has increased. Instead of one crop per year,
farmers are able to grow three.
• Over all agricultural productivity has increased by 1.5 to 3 fold with
introduction of low water intensity crops and horticulture. Total area
benefitted is over 23,000 Hectare and total number of farmers benefitted
15,500.
• Family incomes have increased.

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 • Improved quality of drinking water has lead to improved health status of
the population. Drinking of saline water had caused kidney stones and
problems of the bones. It is on the decline now.
• The mined-out pits that converted into water reservoirs for rainwater
harvesting has increased the ground water level in project area by 30 feet.
• The project has harvested 1067 mcft of water and benefited an area of
23,254 hectare.
• Over the years salinity had caused a salty layer to form on the surface of
the soil. This layer reduced the fertility of the soil. With improvement in
the water quality this layer has dissolved and consequently soil fertility
and resultantly yields have improved.
• Higher incomes due to crop intensity & introduction of vegetables and
horticulture along with right technology and cattle more productive, better
yield due to improved health.

5.2. Case Study II: Bosch Limited – Safe Drinking Water

Project Title: Safe Drinking Water Facility at Goner Village
Industry Profile: The Bosch group is Germany based MNC. With a turnover in
excess of 45 Billion Euro, Bosch is the largest automotive technology provider in
the world. In India, it is a public limited company headquartered in Bangalore,
with manufacturing facilities at Bangalore, Nasik, Nagnathpura, Jaipur and Goa.
Its products range from diesel and gasoline (petrol) fuel injection systems,
starter motors and generators, special purpose machines, electrical power tools
to security systems. The company employs around 10,000 and recorded a
turnover of over Rs 4,800 crores in 2008.
Background of the Project: Jaipur is one of the worst fluoride contaminated
ground water district in Rajasthan as ground water is the only drinking water
source. Underground rocks (Fluorspar CaF sedimentary rocks, limestone, and 2,
sandstone) are rich in fluoride contamination. This causes high fluoride content
in the drinking water.
Problems/ Issues faced: Fluoride level in ground water varies 2.5 6 ppm level
in Goner & WHO limits 1ppm level in drinking water. In rainy season, water
contaminated diseases occurs but not recorded as any epidemic threat. Many,
Fluorosis patients with joint pains, pale teeth and white hairs in early age.
Project Methodology / Strategy: Reverse Osmosis (RO) technique is used to
treat ground water. The methodology as follows:

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 • Raw water supply from bore well/open well
• Pressure sand filter cleaning
• Activated carbon filter
• Membrane cleaning
• Blending
• UV lightening
• Final supply
Project Partners: Its tripartite partnership between,
• Bosch Limited, (Financial Partner)
• Naandi Foundation (Technical & Social partner)
• Community (Goner Village Panchayat)

Outcome: Local community is prevented from water prone diseases (i.e.).

Dengue, malaria, typhoid etc. and different fluorosis, as they are now getting RO
purified clean drinking water

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6. Recommendations
The best way to deal with groundwater contamination is not to contaminate it in
the first place. Businesses are wise to design their facility, production processes
and operating procedures with prevention of chemical discharges to the
environment in mind. Often, advanced planning will avoid the need to obtain
groundwater discharge permits, will help assure compliance with state and
federal hazardous waste regulations and will reduce exposure to potential
liability and clean-up costs.
Here are some ways businesses can prevent groundwater contamination:
1. Practice waste reduction. Make a list of current waste chemicals and ask,
for each item, "Is there a way I can avoid producing this waste?" Try to
reduce the toxicity and amount of waste generated. Consider the
following:

• Replace toxic raw materials with non-toxic raw materials wherever

possible
• Replace toxic operational supplies, such as cleaners and solvents, with
non-toxic materials wherever possible
• Improve production process efficiency so that less raw material ends
up as waste that must be disposed. Reuse samples in production
• Encourage employees to think "waste reduction." Better yet, include
them in the planning process - they have good ideas. Give them an
economic incentive to reduce waste
• Reuse process by-products and wastes as raw materials, either on- site
or in another company's process
2. Install a catch basin in loading and unloading areas. Nearly one-third of all
accidental spills occur at loading docks. Keep rainwater and dirt out of the
catch basin.
3. Hook up to a municipal sewer system if possible. Pre-treat process wastes
to comply with local ordinances or applicable federal categorical
pretreatment standards.
4. If hook up to a municipal sewer system is not possible, route wastewaters
(such as contaminated wash water) to holding tanks, which can be
periodically pumped out. Hire a licensed liquid waste hauler to pick up the
wastewater for proper disposal.

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 5. Perform all outside work on a concrete or asphalt paved surface
surrounded by a berm or dike.
6. Store raw materials under a roof or other protective cover and on a
concrete or asphalt paved surface surrounded by a dike.
7. Implement an aggressive equipment maintenance program to prevent
leaks. Periodically check tanks, seals, pipe joints and other equipment for
needed repairs.
8. Contain and immediately clean up any spills, leaks and drips that do
occur. Build berms or "dikes" around containers holding hazardous
materials as a form of secondary containment. Use drip pans under
spigots or other areas where there is likely to be seepage.
9. Use absorbents for spills when necessary but do not rely upon them as the
first line of defense. Used absorbents must be disposed with the same
degree of care as the chemicals that are being absorbed. It is more
desirable to recapture the chemical in a form that allows reuse or
recycling.
10.Do not dispose items that contain hazardous materials, such as PCB,
mercury and lead, in business trash that will be buried in a non-hazardous
landfill or that will be incinerated. Recycle or dispose as hazardous waste
items such as used fluorescent and high intensity lamps, small batteries,
capacitors containing PCB, mercury thermometers and other lab
instruments.
Since the source of ground water contamination is mainly waste generated by
Industrial activities. Thus hitting the root cause would certainly result in better
groundwater management. Experience has proven that waste reduction and
conscientious waste management usually pay for themselves within a short time.
Savings in raw material purchases and waste disposal costs soon offset the costs
of waste reduction implementation. And conscientious waste management will
prevent future liability concerns. It pays to handle waste wisely - both short term
and long term.

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7. Way Forward
The reliability, financial sustainability and affordability of water supply and
sanitation services need urgent improvement. It is important that key steps are
taken by various stakeholders to improve the situation

Stakehold Priorities
er
Central
Governmen • To modify the National Water Policy to emphasize re-use of treated wastewater.
t This is especially relevant for sectors like agriculture that consume over 80% of
fresh water supplies.

• Set standards for effluent quality based on uses envisaged

• Expand funding for water source development, sewerage networks and sewerage
treatment plants under schemes like JNNURM

• Increase technical assistance grants for capacity building of Urban Local Bodies to
manage Public Private Partnership Projects

• Increase technical assistance grants for ULBs to set up sewage treatment facilities
with cogeneration to reduce power bills and earn carbon credits.

• Reform pollution control agencies with increased finances, operational autonomy

and fast track systems to process cases of violations
State
Governmen • Define roles and responsibilities of each entity in the sector
t
• Create regulatory institutions to oversee the management of water resources
similar to the Maharashtra State Water Regulatory Authority

• Initiate reforms of Urban Local Bodies to diversify revenue sources, improve

creditworthiness, facilitate operational autonomy, improve technical capabilities

• Improve information sharing of state-wide water resources among agencies

responsible for planning regional development

• Support ULBs in developing robust water supply and sanitation projects to attract
JNNURM funding

• Assist ULBs in land acquisition

Urban Local
Bodies • Upgrade planning capacity within local bodies by increasing number of planners,
environmental engineers

• Initiate gradual increase in water tariffs to ensure optimum utilization of water

resources

• Develop plans for expanding sewage collection networks and building sewage
treatment plants

• Explore alternative technologies for sewage treatment like Soil Biotechnology

based systems and Reed-based systems

• Lobby to increase water and sewerage tariffs to pay for capacity expansions.
Reorganize subsidy system to ensure subsidies reach the poor via targeted, area-
based subsidies instead of general subsidies

• Cut non revenue water by fixing leaks, monitoring water supply quantity and
quality

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Technology
Companies • Engage with government agencies to create policy frameworks that support growth
of water reuse, wastewater treatment and standards

• Invest in research and development for technologies (through investments in pilot

projects) and commercial models suited to the Indian cities, towns and rural areas

• Run awareness campaigns targeted at households to monitor water quality,

conserve water and provide education on managing household waste to lower costs
of treatment. (e.g.: Free distribution of water testing kits, separation of organic and
inorganic wastes, use of a dual flush system)

• Engage with the construction industry on designing projects for wastewater re-use
Consumers

Agriculture • Main contribution is to invest in water-use efficiency enhancing technologies such

as drip irrigation and hybrid seeds.

• Organized farmers’ federations could initiate industrial wastewater re-use projects

in areas with industrial activity and declining water availability. Similar initiatives
could be taken up by farmers’ groups in city outskirts.
Industry • While several industries have initiated zero-discharge projects in their
factories/plants, many others continue to discharge effluents without treatment.
Self-monitoring and regulation must become the norm for industries that aspire to
grow as environmental sustainability and corporate social responsibility are key
pillars of differentiation among global firms.
Households
• Industry Associations like CII and ASSOCHAM must aggressively facilitate
dissemination of approaches on water

• To conserve water at the housing society level, residents may organize themselves
to invest in small STPs or push builders and developers to provide them

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8. Bibliography
• Central Ground Water Board, 2005, “Dynamic Ground Water Resources of
India” (As on March, 2004)

• V.S. Dhumal, Principal Secretary (WSS), Government of Maharashtra,

“Ground Water Development & Management in the State of Maharashtra”

• Tushaar Shah, “Ground water regulation – International Experience”.

Paper submitted to the Expert Group

• D.K. Chadha, former Chairman, Central Ground Water Board, “Ground

Water Potential, Development and Regulation. A critical review”. Note
submitted to Expert Group

• Romani et al, (2006), “Groundwater Governance – Ownership of

Groundwater and its Pricing”, “Proceedings of the 12 National Symposium on
th

Hydrology, November 14-15, 2006”, Capital Publishing Company

• Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) (1996), “World Bank India Water

Resources Management Sector Work, Report of the sub-Group on Ground
Water”, New Delhi

• Saleth, R. Maria (1994), “Groundwater Markets in India: A Legal and

Institutional Perspective”, Indian Economic Review, Vol. 29, No. 2, 157–76

• Marcus Moench (1992), “Chasing the Water Table: Equity and

Sustainability in Groundwater Management”, Economic and Political Weekly,
Vol. 27, Nos. 51–2.

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