EXERCISE 13 GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY AND SECRETION Afferent sensory nerve fibers

NEURAL CONTROL Can be stimulated by

Enteric nervous system o Irritation of the gut mucosa
2 plexuses o Excessive distention of the gut
o Myenteric plexus/Auerbachs plexus outer, GI o Presence of specific chemical substances in the gut
movements, smooth muscle Signals can cause excitation or inhibition of intestinal movements
o Submucosal plexus/Meissners plexus inner, GI and/or intestinal secretion
secretion and local blood flow, submucosa
Can function on its own HORMONAL CONTROL
Sensory neuron originate in GI epithelium or gut wall Hormones affecting GI motility
Myenteric plexus Gastrin
When stimulated o Secreted by G cells of the antrum of the stomach
o Increased tonic contraction of gut wall o Binds to receptors found predominatly on parietal and
o Increased intensity of contractions enterochromaffin-like cells
o Slight increased rate of contractions o Released in response to stimuli associated with meal
o Increased velocity of impulse conduction, more rapid digestion
movement of gut peristaltic waves Distension of stomach
Not entirely excitatory Products of proteins
Send inhibitory signals to sphincter muscles Gastin releasing peptide released by the
o Impedes movement of food along successive segment of nerves of the gastic mucosa during vagal
the GI stimulation
o Pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve o Stimulated gastric acid secretion of parietal cells
Submucosal plexus o Stimulates growth of the gastric mucosa
Function within inner wall of each minute segment of intestine Cholecystokinin
Sensory signals from GI epithelium integrate in submucosal plexus o Secreted by I cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and
to help control jejenum
o Local intestinal secretion o Binds to receptors found on pancreatic acinar cells
o Local absorption (CCKA) and in brain and stomach (CCKB)
o Local contraction of the submucosal muscle (infolding of o Released in response to digestive products of fat, fatty
GI mucosa) acids, and monoglycerides in the intestinal contents
Neurotransmitters secreted by enteric neurons o Stimulates secretion of pancreatic enzymes
Acetylcholine stimulates GI activity o Stimulates gallbladder contraction
o From parasympathetic postganglionic fibres o Moderately inhibits stomach contractions slows
Norepinephrine and epinephrine inhibits GI activity emptying of food from the stomach to give adequate time
o From sympathetic pre- and post-ganglionic fibers for digestion of fats in the upper intestinal tract
Others: ATP, serotonin, dopamine, cholecystokinin, substance P, Secretin
vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, somatostatin, leuenkephalin, o First gastrointestinal hormone discovered
metenkephalin, bombesin o Secreted by the S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum
Nerve endings o Released in response to acidification of the duodenum
Autonomic control of GI tract o Mild effect on motility of GI tract
Parasympathetic innervation o Stimulates pancreatic secretion of bicarbonate in turn
helps neutralize the acid in the small intestine
Cranial parasympathetic nerve fibers
o Almost entirely in the vagus nerves Gastrin inhibitory peptide
o Innervate esophagus, stomach, pancreas, first half of o Aka glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
large intestine o Secreted by the mucosa of the upper small intestine
o Released in response to fatty acids and amino acids but to
Sacral parasympathetic nerve fibers
a lesser extent in response to carbohydrate
o Originate in spinal cord, pass through pelvic nerves
o Decreases the motor activity of the stomach
o Innervate sigmoidal, rectal and anal regions
Slows emptying of gastric contents into
o Function to execute defecation reflexes
duodenum when the upper small intestine is
Postganglionic neurons located mainly in myenteric and submucosal
already overloaded with food products
plexuses
o Induce insulin secretion
Stimulation of these nerves causes general increase in the activity of Stimulated by high glucose concentration in the
the entire ENS enhances activity of most GI functions duodenum
Sympathetic innervation
Motilin
Originate in the spinal cord between segments T-5 and L-2 o Secreted by the upper duodenum during fasting
Innervate essentially all of the gastrointestinal tract o Released cyclically and in response to alkaline pH in
After leaving the spinal cord, most of the preganglionic fibers that duodenum
innervate the gut pass the sympathetic chains and go out to outlying o Stimulates interdigestive myoelectric complexes
ganglia Waves of gastrointestinal motility that move
Most of the postganglionic sympathetic neurons originate from these through stomach and small intestine every 90
ganglia, and travel to all parts of the gut minutes in a fasted person
o Preganglionic fibers sympathetic chains outlying o Increases gastrointestinal motility
ganglia gut o Controls the pattern of smooth muscle contractions in the
Secrete norephinephrine and small amounts of epinephrine upper gastrointestinal tract
Inhibits activity of the gastrointestinal tract Hormone Secreted by Stimuli for release Major activities
Effects exerted in 2 ways Gastrin G cells of the Meal ingestion -stimulates gastric acid
antrum of the responses: secretion of parietal cells
o Slight: direct effect of secreted norepinephrine to inhibit stomach Distention of the -stimulates growth of the
intestinal tract smooth muscle (except mucosal muscle, stomach gastric mucosa
excited) Products of proteins
Gastric releasing
o Major: inhibitory effect of norepinephrine on the neurons of peptide
the entire enteric NS Cholecystokinin I cells in the Digestive products of -stimulates secretion of
Stimulates the contraction of the GI sphincters mucosa of the fat, fatty acids, and pancreatic enzymes
duodenum and monoglycerides in the -stimulates gallbladder
Stimulates vasoconstriction of the blood vessels associated w/ jejenum intestinal contents constraction
digestive system -inhibits stomach
Strong stimulation can inhibit motor movements of gut literally contraction
Secretin S cells in the Acidification of the -stimulates pancreatic
block movement of food through GI tract mucosa of the duodenum secretion of bicarbonates
 duodenum -mildly affects GI motility EXERCISE 14 IN VITRO INTESTINAL ABSORPTION
Gastric The mucosa of Fatty acids and amino -decreases the motor
inhibitory the upper small acids but to a lesser activity of the stomach
Molecule Transport into Epithelial cells Transport Capillary
peptide intestine extent in response to -induce insulin secretion epithelial cell of villus into
carbohydrate capillary
Motilin Upper Fasting state alkaline -stimulates interdigestive
duodenum pH in duodenum myoelectric complexes
Secondary
-controls the pattern of Galactose active
smooth muscle Glucose transport with Monosacchari Facilitated
contractions in the upper Enters
gastrointestinal tract
Na+ des diffusion
Gastric secretion of stomach Facilitated
Fructose
o Titrations NSS washings, 2nd (2.2mL) and 3rd (2.9mL) diffusion
o 0.1M NaOH, assume 1.0mL HCl???? Secondary
o pH = -log[H+] Amino active
o Before and after stimulation of vagus nerve acids transport with
Gastrointestinal motility Na+
Amino acids Diffusion Enters
o NSS vs atropine Secondary
o Gavage with activated charcoal active
Peptides
o ACS transport with
o PDT H+
o Epinephrine Short
Simple
chain fatty Short chain FA Diffusion Enters
diffusion
HCl acids
Produced in stomach by oxyntic/parietal cells Triglycerides
Simple Does
Hydronium ions from rxn of water with carbon dioxide in parietal cells Micelle in Lacteal
diffusion not enter
Parietal cells release H+ ions together with Cl- ions chylomicrons
Vagal stimulation Sugar absorption
o Decreased pH, more acidic Glucose Na+ glucose symporter into epithelial cell, facilitated
o Vagal innervations in gastric glands containing the parietal diffusion (GluT2) out to capillary; Na/K pump
cells Galactose same as glucose
1) Vagus nerve release Ach stimulates gastric acid Fructose facilitated diffusion through intestinal epithelium
secretion (neural) Pentoses facilitated diffusion only, slow
2) Enterochromaffin-like cells secrete histamine stimulates Inhibitors
gastric acid secretion (paracrine) DNP inhibits ATP production, glucose transport not possible
3) G cells stimulated by gastrin-releasing peptide secrete Phlorhizin displaces Na+ from binding site; glucose cannot bind to
gastrin stimulates gastric acid secretion (endocrine) symporter, not transported
Oubain/excess Li+ and K+ - inhibits Na+ pump
Gastric acid secretion Intestine eversion
Increase Decrease Exposes highly-active mucosa to medium
Gastrin Somatostatin (negative feedback) Stretching the small intestine increases the SA of the sac and
Cephalic and oral phases of a Stress (sympathetic) decreases sac wall
meal (parasympathetic) Ringers solution with sodium bicarbonate
High levels of protein products High levels of glucose and lipids Stimulates in vivo conditions and neutralizes pH drop, protects
Activation of parietal cells via Ach Inhibition of Ach action intestine
Gastrin-relasing peptide Aeration for oxygen, molecule transport
Histamine Benedicts reagent
Copper (II) blue + reducing sugar copper (I) red
Histamine Effectiveness of glucose absorption
1) Activates adenylate cyclase Higher glucose absorption, higher absorption
2) Increased intracellular cyclic AMP
3) Activation of protein kinase A Solutions
4) More efficient phosphorylation of cytoskeletal proteins (involved in Without DNP
H+/K+ ATPase) o glucose absorbed by intestine
5) More efficient release of H+ o glucose left in the filtrate
o unreacted Benedicts
PDT = dist. charcoal*100length of intestine o absorbance
Greater PDT, greater distance travelled by substance o lower amount of glucose in solution
Less inhibition of gastrointestinal motility by substance With DNP
o glucose absorbed by the intestine
Atropine o glucose left in the filtrate
Competitive antagonist for muscarinic Ach receptors o unreacted Benedicts
Blocks action of parasympathetic nervous system which decreases o absorbance
intestinal motility o higher amount of glucose remained in solution
Should give low PDT value absorption of glucose by the intestines was inhibited by
PDT grp 1 (atropine) < grp 2 (NSS) DNP
o due to uncoupling (proton leak from intermembrane space
Two tailed T-test to matrix)
Atropine is similar to epinephrine
Epinephrine Pentoses simple diffusion
o Stimulates adrenergic receptors Glucose and galactose
o Causes relaxation, decrease in gut motility o Lumen to cell: SGLT-1, symporter with Na, active
o Stimulatory effect on sympathetic NS transporter dependent on Na-L ATPase pump in
o Inhibitory effect on parasympathetic NS basolateral membrane
o Cell to blood: GLUT-2, facilitated diffusion
Fructose
o Lumen to cell: GLUT-5, facilitated diffusion
o Cell to blood: GLUT-2, facilitated diffusion
o Faster than pentoses but slower than other hexoses
EXERCISE 15 MEASURING CO2 PRODUCTION IN AQUATIC Surface hypothesis homeotherms maintain a constant temperature
ANIMALS proportional to their body surface area
Direct methods of measurement Proportional rate of heat transfer between environment and body
Calorimeter SA, loss of heat, will adapt = metabolic intensity, heat
Hesss law produced, RR
o Total amount of energy released in the breakdown of fuel Larger animals have smaller surface areas
to a given set of end products is always the same SA of an object of isometric shape and uniform density varies as
o Heat released = chemical energy released 0.67 (2/3) power of its uniform mass
Indirect methods Mass increases as a cube of linear dimension, while SA increases
Indirect calorimetry as a square
Radioisotopes atom movement tracking When comparing different species, the exponent is closer to
Respirometer gas exchange approximately 0.75 (Kleibers law)
Basal metabolic rate
Stable rate of energy metabolism measured in mammals and birds Weight-dependent weight of the organism is directly involved or
under the following conditions affects the metabolism
o Minimum environmental and physiological stress (at rest o weight, metabolism
and with no temperature stress) Surface-dependent cell surface is presumably directly concerned
o Digestive and absorptive processes are temporarily with such energy requiring processes as the maintenance of ionic
deactivated (fasting) disequilibria and the entry and exit of materials
MR = aMb o SA, metabolism
logMR = loga + b(logM) Intermediate dependent on both weight and surface area
o where MR = basal metabolic rate
o M = body mass Errors
o A = intercept of the log-log regression line (differs between High solubility of CO2, highly reactive
species)
Macromolecules can release CO2
o B = rate of change of MR with change in body mass
Equivalent in ectotherms or poikilotherms are measured EXERCISE 16 OSMOREGULATION IN EARTHWORMS
o At controlled, specified body temp at which animal is not
Osmoregulation
expending additional metabolic energy to warm or cool o Osmoregulators
itself o Osmoconformers
o Resting and fasting
Lumbricus
o Euryhaline osmoregulator 2% NaCl, internal osmolarity
Body mass and metabolic rate
0.65% NaCl
Small animals must respire at higher rates per unit body mass than o Metanephridia and dorsal pores
large animals
o Collagenous cuticle layer water cannot diffuse
Inverse relation between the rate of O2 consumption per gram of
Metanephridia
body mass and the total mass of the animal
o Nephrostomes
Inverse relation between metabolic rate and body mass applies o Fluid isotonic to coelom, NaCl removed by active transport
within species and between species system
Temperature and metabolic rate o Majority of blood vessels with podocytes coelom: major
Poikilotherms undergo temperature-induced changes in metabolic filtration
rate o Enter metanephridia via nephrostome as coelomic fluid
Homeotherms expend metabolic energy to maintain a constant o Narrow ciliated tubule: minor filtration process in blood
body temperature vessels
Effect of temperature on reaction rate temperature quotient is o Brown ciliated & wide non-ciliated tubule: selective
obtained reabsorption of water, protein and salts
Temperature quotient compares the rate of a reaction at two o Bladder to nephridiopore: urine, urine excretion
different temperatures Hyper-hyposmoregulation
10 degrees Celsius is the standard temperature difference over Hyper-isosmoregulation
which temperature sensitivity of a biological function is determined Hyperosmotic environment
Q10 = (K2/K1)^(10/(T2-T1)) o Hypersosmoreguation
o reabsorption of water
Pink 1mL 0.04% NaOH = 10mol CO2 Concentrated urine
RR = (mol CO2 A - mol CO2 B)/(weight of fish,grams x time,hrs) o dorsal pore secretion
temperature, respiratory rate, dissolved oxygen moist surface
When increased by 10 degrees Celsius, respiration doubles, Q10 = o Aestivation
2 Hypoosmotic environment
o Isosmoregulation
Q10 o reabsorption fo water
= 1, flat Q10, reaction rate is independent of temperature concenctrated urine
< 1, drops with increase in temperature volume
> 1, increases with temperature o dorsal pore secretion
moist surface
Mass-specific metabolic rate o out of burrows, soil surface
Metabolic intensity
Metabolic rate of a unit mass of tissue EXERCISE 17 RENAL HANDLING OF WATER, SALT, AND
O2 consumed per kg per hr SALICYLATE
MR/M = AM(B-1) Nephron = corpuscle + tubule
(logMR)/M = logA + (B-1)logM A. Renal corpuscle filtration
1. Bowmans capsule
Surface area to body mass relations 2. Glomerulus
Isometry nonvarying proportions (same species) a. Afferent arteriole
o Surface area varies as 0.67 power of biomass??? b. Efferent arteriole
Allometry systematic changes in body proportions with increasing B. Renal tubule reabsorption and secretion
species size (different species) 1. Proximal convoluted tubule
o Surface area varies as 0.63 power of biomass??? 2. Loop of Henle
 3. Distal convoluted tubule Directly increases Na reabsorption (PCT, loop of
4. Collecting tubule Henle, and principal cells of the late distal
Vasopressin convoluted tubule)
o ADH Conserves fluid and salt (sodium); results in
o Pituitary gland increase in blood volume and pressure
o Conditions Natriuretic peptides
Dehydration results in concentration of solutes o Natriuresis excretion of sodium
plasma osmolarity increases o Heart and blood vessels
Large decrease in blood pressure (due to low o Counteract effects of renin secretion, causing reduction of
water concentration) blood pressure and extracellular fluid volume
o Functions o BNP and ANP activated by atrial and ventricular
Increases water permeability of principal cells distension due to increase intracardiac pressure
and collecting ducts; increases urea o Natriuretic and diuretic properties
permeability of inner medullary duct Raise sodium and water excretion by increasing
Net effect increases water absorption and the glomerular filtration rate and inhibiting
conservation sodium reabsorption by the kidney
Decrease in urine volume, higher concentration, 20% potassium chromate
lower osmolarity ????? 2.6% silver nitrate
Aldosterone ferric chloride
o Mineralocorticoid produced in the adrenal cortex solving solving
Renin-angiotensin mechanism triggers release
of aldosterone
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
Renin ultimately catalyzes the production of Fe + salicylate ion complex, purple
angiotensin II, which stimulates aldosterone Aspirin salicylic acid (phenol) and acetic acid
release
o Function

Parameter Extracellular Compartment Intracellular Compartment Total Body Water

Vol (L) [] Total mOsm Vol (L) [ ] (mOsm/L) Total mOsm Vol (L) [] Total mOsm
(mOsm/L) (mOsm/L)
Initial value 15 200 3000 20 200 4000 35 200 7000
Solution added 2 400 800 0 0 0 2 400 800
Instantaneous N.E. 7800
effect
After O.E.

Parameter Extracellular Compartment Intracellular Compartment Total Body Water

Vol (L) [] Total mOsm Vol (L) [ ] (mOsm/L) Total mOsm Vol (L) [] Total mOsm
(mOsm/L) (mOsm/L)
Initial value 10 50 3000 15 25
Solution added 0.5 100 800 0 0 0
Instantaneous
effect
After O.E.