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9.1.
.
+ ( 9.1).
+
().
.
9.1: . (1)
(2) (3) (4)
. +
+1. +<+1 <<+1. <1 <<1
9.2. - 109,47
104,5 .
.
1: 1s1
sp3
, ,
( ).
9: 187
9.2: :
(5)
(6) sp3
(7) .
( ) .
9.2. ,
.
9.3: .
.
188 : ..
, 9.3.
H H > 4 C ,
H2O.
9.4.
, 9.4,
.. 9.4
. H
.
9.5: ( )
9.3.
.
9: 189
.. 2S, .
, ,
, ,
-. ,
.
..
.
9.3.1.
4C, 0 C
.
,
.
H H
( 9.3,9.4 9.5).
, ,
. H 2O ,
,
, 9.6.
9.6:
0 oC
H
H2O
( 9.5).
. .
,
( 9.6). 0oC
190 : ..
0 oC ( )
H2O 0oC 4 oC
.
4 oC .
4 oC
.
9.3.2.
100.0C 0.0 C.
.. H 2S.
( )
.
100oC.
(0 oC-100oC)
15-35oC
.
.
9.3.3.
+ .
, .. ,
Na+ Cl . [Na+Cl] n,
,
.. Na+, , .
, .
, .. Cl +
( 9.7).
, ... +(HCl) ,
, .. ClCl,
+
()
.
.. , , ,
,
9: 191
+
.
9.7: NaCl a+ Cl
,
, , .. ,
.
9.4.
,
, , .
9.4.1.
( )
,
.
192 : ..
.
, ..
.
, , .
. .
.
.
( )
( ) ( 3%)
.
, , ..
, .
.
4
.
(1)
, (2) 1g/L, (3)
(4)
20 C .
(1) (2)
. ,
.. .
NaCl 0,9%.
9.4.2.
,
.
( , Cl 26H2O)
, (
) ( ).
.
(. . 9.8).
(510
g) ( ) 12 .
9: 193
,
, NaOCl NaCl + 1/2 O2.
. ,
.
.
, , .. Na +, NO3 ..,
+, .
.
,
.
, ,
.
, .. Suprapure, Nanopure, ..,
,
.
, .
.
.
, .. , .
.
.
.. CaSO4.2H2O, CuSO4.5H2O, ZnSO4.7H2O ..
110oC250oC .
.. 1) 2CaSO4.2H2O 2H2O+2CaSO4.H2O ( )
2) 2CaSO4.2H2O 2H2O+2CaSO4 ( )
1:2, ,
.
.. 1) 2Fe(OH)3 Fe2O3+3H2O
194 : ..
9.5.
..
(.. ) 95% (.. ).
9.1.
.
.
105 C
105 C.
.
9.6. (aw)
(bound water)
..
, , ,
..
.
,
9: 195
9.1:
(water activity, aW )
() () ()
,
aW =P/Po
100% aW =P/Po -
, 80%
0,8 aW =80/100=0,8. . aW
.
9.8.
-
.
196 : ..
9.8: . ()
2
(. )
.
.
.
,
. ( ).
9.9
( ) .
9.9: / aW
9: 197
15%
aW 2050%
aW . ,
aW .
(. . 9.7).
aW
9.8
.
(, , ) 9.9
(, , ) 9.10.
9.7. (aW)
,
.
aW
(, ) (, )
. 9.6. 9.10
.
aW =0,00,25 3%
,
.
,
.
.
aW =0,250,9 37%, 12%,
, .
Maillard, ,
. ,
.
aW >0,8 25%
.
.
.
(.. , , ..)
12% .
aW >0,65.
198 : ..
.. ,
3% ,
10% 95%.
aW
.. ,
aW , .
.
9.10: ( )
aW .
(1) . (3) .
(2) Maillard. (4) .
(5) , , .
9.8.
.
(dialysis),
(.. ).
9: 199
, ,
.
,
.
9.11. .
.
(..
..) .
()
() .
(,
, , , , ..).
. HClO HCl
.
23 g /m3 (23 ppm)
.
0,2 mg/L (ppm).
, 30 g/m3, .
. (),
.
, ,
.
.
.
1ppm .
()
.
.
. ,
,
.
200 : ..
9.11:
.
, pH, ,
, .
9: 201
9.9. 9
1. ;
2. ;
3. 4 oC;
4. ;
5. ;
6. ;
7. ;
8. ;
9. ;
10. ;
11. ();
12. ;
13. aW ; ;
14. aW ;
15. ;
16. ;
17. ;
; ;
18. -
; ;
19. /aW .
20. .
21. .