Contradiction between Classical and

Quantum theory of free electrons in

conductors
The classical theory treats the free electrons in a conductor as an
electronic cloud like mono atomic gas in a cylinder. Their velocity and
kinetic energy linearly depends upon the temperature of the
conductor. According to thermodynamics we can find the velocity and
kinetic energy of that electronic cloud considering it a mono atomic gas
and applying Maxwell Boltzmann velocity distribution and energy
distribution on it.

Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution.

2
3 2
n(v)=4N( ) 2 2
2

Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution.

1 3
n(E)=2N() 2

The solution of these equations for mono atomic gas is

8
Average velocity =

3
Average energy = kT
2

Now if we apply it on electronic cloud one thing is clear the

velocity and kinetic energy is linearly proportional to the temperature
of the conductor. I am concerned to calculate the velocity and kinetic
energy at absolute zero (zero degree on Kelvin scale). Applying T=0 the
velocity and kinetic energy of the free electrons become zero. So
according to Classical theory both velocity and kinetic energy of the
electrons is zero at zero Kelvin.

Now let me apply some quantum mechanics on the free

electrons in a conductor and let see what quantum mechanics suggest
the outcomes for velocity and kinetic energy of a free electron in a
conductor.

As we know that the number of moles of a pure element in one

meter cube is = Density of the element/Molar mass of the element

And the number of atoms in one meter cube is = (number of

moles)(Avogadros numbers)

Atoms in one meter cube = ( =Avogadros number)

3
The number of atoms in one meter length is =

1
The distance occupied by only one atom =
3

If we calculate it for copper its value is = 2.31010 m

It is the distance between two consecutive atoms of copper. In copper

element the number of free electrons is equal to the number of atoms.
Every atom has one free electron. If we take a look at the structure of
the copper element it has a cubical shape.
 Now if we consider a free electron at the center of the cube
which indicated by red dot in fig 2 and the whole cube as a sphere
whose radius is the average distance from the electron to the atoms
making that cube.

For copper its value is = 1.381010

One thing is sure that the free electron can only exist in this
sphere and the other spheres have their own free electrons in them. By
this calculation we can predict the position of the free electron and can
apply the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

XP
4

Where x=position of the particle and P=momentum of particle

If we apply the position of the electron which we have calculated

above we can find the minimum velocity of the free electron in copper

element. P
4

V
4

Where m = mass of electron.

By putting all values the equation gives

V 4.2105 m 1
 This is the minimum velocity of free electron can have in copper
element. And the most important thing is this is the velocity of free
electron at absolute zero because so far we have not talked about the
kinetic energy of the free electron due to temperature. Increase in
temperature will increase the velocity of the free electron.

Now we have seen that according to classical mechanics the

velocity of free electrons should be zero but according to quantum
mechanics it can never be zero as long as we have a position parameter
on it. Someone can say the classical mechanics could be wrong because
we have tested Heisenberg uncertainty principle so many time and it is
an essential part of quantum mechanics and if it is true then we are
using some wrong parameters of conductors like drift velocity, mean
free path and resistivity as well which is determined by the classical
approach but it is still solving our problems in electricity and in
electronics as well.

Written by:

Tahir Razzaq Roll # 16107

3rd Semester BS(HONS) Physics

To the Department of Physics

Govt. MAO College, Lahore
Malik.Axe@yahoo.com
https://www.facebook.come/Axe.Malik.Tahir