Support Structures and Improvement of Soils

REINFORCED EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES

Sandra Elizabeth Tipantaxi Naranjo, 2162326
Instituto Politcnico de Leira

Keywords ABSTRACT

Reinforced earth Reinforced earth retaining walls are structures with mechanical stabilization. The soil
structures by itself has limited qualities, so it is necessary to provide the soil mass, rigidity and
Soil resistance to the deformations, produced by the action of the supported soil.
Reinforcement Reinforcements, whether made of steel or synthetic material, provide the soil with the
Facing systems capacity to withstand these stresses. The facing systems, on the other hand, confine
the filling material and limit the deformations. In these structures it is observed that
the transfer of forces between the filling soil and the reinforcement is the basic
mechanism for its stability. For the verification of safety of these structures, an
internal and external stability analysis is performed in which all the actions of both
permanent loads and variable loads are considered. In comparison with traditional
reinforced concrete walls, these types of containment structures have multiple
advantages, in cost, application, facility of construction, etc. And its application is
possible in different fields of engineering like roads, bridges, hydraulics, among
others. However, these structures also have limitations such as the selection of the
landfill, the construction of other infrastructures (sewage an electrical installations)
and mainly the degradation of the reinforcement elements.

1. Introduction The reinforced earth technique is particularly useful in

urban locations where availability of land is minimum
On its own, the soil only has relative capacity of and construction is required to take place with minimum
resistance to the compression, having a bad behavior to disturbance traffic [3].
forces of shear and traction. The introduction of
reinforcement in the ground improves the mechanical
properties of the soil and its tensile strength and makes it
suitable for use as a support structure.

Reinforced earth structures generally combine previously

selected granular filler with tensile reinforcements, either
synthetic or steel, in conjunction with a facing system,
which confines the filler. In this way a resilient
containment structure is obtained by gravity [1].

The stabilization of these walls, therefore, is mechanical,

and represents a cost-effective alternative to the use of
concrete structures, usually used in the retention of
floors. This type of system offers significant advantages
in both technical and economic aspects, when the
foundation conditions are poor, in which concrete use is
not viable [2]. Figure 1. Reinforced earth retaining wall components [4].

The use of reinforced earth technique is basically due to

its versatility, cost effectiveness and ease of construction.
1.1. Fundamental mechanisms 3. Uses and applications

The general principle of this technique, created by the
French architect and engineer Henri Vidal in 1966, is
based on the interaction between the granular surface of
the soil and the reinforcement. This interaction causes a
stress transfer from the ground to the reinforcement,
through friction or passive resistance [5].
Reinforcement elements, in addition to providing tensile
strength, give the floor a greater cohesion, in order to
decrease the soil thrust that supports the wall.
In addition to the reinforcements, these structures are
composed of prefabricated elements or facings systems.
These in turn allow confining the mass of soil and on the
other hand to limit the deformations of the structure.
For the construction of containment structures, in
reinforced earth, it is important to take into account the
type of project, location, environmental conditions,
among others. These aspects are of great importance
when choosing the type of reinforcement to be used.
Various studies and tests should be carried out, in
particular on the nature of the foundation ground of the
future work and, especially of the own characteristics of
the soil to be reinforced [2].
Reinforced earth structures, currently has a wide area of
application (see Figure 2). According to the manual for
the design and execution of reinforced soil structures
(1989), these systems can be implemented in:
Land containment structures, both on horizontal
platforms and on slopes.
Support of road platforms where there are space
limitations for the construction of embankments
Bridge stirrups.
Improvement of the foundation of embankments or
other structures.
Reinforcement of artificial slopes to increase their
slope or improve their stability.
However, its use is not limited to the above. There are
other projects in which they can be implemented, such as
[1]:
Hydraulic works: dams, breakwaters, canals, etc.
Mining: storage structures (hoppers).
Industry and energy: storage.
Quality of life.

2. Types of mechanically stabilized walls

Because the ground alone has limitations in its quality, it

is the type of armor available that limits the behavior of
the system. Since this provides the rigidity and resistance
to deformations produced in the wall.

Therefore, within this system of retaining structures,

there are two types of walls: with extensible
reinforcement (synthetic reinforcement) and walls with
inextensible reinforcement (steel).

2.1. Walls with extensible reinforcement

These walls are those in which the deformation in rupture

of its armature is greater than the deformation of ground
fault, for similar conditions of operation. Among these
reinforcement we can find geo polypropylene textiles,
polyethylene or polyester, geo reinforcements of high
density polypropylene, PVC reinforcements, among other
synthetic products [6].

2.2. Walls with inextensible reinforcement

Within this type, walls in which reinforcement is used,

elements that are not deformable, generally based on
bands, bars or metallic meshes, arranged according to
plans or dispersed in the mass. In particular, the walls
present important advantages such as their use in low-
grade foundations and where space problems exist for the Figure 2. Applications of reinforced earth structures [1]
development of slopes [2].
 Figure 3.Effect of reinforcement on a soil element [3]

4. Behavior

The behavior of mechanically stabilized structures, as in

the case of armed earth structures, is given by the
stability analysis. It should be subject to external and
internal stability review.
In case of external stability design load may be resisted
by forces generated in the soil. Resisting forces will be a
function of several variables including pore water
pressure and soil shear strength; in case of internal
stability design load may be resisted by forces generated
in the soil and reinforcement [3].
When an axial load is applied to the reinforced soil, it
generates an axial compressive strain and lateral tensile
strain. If the reinforcement has an axial tensile stiffness
greater than the soil, then lateral movements of soil will
only occur if soil can move relative to the reinforcement.
Movement of soil, relative to the reinforcement, will
generate shear stresses at the soil/reinforcement interface,
these shear stresses are redistributed back into the soil
mass is less than the strain in unreinforced soil for the
same amount of stresses.
Figure 4. Earth pressure, eccentricity in horizontal fillings with
external loads for external analysis [5]
4.2. Analysis of internal stability
The stability of this type of structures is achieved by
adhesion, whereby the internal stability involves the
behavior related to the sliding surfaces within the soil
mass [5]. This can occur by breaking the reinforcement
or by lack of adhesion and anchorage between the
reinforcement and the ground [2].
The failure related to the breaking of the reinforcement
occurs due to the elongation produced in the
reinforcement. This elongation, when it is excessive
reaches a point of rupture, therefore the movements of
the structure are wider and it is possible that the structure
collapses (see Figure 5).

The Figure 3 indicate where hr < h and vr < v,

provided the surface of reinforcement is sufficiently
rough to prevent the relatively movement and the axial
tensile stiffness of reinforcement is more than of soil [3].

4.1. Analysis of external stability

The external stability concerning the overall behavior of

the reinforced soil mass. Allowing to carry out safety
checks related to problems of landslides, landslides,
breakage of foundation soil, global rupture, among
others.

For calculations of external stability, the mass of the wall

is considered to act as a rigid body; developing ground
Figure 5. Location of the fault surface for the internal stability
pressures on a vertical plane applied to the back or end of
of the wall [5].
the reinforcements (see Figure 4).
The failure due to lack of adhesion occurs when the
tensile forces exceed the extraction resistance. This also
causes the shear forces around the ground to increase,
causing the movements that occur in the structure to lead
to the collapse of this structure [5].
5. Materials evaluation
The reinforced earth structures need of right materials
and the requirements for each component of the
reinforcing system.
5.1. Soil and site exploration
It is necessary to perform a comprehensive subsurface
exploration program to evaluate site stability, settlement
potential, need for drainage, etc., before repairing a slop
or designing a new retaining wall or bridge abutment [7].
The cost of a reinforced soli structure is dependent
greatly on the availability of the required type of backfill
materials. So there are several properties can be studies.
Particle size and grading.- the ideal particle size for
reinforced fill is a well graded granular material,
providing every opportunity for long-term durability
of the reinforcing elements, stability during
construction, and good physiochemical properties.
Fine-grained fill materials are poorly drained and
difficult to compact when moisture content becomes
high following heavy rainfall. Fine-grained fill
materials often exhibit elastoplastic or plastic
behavior, thereby increasing the chance of post-
construction movements. A well-grained granular fill
can be compacted to the required density and
provides the most advantageous conditions to
optimize the fill-reinforcement interaction. In some
cases the availability of good granular fill is limited
and fine-grained fill materials are used in reinforced
earth structures. In these cases drainage measures to
relieve positive pore water pressures should be
provided [8].
Index properties.- the plasticity requirements are
prescribed to ensure that the fill has good
construction and drainage characteristic.
The fill material must be free of organic matter and other
deleterious substances, as these materials not only
enhance corrosion but also result in excessive settlement
[7].
5.2. Reinforcement
Soil reinforcement element can be of different forms,
some of which are represented in the Figure 6. The most
common reinforcement is formed from metallic or
polymeric materials.
Figure 6. Forms of reinforcement [3]
Metallic reinforcement are usually made from
galvanized steel and formed as strips, grids or
anchors. A layer of this reinforcement is
characterized by the cross-sectional area, the
thickness and perimeter of the reinforcement
elements [7].
All steel elements are made from mild carbon steel
with a zinc coating by hot galvanizing. The nominal
thicknesses of the steel elements shall be such that,
after deduction of the corrosion safety thicknesses,
the remaining thicknesses are equal to or greater than
those provided for in the calculations [6].
Polymeric reinforcement are commonly
manufactured from polyester fiber and high density
polyethylene grids. Polymeric grids can be
manufactured from draw polymeric sheets containing
holes or formed from woven/knitted or solid
structural polymeric elements (polymeric strips/bars)
welded or knitted together [8].
Sheets or geosynthetic grids are elements of
appreciable deformability which, nevertheless,
possess qualities sufficient to provide a substantial
improvement of the mechanical properties of the
soils, by means of reinforcement. Its inferior resistant
capacity is compensated by a better cost and, in
enough cases, by a simpler construction [2]. A layer
of sheet or geosynthetic grid is characterized by your
width and the center-to-center horizontal distance
between the sheet or grid components. The cross
sectional area is not needed since the strength of
sheet and grid are expressed by a tensile force per
unit width rather than by a stress [7].
5.3. Facing system

The faade of a reinforced earth structure may consist of

rolled reinforcements (self-wrapping), prefabricated
concrete blocks, a masonry wall, concrete panels, sacks
with soil to allow re-naturalization the slope, etc.

The types of facing elements used in the different

reinforced soil systems control their aesthetics since they
are the only visible part of the completed structures [7].
Facing can be formed as hard or soft facings. The
selection of the facing system depends on the nature and
use of the proposed structures [8].

Hard facing.- facing may consist of concrete, steel

sheet, steel grids or mashes, timber, proprietary
materials or combination of these [3]. Facing formed
from reinforced concrete should by durable and the
steel reinforcement should comply with relevant
material standards set [8]. Metallic facings have
elements of galvanized steel sheets formed into half
cylinders, these facings systems are still used in
structures where difficult access or difficult handling
requires lighter facing elements [7].

Figure 9. Soft facings [8]

Soft facings.- generally, external temporary

Figure 7. Hard facings with prefabricated
concrete panels [9]
Interlocking concrete blocks, grout filled bags or
gabions can provide a substantial facing (see Figure
8).
formwork is erected to support the face during the
construction of steep slopes. It can take form of a
lightweight system of scaffold tubes and boards or
consist of some form of climbing shutter [3].
Wrap-around structures are constructed by folding an
extended reinforcement element (geotextile or
geogrid) to form the face and anchoring it back the
fill or to another element at a higher elevation. Wrap-
around facings permit free movement of the
reinforcement elements thus allowing them to follow
any settlement of the reinforcement block. [8].
6. Constructive process
Construction of reinforced earth structures is relatively
simple and rapid. The construction sequence consists
mainly of preparing the subgrade, placing and
compacting backfill in normal lift operations, to collocate
the reinforcing layer, install drainage systems, and
installation of the facing systems [7]. Selection of the
method and sequence for construction of this retaining
wall is usually undertaken by the contractor, in such
cases, the designer may stipulate the methods of
construction [8].

Preparation of foundation.- this step involves all

about to remove of unsuitable materials from the area
to be occupied by the retaining wall including all
organic matter, vegetation, and slide debris [7]. The
Figure 8. Hard facing [3] foundation for the structure must be leveled
 Figure 10. Placement of first row of elements facing Figure 11. Reinforced fill placement and compaction [1].

horizontally, in an area greater than that of the base

of the ground mass, to the predicted level of
foundation. Before constructing the structure, the
ground must be compacted and a surface drainage
will be provided to avoid accumulation of water [2].
Leveling pad.- for a cast-place or precast concrete
leveling pad should be placed at the foundation
elevation for all reinforced fill structures with precast
facing elements. This pad is to serve as guide for
elements facings and not to act as structural
foundation support [7]. Figure 12. Placement of reinforcement elements [11]
Temporary drainage.- if the foundation of reinforced
earth wall is not free draining, a longitudinal Placement of reinforcement elements.- the
drainage trench, or a porous or opened jointed reinforcement shall be laid on an even surface and
drainage pipe of suitable size, or other drainage connected to the facing, using the connection method
system shall be placed at the base of the structure to as specified by the design. Polymeric reinforcement
collect water and bring it to the site drainage system may be prone to degradation when exposed to sun
[10]. and therefore should be covered with fill within a
Erection of facing system.- in the case of precast specified time of laying [10]. Reinforcement should
facing panels are purposely set at a slight backward generally be placed perpendicular to the back of the
batter (toward the reinforced fill) in order to assure facing panel. In all cases, overlapping layers of
correct final vertical alignment after backfill reinforcement should be separated by a 3 in (7mm)
placement. The first row of facing elements should minimum thickness of wall fill [7]. Each reinforced
be set directly on the concrete leveling pad. fill system has its own facing connection detail.
Horizontal joint material or wooden shims should not When reinforcement are steel elements, bolts must fit
be permitted between the first course of panels and up through and strips must be located between both
the leveling pad [7]. tie strip flanges, bolts must be seated flush against
Reinforced fill placement. Compaction.- the method the flange to have full bearing of the bolt head. With
of deposition and compaction of fill material is flexible reinforcement (geotextiles and geogrids)
similar to that for any earthworks, in this way the usually have to be pretensioned a sufficient amount
reinforcement can be totality placement over the to remove any slack in the reinforcement or in the
filling [6]. A good performance consists about panel [7]
compaction. In the compaction the moisture and
density control is imperative. Wall fill lift thickness
must be controlled based on specification
requirements and vertical distribution of
reinforcement elements [7]. Is important to select the
thickness of layers to be compacted so that each layer
of reinforcement elements can be fixed on top of the
finished surface of the compacted layer [8].

Figure 13. Placement of subsequent facing course [12].

 Placement of subsequent facing course.- after
compaction of the filling soil, the vertical alignment
of the plates will be verified, verifying the existence
of displacements due to the compaction [6].
Generally, the degree of difficulty in maintaining
vertical and horizontal alignment increases as the
vertical distance between reinforcement layers
increases [7].
7. Conclusions
The use of these structures is of great importance, in
projects in which it is not possible to use concrete walls,
added to its low cost, ease of construction versatility that
it possesses. They can be built for both containment of
land, and for stabilization of bridges and roads.
Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
Region, Hong Kong, Guide 2002.
[9] Archiexpo. Archi Expo.
[Online]. http://www.archiexpo.es/prod/reinforced-
earth/product-130659-1450101.html
[10] European Committee for standardization, "Execution of
special geotechnical wors-Reinforced fill," European
Committee for standardization, Technical document BS
EN 14475:2006, 2006.
[11] Precast Concrete Construction.
[Online]. http://www.precastconcreteconstruction.com
[12] Gobierno del Estado de Aguascalientes. (2006, Octubre)
Portal de gobierno del Estado de Aguascalientes.
[Online]. http://www.aguascalientes.gob.mx

It is necessary to select the right construction materials

for this type of retaining structures. The soil destined for
filling must be selected according to geotechnical and
chemical criteria, to guarantee an appropriate particle
size, and mechanical characteristics according to the
specifications, and to ensure that its components do not
affect the reinforcement, causing corrosion and
degradation of these elements.

8. References

[1] Tierra Armada Sustainable Technology. Tierra Armada.

http://www.tierra-armada.com. [Online].
http://www.tierra-armada.com
[2] Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Urbanismo de Espaa,
"Manual para el proyecto y ejecucion de estructuras de
suelo reforzado," Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y
Urbanismo de Espaa, Manual 1989.
[3] Goverment of India Ministry of railways, "Concepts ad
design of reinforced earth structures," Geo-Technical
engineering directorate, Manual R-73, 2005.
[4] ZIGURAT Global Institute of Technology. (2016,
Agosto) Tierra Armada o suelo Reforzado. [Online].
https://www.e-zigurat.com/noticias/tierra-armada-o-suelo-
reforzado/
[5] Paul Anguas, Rosemberg Reyes, and Jess Gmez,
"Diseo de muros reforzados con geosintticos," Instituto
Mexicano del Transporte., Sanfandila, Qro, Publicacin
Tcnica 382, 2013.
[6] Luis Andrs Vera Oyarzun, "Muros de retencin de suelos
con sistemas de Tierra Armada," Universidad Austral de
Chile, Tesis de grado 2004.
[7] FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION,
"Reinforced Soil Structures Volume I. Design and
Construction Guidelines," U.S. Departement of
Trasnportation, Design Manual FHWA-RD-89-043, 1990.
[8] J. F. P. Jones Colin, "GUIDE TO REINFORCED FILL
STRUCTURES AND SLOPE DESIGN," The