Geomatics

Engineering

For

Civil Engineering
By

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 Contents

Contents

Chapter Page No.

#1. Introduction to Surveying 18
Glossary 12
Classification of Surveying 2
Classification Based on Nature of Survey 3
Plans and Maps 3
Choice of Scale of Map 45
Assignment 67
Answer Keys & Explanations 78

#2. Measurement of Distance and Direction 9 26

Linear Measurements (Distances) 9
Instruments for Chaining 9 14
Measurements of Direction Compass Surveying 15 19
Variations in Declination 19 20
Solved Examples 20 24
Assignment 25 26
Answer Keys & Explanations 26

#3. Theodolite & Traversing 27 39

Theodolite 27
Essentials of the Transit Theodolite 27 28
Glossary Associated with Theodolite 29
Measurement of Horizontal Angles 29 30
Traverse Computation 30 34
Solved Examples 34 36
Assignment 37 38
Answer Keys & Explanations 39

#4. Leveling 40 52
Glossary 40 41
Methods of Leveling 41 42
Leveling Instruments 42
Special Methods of Sprit Leveling 42 44
Recording & Reduction of Levels 44 46
Characteristics of Contours 47
Solved Examples 48 51
Assignment 52
Answer Keys & Explanations 52

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 Contents

#5. Plane Table Surveying & Tachometric Corrections 53 60

Plane Tabling 53
Instruments for Plane Table Surveying 53 55
Tacheometric Surveying 55 56
Distance and Elevation Formula for Horizontal Sights 56 59
Assignment 60
Answer Keys & Explanations 60

#6. Curves 61 71
Circular Curves 61 64
Linear Methods of Setting out Simple Circular Curves 64 67
Angular Method (Instrumental Method) 67 70
Vertical Curves 70 71

#7. Total Station 72 81

Total Station 72 74
Triangulation 75
Remote Sensing 76 78
Geographic Information System 78 79
GIS and Remote Sensing 80
Assignment 81
Answer Keys & Explanations 81

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 "Failure is the tuition you pay for success."
Walter Brunell

6
CHAPTER

Curves

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Circular Curves
2. Linear Methods of Setting out Simple Circular Curves
3. Angular Method (Instrumental Method)
4. Vertical Curves

Circular Curves
Whenever the direction of a road or railway line is to be changed, curves are provided between the
intersecting straights. This is necessary for smooth and safe movement of the vehicles. Accordingly
the curves are classified as horizontal curves and vertical curves. Horizontal curves are further
classified as circular curves and transition curves.

Circular Curves
The Circular curves are of three types
1. Simple circular curve
2. Compound curve
3. Reverse curve

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 Curves

A Simple Circular Curve is a circular arc between two intersecting straights. At the point of
intersection it is tangential to straight above figure (a). Two or more circular curves of different
radii turning in the same direction, join together to make a single curve between the two
intersecting straights, form a compound curve. At common points the curves and straights are
tangential to each other above figure (b). Two simple circular curves of equal or different radii,
having curvatures in opposite direction, join together to form a reverse curve above figure (c). At
the point joining straights and at common point of circular curve common tangents exist.
Figure shown below a transition curve which is usually introduced between a straight and simple
curve or between two simple curves in this curve radius varies from infinite to finite value or from
one value to other values to give smooth transition. It is also known as easement curve

Definitions and Notations:

The following terminology and notations are made clear below referring to figure below

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 Curves

1. Right-hand Curve: It is the curve which deflects to the right of the direction of the progress of
route. Since route is progressing from A to B in the above figure, it is a right-hand curve
2. Left-hand Curve: it is the curve which deflects to the left of the direction of the process of route.
If the progress of route in figure shown above had been from B to A, The curve would have been
left-hand curve.
3. Back Tangent: The tangent , which is before the commencement of the curve is called back
tangent/rear tangent/first tangent
4. Forward Tangent: The tangent which is after the end of the curve is called forward
tangent/second tangent.
5. Point of Intersection: The point V where the back and forward tangents
( respectively) when produced intersect is called point of intersection (P.I). It is also
know as vertex.
6. Intersection Angle: The which is the angle of deflection between back and forward
tangent is called intersection angle or the external deflection angle.
7. Central Angle: The angle subtended at the centre of the curve is known as central angle
and is obviously equal to intersection angle .
8. Point of Curve (PC): The point , where the curve begins is called point of curve. The notation
for it is PC.
9. Point of Tangency: The point , where the curve ends is called point of tangency and is
denoted as PT.
10. Apex or summit of Curve: The mid-point C of the curve is known as apex or summit of the curve
and it lies on the bisector of the central angle.
11. Long chord (L): The chord of the circular curve is known as long chord and is denoted by L.
12. Length of Curve(I): The curved length is called the length of curve
13. Tangent Distance (T): The tangent distance is the distance of tangent point from vertex
V. Thus,

14. Mid Ordinate: It is the distance between the mid-point of the long chord (D) and mid-point of
the curve (C). i.e.,

15. External Distance (E): It is the distance between the middle of the curve to the vertex. Thus,

Elements of Simple Curves:

Referring to above figure in which R is radius of the curve and is deflection angle, the
formulae for finding various elements of curve can be derived as under:
1. Length of Curve (I):

2. Tangent length (T):

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 Curves

3. Length of Long Cord (L):

4. Mid-ordinate (M):

( )
5. External Distance (E):

( )

Linear Methods of Setting out Simple Circular Curves

The following are some of the linear methods used for setting out simple circular curves
(i) Offset from long chord
(ii) Successive bisection of chord
(iii) Offsets from the tangents-perpendicular or radial
(iv) Offsets from the chords produced

(i) Offset from Long Chord

In this method, long chord is divided into an even number of equal parts. Taking centre of long
chord as origin, for various values of x, the perpendicular offset are calculated to the curve and
the curve is set in the field by driving pegs at those offsets.

R = Radius of the curve

L = Length of long chord

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 Curves

= Mid-ordinate
= Ordinate at distance x from the mid-point of long chord
Ordinate at distance

The above expression holds good for x-values on either side of D, since CD is symmetric axis.

(ii) Successive Bisection of Chord

In this method, point on a curve are located by bisecting the chords and erecting the
perpendiculars at the mid-point

Perpendicular offset at middle of long chord (D) is

( )

( )

( )
Using symmetry points on either side may be set.

(iii) Offsets from the Tangents-Perpendicular or Radial

The offsets from tangents may be calculated and set to get the required curve. The offset be
either radial or perpendicular to tangents
(a) Radial Offsets: In below figure, if the centre of curve O is accessible from the point on
tangent, this method of curve setting is possible

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 Curves

Let D be a point at distance x from . Now it is required to find radial ordinate so

that the point C on the curve is located.

An approximate expression may be obtained as explained below:

( ) ( )

Neglecting small quantities of higher order,

( )

(b) Perpendicular Offsets: If the centre of a circle is not visible, perpendicular offsets from
tangent can be set to locate the points on the curve

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 Curves

The perpendicular offset can be calculated as given below

(Exact)

( )

Angular Method (Instrumental Method)

The following are the angular methods which can be used for setting circular curves:
1. Rankine method of tangential (deflection) angles.
2. Two-theodolite method
3. Tacheometric method

In these methods linear as well as angular measurements are used. Hence, the surveyor needs
chain/tape and instruments to measure angles. Theodolite is the commonly used instrument.

Example: A circular curve has 300 m radius and deflection angle. Calculate (i) length of curve,
(ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v) apex distance.
Solution:
(i) Length of the curve

(ii) Tangent length:

(iii) Length of long chord

(iv) Mid-ordinate
( ) ( )
(v) Apex distance
( ) ( )
The various methods used for setting curves may be broadly classified as
(i) Linear methods
(ii) Angular methods

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 Curves

Example: Two roads having a deviation angle of at apex point V are to be joined by a 200 m
radius circular curve. If the chain age of apex point is 1839.2 m, calculate necessary data
to set the curve by
(a) Ordinates from long chord at 10 m interval
(b) Method of bisection to get very eighth point on curve
(c) Radial and perpendicular offsets from every full station of 30 m along tangent.

Solution:

Chainage of forward tangent

(a) By offsets from long chord:

D
65 4 3 2 1 1 23 4 5 6

( )

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 Curves

At
(b) Method of Bisection:

( ) ( ) m

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) = 0.96 m
(c) Offsets from Tangents
Radial offsets:

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 Curves

And the last is at

Vertical Curves
When a highway or a railway line passes through a ridge or a valley there is a need to change the
gradient. The change of gradient should not be sudden, since that causes discomfort to the
passengers. The change of grade is made smooth by introducing curves in vertical plane between
the two gradient lines.

Types of Vertical Curves

The vertical curves are classified as
(i) Summit or crest curves and
(ii) Sag or valley curves

Summit Curves
A curve with its convexity upwards is called a summit curve. A summit curve may be formed by
(i) An upgrade followed by a downgrade (a)
(ii) An upgrade followed by a flattened curve (b)
(iii) A downgrade followed by a steeper downgrade (c)

(a) (b) (c)

Sags or Valley Curves

A curve with its convexity downward (concave upward) is called a sag or valley curve. A valley
curve may be formed by
(i) A downgrade followed by an upgrade (a)
(ii) A downgrade followed by a flatter downgrade(b)
(iii) A upgrade followed by a steeper upgrade (c)

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 Curves

(a) (b) (c)

Sag or Valley Curve

Length of the Vertical Curve

If the grade and are known and the rate of change of the grade is fixed, length of the curve may
be obtained by

It should be noted that the upward grade in take as +ve and the downward grade as negative. Thus,
if the vertical curve connects a 1% upgrade with 1.4% downgrade and the rate of change of grade is
to be 0.06% per 20 m stations,

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