EE 3200 Principles of Communications

Dr. Hassan Yousif Ahmed

College of Engineering at Wadi Aldwasser
Slman bin Abdulaziz University
..Dr

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 Coursework
z Coursework (0%)
z TZRWHsts (1 marks each)
z attendance ( marks)

zquiz ( marks)
Chapter 1
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

z Describe the essential elements of communication

systems,
z Explain the need for modulation in comm. systems,
z Distinguish between baseband, carrier and modulated
signal,
z Describe several types of noise and calculate noise
power and voltage for thermal noise,
z Calculate SNR, noise figure, and noise temperature for
single and cascaded stages.
Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

z Decibel (dB) is logarithmic unit to measure ratios.

z In electronic communications power, current, and
voltage ratios can be expressed in dB.
z Practical value of dB arises from its logarithmic nature.
z If two powers expressed in the same units, their ratio
in dB is dimensionless and given as
P1
dB = 10 log10
P2
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Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

z The dB used in electronic circuits to measure power

gain or loss, is given as
Pout
Ap ( dB ) = 10 log10
Pin
= 10 log10 ( Ap )

z Positive dB means Pout > Pin (Amplification).

z Negative dB means Pout < Pin (Attenuation).

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Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

TABLE 1-1 Decibel values for absolute power ratios equal to or greater than one
(i.e., gains)

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 Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

TABLE 1-1 Decibel values for absolute power ratios equal to or less than one (i.e., losses)

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Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

z dBm is expressed as
P(Watts )
dBm = 10 log10
0.001 W
z Power gain can be expressed in term of voltage ratio
as 2
Vo / Ro
Ap ( dB ) = 10 log10 2
V
i / Ri

When input and output resistances are equal, we have

Vo2 Vo
Av ( dB ) = 10 Prepared = 20 log10
log10byProf.V.K.Jain
2
Vi Vi
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Power Measurements (dB, dBm)

z The overall power gain in dB can be determined by

simply adding the individual dB power gains.
APT ( dB ) = AP1 (dB) + AP 2 (dB ) + L + APn (dB)

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Electronic Communication Systems
z The purpose of communication system is to transfer
information from one place to another.
z The basic elements of any communication system:

Information signal
Intelligent signal
Baseband signal

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Modulation and Demodulation

z It is often impractical to propagate information

signal over transmission media.
z It is necessary to modulate source information onto
higher-frequency analog signal called carrier.
z Why modulation is necessary?
z It is extremely difficult to radiate low-frequency signal
from antenna in the form of EM energy
z Information signals often occupy the same band, if
transmitted together, they would interfere with each other.

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Modulation and Demodulation
z Usually, the carrier is sinusoidal wave:
v(t ) = Ec sin ( 2 f c t + )

z In analog modulation, the parameters that can be

changed are:
z Ec, Amplitude Modulation (AM)
z fc, Frequency Modulation (FM)
z , Phase Modulation (PM)
z The inverse process called demodulation and takes
place at receiver.
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Modulation and Demodulation

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EM Frequency Spectrum
Frequency Description Application
range
30 Hz - 300 Hz ELF (extremely Power
low frequencies) distribution
0.3 kHz - 3 kHz VF (voice Voice band
frequencies)
3 kHz - 30 kHz VLF (very low Submarine
frequencies) communications
30 kHz - 300 kHz LF (low Marine and
frequencies) aeronautical
0.3 MHz - 3 MHz MF (medium Commercial AM
frequencies) broadcasting
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EM Frequency Spectrum
Frequency Description Application
range
3 MHz - 30 MHz HF (high Short waves
frequencies) broadcasting
30 MHz - 300 MHz VHF (very high Commercial FM &TV
frequencies) broadcasting
300 MHz - 3 GHz UHF (ultra high TV broadcasting,
frequencies) mobile, certain radar
3 GHz - 30 GHz SHF (super high Microwave and
frequencies) satellite
30 GHz - 300 GHz EHF (extremely Sophisticated,
high expensive and special
frequencies) applications
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EM Frequency Spectrum

Example: Calculate the wavelength in free space

corresponding to a frequency of:
z 1 MHz ( AM radio broadcast)
z 27 MHz (CB radio band)
z 4 GHz (satellite TV)
Solution c 300 106 m / s
a) = = = 300 m
f 1 106 Hz
c 300 106 m / s
b) = = = 11.1 m
f 27 106 Hz
c 300 106 m / s
c) = = = 0.075 m = 7.5 cm
f 4 10by9 Prof.V.K.Jain
Prepared Hz 17
Bandwidth & Information Capacity

z Limitation on performance of communication

systems are noise and bandwidth.
z Bandwidth of information signal is the difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies
contained in the information.
z Bandwidth of channel is the difference between the
highest and lowest frequencies that channel will
allow to pass through it.

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Bandwidth & Information Capacity

z Information capacity is a measure of amount of

information that can be propagated through
communication system in a unit of time.
z The unit for amount of information (I) is bit.
z The unit for Information capacity (C) is bits per
second (bps).
z It is often convenient to express information capacity
of system as a bit rate.

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Bandwidth & Information Capacity

z In 1928, Hartley of Bell Telephone Lab developed

useful relationship among bandwidth, transmission
time, and amount of information
z Simply stated Harleys Law is

I Bt
I = Amount of information to be sent (bits)
t = Transmission time (seconds)
B = Bandwidth (Hertz)

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Bandwidth & Information Capacity

z In 1948 Shannon (Bell Telephone Lab) developed a

formula relating information capacity of
communication channel to bandwidth and signal-to-
noise ratio.
z Mathematically stated, Shannon limit for information
capacity is
S
C = B log 2 1 + (bps )
N
S
= 3.32 B log10 1 + (bps )
N
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Theorem:
Given a source of M equally likely
messages, with M1, which is generating
information at a rate R. Given a channel
with channel capacity C. Then if
RC
There exist a coding technique such that
the output of the source may be
transmitted over the channel with a
probability of error in the received
message which may be made arbitrarily
small.
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Noise and Communications

z Noise is any undesirable signal that falls within the

passband of the desired one.
z Noise interfere with the desired signal and inhibit
communication.
z Noise cant be eliminated, but can be reduced.
z Reducing signal bandwidth

z Increasing transmitter power

z Using low noise amplifiers

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External Noise
z Noise can be divided into two types:
z External, property of channel,

z Internal, originate within equipments.

z External Noise
z Atmospheric Noise: called static electricity, caused
mainly by lightning, covers up to 30 MHz.
z Man-made Noise: generated by spark-producing
domestic and industrial electrical equipments.
z Space Noise (sun and stars).

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Internal Noise
z Noise is generated in all electronic equipments.
z Both passive and active devices can be noise
sources.
z There are many types of internal noise
z Thermal Noise

z Shot Noise

z Partition Noise

z Excess Noise

z Transit-time Noise

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Thermal Noise
z Thermal noise is generated by the random motion of
electrons in a conductor due to thermal agitation.
z The power density of thermal noise is constant with
frequency.
z Thermal noise is equal mixture of all noise of all
frequencies (white noise).
z Ways to reduce white noise:
z Decrease temperature (artificial cooling)
z Bandwidth reduction
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Thermal Noise
z The average power of thermal noise is given by

PN = kTB ( watts )

k = Boltzmann's constant, 1.3810-23 J/K

T = Absolute temperature in Kelvin (K); T = Co + 273o
B = Noise power bandwidth in hertz

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Thermal Noise

PN = kTB ( watts )

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Thermal Noise

z A receiver has a bandwidth of 10 kHz. A resistor that

matches receiver input impedance is connected across
its antenna terminals. What is noise power
contributed by this resistor if its temperature is 270C?

PN = kTB
R R = (1.38 10-23 ) ( 27 + 273) (10 103 )
= 4.14 10-17 W
Receiver
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Thermal Noise

Noise Voltage

z In resistors, we are often interested in noise voltage

than in power involved in thermal noise.
z Power in resistive circuit is given by
V2
P= V = PR
R
z Noise voltage in resistive circuit depends on
resistance, temperature and bandwidth

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Thermal Noise

Noise Voltage

z Noise power supplied to load resistor, assuming

matched load, is
PN = kTB
z The rms noise voltage across the load is

VL = PN R L
PN
= kTBR L

z So the noise source voltage is

VN = 2VL = 2 kTBRL = 4kTBRL
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Thermal Noise

Noise Voltage

Example: A 300 resistor is connected across 300

antenna input of TV receiver. The bandwidth of
receiver is 6 MHz, and temperature at room is (20
+ 273) K.
z Find the noise power and noise voltage applied to
receiver input?

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Thermal Noise

Noise Voltage

RN = 300

300 300
RL = 300

Receiver

PN = kTB = 24.2 10-15 W

VN = 4kTBRL = 5.4V
VN
VL = = 2.7 V
2
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Shot Noise

z Shot noise has similar psd as the thermal noise.

z Shot noise is due to random variation flow in active
devices, caused by the fact that:
z Current is a flow of carriers, each carries a finite
amount of charge (pulse).
z Current is thus a series of pulses.

z Power of shot noise is thus proportional to device

current

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Shot Noise
z Shot noise is usually represented by current
source.
z Noise current for junction diode is given by

I N = 2qI 0 B

IN = rms noise current, in amperes

q = Electron charge (1.602x10-19 Coulombs)
I0 = dc bias current in the device
B = Bandwidth over which noise is observed
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Shot Noise

z A diode noise generator is required to produce 10 V of

noise in a receiver with an input impedance of 75 ,
resistive, and a noise bandwidth of 200 kHz. What must
the current through the diode be?
VL
IN = = 0.133 A
R
I N = 2qI 0 B
I N2
I0 = = 276 mA
2qB

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Partition Noise
z Partition noise is similar to shot noise in its spectrum
and mechanism of generation.
z Partition noise occurs in devices when single current
separates into two or more paths.
z Bipolar junction transistor.

z Partition noise is insignificant in field-effect transistor.

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Excess Noise

z Excess noise is also called flicker noise or 1/f noise.

z Sometimes it is called pink noise.
z It is not fully understood, but it is believed to be
caused by variations in carrier density.
z It is rarely in communication system, because it is
insignificant above 1 kHz.

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Addition of Noise from Different Sources

z Mathematically, for voltage sources in series:

VNt = VN21 + VN22 + VN23 +L

z Similarly for current sources in parallel:

I Nt = I N2 1 + I N2 2 + I N2 3 + L

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Addition of Noise from Different Sources

The circuit shows two

resistors in series at
different temperature.
Find the total noise
voltage and noise
power produced at the
load, over a bandwidth
of 100 kHz?

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Addition of Noise from Different Sources

RN = 300
RL1
100

RL = 300
RL2
200

VNt = VN21 + VN22

( ) +( )
2 2
= 4kT1 BRL1 4kT2 BRL 2

= 4kT1 BRL1 + 4kT2 BRL 2 = 779nV

VL2 ( 390 ) Prof.V.K.Jain -15
2
nV by
Prepared 41
PL = = = 0.506 10 W
R 300
Signal-to-noise Ratio
z In analog system, noise makes signals unpleasant to
watch or listen.
z In digital systems, noise increases error rate.
z It is not amount of noise that concerns, but rather
amount of noise compared to level of signal.
z Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is usually expressed in
decibels.
Ps
S / N ( dB ) = 10 log
PN
Vs
S / N ( dB ) = 20 log
VN
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Signal-to-noise Ratio

z S/N is often difficult to measure in communication

systems.
z A variant of S/N, called (S+N)/N, is often found in
receiver specifications.
z (S+N)/N is usually expressed in dB
S+N (S + N )
(dB) = 10 log
N N

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Noise Figure
z NF indicates how much a component, stage, or series
of stages degrades the S/N.
z By definition, NF is defined as
( S / N )i
NF =
( S / N )o
z NF expressed in decibels:
NF ( dB ) = 10 log NF
( S / N )i
= 10 log = 10 log ( S / N )i 10 log ( S / N )o
( S / N )o
= ( S / N )i ( dB ) - ( S / N )o ( dB )
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Noise Figure

z The signal power at input of amplifier is 100 W and

power noise is 1 W. At the output, signal power is 1 W
and noise power is 30 mW. What is the amplifier NF, as a
ratio?
100 W
( S / N )i = = 100
1W
1W
( S / N )o = = 33.3
0.03W
100
NF (ratio) = =3
33.5
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Noise Figure

z The signal at the input of an amplifier has an S/N of 42 dB.

If amplifier has noise figure of 6 dB, what is S/N at output
(in dB)?
NF (dB ) = ( S / N )i (dB) - ( S / N )o (dB)
( S / N )o (dB) = ( S / N )i (dB) - NF ( dB )
= 42 dB - 6 dB
= 36 dB

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Equivalent Noise Temperature

z Equivalent noise temperature is another way of

specifying noise performance of a device.
z It is the absolute temperature of resistor i.e., if
connected to input of noiseless device it would
produce the same amount of noise as the device
under discussion.

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Equivalent Noise Temperature

z NF of amplifier circuit is given

by
( S / N )i ( S i / N i )
NF = =
( S / N )o ( So / N o )
Si N o N
= = o
So N i N i A
Si = Signal power at input
Ni = Noise power at input
So = Signal power at output
No = Noise power at out put
A = So/Si = Amplifier power gain
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Equivalent Noise Temperature

No
NF = N o = ( NF ) N i A
Ni A
z Total noise at input of noiseless amplifier is (NF)Ni.
z Assuming Ni as thermal noise, then
N i = kTB
z Equivalent noise generated by amplifier is
N eq = ( NF ) N i - N i
= ( NF ) kTB - kTB = ( NF -1) kTB
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Equivalent Noise Temperature

z If we presume that noise is generated in a fictitious

resistor at temperature Teq and actual source is at a
reference temperature of T = 290 K, we get
N eq = ( NF -1) kTB
kTeq B = ( NF 1) kTB
Teq = ( NF 1) T = 290 ( NF 1)

z Equivalent noise temperatures of low-noise amplifiers

are often less than 100 K.
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Equivalent Noise Temperature

z An amplifier has a noise figure of 2 dB. What is its

equivalent noise temperature?

NF (dB) = 10 log NF (ratio)

NF (dB)
NF (ratio) = anti log = anti log 0.2 = 1.585
10
Teq = 290 ( NF 1) = 290 (1.585 1) = 169.6 K

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Cascaded Amplifiers
z In cascaded stages, noise of first stage is the most
important in determining noise performance of the
system.

z The equation that relates total NFT to gain and NF

of each stage is given by
NF2 1 NF3 1 NF4 1
NFT = NF1 + + + +L
A1 A1 A2 A1 A2 A3
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Cascaded Amplifiers

z A three-stage amplifier has stage with the following

specifications:
Stage Power Gain Noise Figure
1 10 2
2 25 4
3 30 5

Calculate the power gain, NF, Teq for entire amplifier.

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Cascaded Amplifiers

Power gain is the product of individual gains

AT = A1 A2 A3 = 10 25 30 = 7500
AT (dB ) = 10 log 7500 = 38.8 dB
NFT can be found by
NF2 -1 NF3 -1
NFT = NF1 + +
A1 A1 A2
4 -1 5 -1
= 2+ + = 2.316
10 10 25
NFT (dB) = 10 log 2.316 = 3.65dB
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Cascaded Amplifiers

Noise temperature can be found by

Teq = 290 ( NF -1)
= 290 ( 2.316 -1)
= 382 K

*****

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