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Article
Plasma Polymer Functionalized Silica Particles for Heavy Metals Removal
Behnam Akhavan, Karyn Louise Jarvis, and Peter J. Majewski
ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, Just Accepted Manuscript DOI: 10.1021/am508637k Publication Date (Web): 20 Jan 2015
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Page 1 of 44 ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
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4 Plasma Polymer Functionalized Silica Particles
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8 for Heavy Metals Removal
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12 Behnam Akhavan, Karyn Jarvis, Peter Majewski*
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16 School of Engineering, Mawson Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA
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19 5095, Australia
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* Corresponding Author Information:
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30 Prof. Peter Majewski
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33 School of Engineering
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36 University of South Australia
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39 Mawson Lakes Boulevard
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42 Mawson Lakes, SA, 5095
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45 Australia
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48 Tel: +61 8 83023162
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51 Fax: +61 8 83023380
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54 Email: peter.majewski@unisa.edu.au
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ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces Page 2 of 44
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3 ABSTRACT
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6 Highly negatively charged particles were fabricated via an innovative plasma-assisted
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8 approach for the removal of heavy metal ions. Thiophene plasma polymerization has been
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used to deposit sulfur-rich films onto silica particles followed by the introduction of oxidized
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13 sulfur functionalities, such as sulfonate (SO3) and sulfonic acid (SO3H), via water plasma
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15 treatments. Surface chemistry analyses were conducted by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
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17 (XPS) and time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS). Electrokinetic
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19 measurements quantified the zeta potentials and isoelectric points (IEP) of modified particles,
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22 and indicated significant decreases of zeta potentials and IEPs upon plasma modification of
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24 particles. PPT coated particles treated with water plasma for 10 minutes exhibited an IEP of
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26 less than 3.5. The effectiveness of developed surfaces in the adsorption of heavy metal ions
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28 was demonstrated through copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) removal experiments. The removal of
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metal ions was examined through changing initial pH of solution, removal time, and mass of
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33 particles. Increasing the water plasma treatment time up to 20 minutes significantly increased
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35 the metal removal efficiency (MRE) of modified particles; whereas further increasing the
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37 plasma treatment time reduced the MRE due to the influence of an ablation mechanism. The
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39 developed particulate surfaces were capable of removing more than 96.7% of both Cu and Zn
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42 ions in 1 hour. The combination of plasma polymerization and oxidative plasma treatment
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44 has shown to be an effective method for the fabrication of new adsorbents for the removal of
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46 heavy metals.
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49 Key words: Plasma polymerization, plasma treatment, thiophene, water treatment, adsorption
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60 2
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3 1. INTRODUCTION
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6 The inadequate access to clean water is a serious worldwide problem that is expected to
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8 worsen in the near future.1 Heavy metals are notorious for their detrimental effects on living
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organisms and are therefore considered as one of the most critical contaminants in water.2
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13 Copper and zinc, for example, are known as carcinogenic and mutagenic substances where
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15 their high intakes can cause liver, kidney, and pancreas damage.3-4 Unlike organic pollutants,
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17 heavy metals do not break down into less harmful species over time.4 Industrial activities
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19 including mining, metallurgy, painting, fertilizer, and battery manufacturing are the major
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22 sources of heavy metal releases into water.3, 5 The increasing rate of heavy metal production
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24 together with associated discharges into the environment further highlights the importance of
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26 heavy metals removal from water.6
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29 The removal of heavy metals can be carried out via a number of remediation methods
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31 including chemical precipitation-coagulation,7 membrane separation,8 electrodialysis,9 and
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adsorption10. Adsorption has gained particular interest in the last few years as an efficient,
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36 versatile, and low-cost choice.2 This method is not only suitable for centralised water
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38 treatment plants but also for decentralised water treatment scenarios in remote areas and
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40 disaster zones.11 Natural materials such as zeolites,12 bentonite,13 sugar beet pulp,14 and clay15
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42 have been extensively studied in the literature for the removal of heavy metal ions. Although
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45 these low-cost adsorbents are readily available, they often exhibit slow kinetics and low
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47 removal efficiencies.3, 12 Such drawbacks have led to ongoing research for the fabrication of
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49 more efficient synthetic heavy metal adsorbents. The efficiency of synthetic adsorbents
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51 depends on the functionalities introduced onto the surface which can either chemically or
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electrostatically adsorb the positively charged heavy metal ions.2, 16
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60 3
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3 Particles functionalized with amine,17 thiol,18 and -SOx(H) groups such as sulfonic acid
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5 (SO3H)19 and sulfonate (SO3)20 have previously been applied for the effective removal of a
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number of divalent heavy metal ions such as Pb2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Co2+, and Zn2+. SOx(H)-
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10 functionalized particles are highly negatively charged in aqueous solutions over a wide pH
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12 range. The high negative surface charge of such modified particles makes them ideal
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14 electrostatic adsorbents for water purification.16, 19
The negative charge of SOx(H)-
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16 functionalized particles at low pH values is of particular interest for the removal of precious
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19 or hazardous metals from mining waste waters which are often at low pH conditions.21 Such
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21 functionalities are conventionally immobilized onto the surface of particles through wet-
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23 chemistry methods which are complex, time consuming, and dependent on substrate
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25 chemistry. Such technical hindrances, accompanied by a high rate of waste production,
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hamper the wide application of synthetic adsorbents. These issues can be addressed by
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30 developing an easy, rapid, and substrate-independent approach for the fabrication of heavy
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32 metals adsorbents, while minimizing the impact on the environment by keeping waste
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34 production low.
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37 Plasma polymerization is a green approach which can be utilized as a novel alternative to
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39 traditional wet-chemistry methods for the fabrication of heavy metal adsorbents. Virtually all
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42 solid materials can be modified via this method, while minimal or no surface preparation is
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44 required. No solvent is involved in the process, and thus almost no waste is produced. In this
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46 technique, a precursor liquid monomer is initially converted to vapour; while being
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48 subsequently excited into the plasma under the influence of an electric field.22 Plasma, also
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referred to as the fourth state of matter, is partially ionized gas consisting of neutral atoms
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53 and molecules, electrons and charged particles.23 The fragmented monomer species
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55 recombine onto any surface exposed to plasma, and thus form a nano-thin layer of plasma
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57 polymer film. Plasma polymer films are highly cross-linked and adherent to various
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3 substrates. Owing to these advantages, plasma polymerization technology can be applied for
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5 surface functionalization of particles regardless of their surface chemistry, size, and shape.
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Plasma surface modification of particles is more challenging than that of planar surfaces due
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10 to the large surface area in contact with plasma. In order to obtain a homogeneous
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12 distribution of functionalities onto particles, specified reactor designs such as rotating,24
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14 fluidized bed25, particle injection,26 and magnetic stirrer27 have been previously utilized. Our
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16 previous research has shown successful fabrication of hydrocarbon28-29 and amine11, 30
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19 functionalized silica particles via plasma polymerization technology for the removal of
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21 hydrophobic and negatively charged contaminants, respectively.
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24 Unlike hydrocarbon and amine functionalities, the formation of SOx(H) moieties onto a
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26 surface is unfortunately not feasible via a direct plasma polymerization process; as low
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28 volatile SOx(H)-containing monomers do not evaporate into the plasma chamber at ambient
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temperature.31 A limited number of studies have been previously undertaken to generate
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33 SOx(H) moieties onto surfaces through a plasma-assisted process without any wet-chemistry
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35 step being involved.31-33 Sulfur dioxide (SO2) has been utilized in these processes either for
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37 copolymerization or post-treatment of plasma polymers. These methods are however still
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39 environmentally questionable due to the toxicity of SO2 gas. We have recently reported a new
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42 method to generate such functionalities onto planar surfaces via a combination of plasma
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44 polymerization and oxidative plasma treatment.34
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47 In this investigation, we report the fabrication of highly negatively charged adsorbent
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49 materials via water plasma (WP) treatment of plasma polymerized thiophene (PPT) films
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51 deposited onto silica particles. Silica particles were applied as substrates as they are low-cost,
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commercially available, and mechanically stable. Water plasma treatment time was varied
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56 from 2 to 60 minutes to study its effect on surface chemistry, zeta potential, and heavy metal
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58 removal efficiency (MRE). The MRE of water plasma treated plasma polymerized thiophene
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3 (WP-PPT) coated particles was evaluated through the adsorption of copper and zinc as model
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5 positively charged heavy metal ions. The initial pH of solution, removal time and mass of
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particles were varied to maximize the removal of heavy metal ions. The surface engineering
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10 of silica particles through the deposition of PPT films followed by an oxidative water plasma
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12 treatment has shown to be an effective dry route to develop a new class of adsorbent
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14 materials for the removal of cationic contaminants.
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20 2. EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
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23 2.1. Materials
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26 Crystalline silica particles with particle sizes in the range of 200 - 300 m, thiophene (C4H4S)
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monomer, copper nitrate trihydrate (Cu(NO3)2.3H2O), and zinc nitrate hexahydrate
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31 (Zn(NO3)2.6H2O) were obtained from Sigma Aldrich (Castle Hill, Australia) and used
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33 without any further treatment.
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39 2.2. Plasma Polymerization
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42 Plasma polymerization of thiophene onto silica particles and water plasma treatment of PPT
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44 coated particles were conducted using a custom-built rotating plasma polymerization reactor,
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which has been previously detailed.29 The reactor was operated by a 13.56 MHz radio
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49 frequency (RF) generator and matching network (Coxial Power Systems Ltd.). The rotating
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51 barrel made of Pyrex tube (L = 0.5 m, D = 0.16 m, V = 10.05 L) was equipped with a mixing
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53 paddle to ensure the homogenous exposure of particles to plasma during both plasma
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55 polymerization and treatment processes. Liquid monomer thiophene and Milli-Q water were
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58 degassed via at least three freeze-thaw cycles, while the base pressure of less than 7 103
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3 mbar was achieved in the chamber. The flow rates of thiophene and water vapour were
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5 adjusted using a needle valve. For each batch of samples, thiophene was initially plasma
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polymerized onto 50 g of silica particles at a RF input power of 8 W and monomer flow rate
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10 of 6 sccm (standard cubic centimetre per minute) for a polymerization time of 30 minutes to
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12 obtain sufficiently thick PPT layers.35 PPT coated particles were subsequently treated with
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14 water plasma without being removed from the chamber. Water plasma treated samples were
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16 produced for varied plasma treatment times of 2 to 60 minutes, while a plasma input power of
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19 5 W and a water vapour flow rate of 2 sccm were kept constant. For both plasma
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21 polymerization and water plasma treatment processes, a rotating speed of 16 rpm was kept
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23 unchanged.
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29 2.3. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
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32 The surface chemistry of untreated and water plasma treated PPT coated silica particles was
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34 analysed by XPS using a SPECS SAGE instrument equipped with a hemispherical analyser
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(Phoibos 150), a MCD-9 detector, and a Mg K source (hv = 1253.6 eV) operating at 200 W
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39 (10 kV, 20 mA). The take-off angle was 90o, while the chamber pressure was at least 10 10-
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41 Pa. Samples were mounted onto 1 cm circular pieces of carbon tape, and the analysis area
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43 was set to 5 mm in diameter. Survey spectra were obtained over 0 to 1000 eV with a pass
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energy of 100 eV and energy steps of 0.5 eV, while high resolution S 2p spectra (0.1 eV)
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48 were recorded at a pass energy of 20 eV. Calculations of survey atomic concentrations and
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50 curve fittings of S 2p high resolution spectra were carried out by CasaXPS software. Charge
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52 correction was conducted in reference to the binding energy of aliphatic carbon (285.0 eV). A
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54 linear background, Gaussian (70%) Lorentzian (30%) line shape and equal full-width at
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3 half-maximum (FWHM) were applied. Systematic errors related to peak fittings, calculations
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5 of atomic concentrations, and experimental settings are assumed to be less than 10%.31
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11 2.4. Time of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy
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14 ToF-SIMS negative ions distribution maps were obtained using a PHI TRIFT V nanoTOF
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instrument (Physical Electronics Inc., Chanhassen, MN, USA). The instrument was equipped
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19 with A 30 eV 79+Au pulsed liquid metal primary ion gun (LMIG), while the base pressure of
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21 5 10-6 Pa or lower was applied. Unbunched Au1 instrumental configurations provided
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23 optimized spatial resolution for images. An electron flood gun and 10 eV Ar+ ions provided
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dual charge neutralization. Negative SIMS counts were collected over scan areas of
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28 approximately 400 400 m. Ion distribution images were processed using WincadenceN
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30 software provided by Physical Electronics Inc. (Chanhassen, MN, USA).
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36 2.5. Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy
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39 Microscopic images of uncoated and untreated/treated PPT coated silica particles were
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41 acquired using an environmental scanning electron microscopy (FEI Quanta 450 FEG
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ESEM). The microscope was operated at 20 kV, while a pressure of 100 Pa and a typical
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46 working distance of 7 mm were applied. Images were obtained in both secondary and
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48 backscattered electron modes, using the large field gaseous secondary electron detector and
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50 the solid state backscattered electron detector. A mixture of these signals which best
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52 highlighted the sample contrast were used in the final images.
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3 2.6. Electrokinetic Analysis
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6 Zeta potential measurements of untreated and water plasma treated PPT coated particles were
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8 undertaken using an Anton Paar Electro Kinetic Analyser in a pH range of 3 - 10. The pH of
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the electrolyte was adjusted using a remote titration device. Particles were packed into a
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13 cylindrical powder cell (1 cm in diameter and 1 cm long). The packed cell was then placed in
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15 the middle of a cylindrical unit with Ag/AgCl electrodes. The 1 10-3 M KCl solution was
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17 applied as electrolyte with an initial pH of approximately 10 which was adjusted by
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19 appropriate volumes of 0.1 M KOH. Appropriate volumes of 0.1 M HCl were injected into
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22 the electrolyte solution by the remote titration unit to reduce the pH by approximately 0.5 unit
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24 steps. As the electrolyte solution was pumped from left to right and right to left, zeta potential
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26 measurements were taken at each pH value. For every sample, three measurements were
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28 taken; providing six values for each data point. The averaged values were reported as the
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final zeta potential for a specific pH.
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2.7. Heavy Metals Removal Tests
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40 Copper and zinc batch removal tests were carried out at room temperature in glass beakers.
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42 Stock solutions of copper or zinc (100 mg/L) were prepared by dissolving their nitrate salts
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44 (Cu(NO3)2.3H2O and Zn(NO3)2.6H2O) in Milli-Q water. Solutions of copper or zinc at a
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46 concentration of 15 mg/L were prepared by diluting appropriate volumes of stock solutions.
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A fixed solution volume of 10 mL was used for all removal tests. The influence of surface
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51 chemistry on the removal of metal ions at pH values of 3.5, 4.5 and 5.5 was studied by adding
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53 2 g of particles, treated for different times, to the 15 mg/L solutions. The suspensions were
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55 stirred on a magnetic stirrer for 10 minutes. Particles were then separated by filtration with a
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57 0.45 m hydrophilic cellulose acetate filter. Removal time variable experiments were
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3 conducted by adding 2 g of WP-PPT coated particles (water plasma treatment time = 10
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5 minutes) to zinc or copper solutions with an optimum initial pH of 5.5, and stirring time was
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varied from 0.5 to 120 minutes. The influence of mass of particles on the removal of metal
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10 ions was evaluated by adding 0.25 to 5 g of WP-PPT coated particles (water plasma treatment
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12 time = 10 minutes) to zinc or copper solutions, while optimum initial pH of 5.5 and removal
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14 time of 60 minutes were kept unchanged. The concentration of copper or zinc ions in filtrates
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16 were measured using an inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-
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19 OES) (Perkin Elmer Optima 5300 V) with a detection limit of 0.5 mg/L for copper or zinc.
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21 Continuous calibration verification (CCV) tests were conducted after each 10 measurements
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23 which showed deviations of less than 10% from the standard solutions. The MRE was
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25 calculated by:
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29 MRE=

100
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32 Where Ci is the initial concentration of copper or zinc and Cf is the concentration of residual
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34 metal ions after a removal experiment. Adsorption tests were conducted in duplicate, and
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averaged values are reported.
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43 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSION
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46 3.1. Surface Chemistry of WP-PPT Coated Particles
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49 Plasma polymer functionalized adsorbents for heavy metal removal were produced via a two-
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51 step process: deposition of PPT films on silica particles followed by an oxidative water
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53 plasma treatment. XPS analysis of uncoated silica particles showed atomic concentrations of
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55 29.2%, 54.6% and 16.2% for silicon, oxygen, and carbon, respectively. PPT coatings were
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deposited onto silica particles at an optimum power to flow rate ratio (W/F) of 0.08 kJ.cm-3
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3 for 30 minutes,35 while water plasma treatments were conducted at a W/F of 0.15 kJ.cm-3.
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5 Our recent study on planar surfaces showed that oxidative plasma treatment of PPT films at
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power to flow rate ratios lower than 0.45 kJ.cm-3 produces maximum concentration of
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10 SOx(H) functional groups on the surface.34 The XPS elemental compositions of untreated and
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12 water plasma treated PPT coated particles as a function of plasma treatment time is depicted
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14 in Figure 1. XPS analysis of untreated PPT coated particles showed atomic concentrations of
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16 75.2%, 18.0%, and 6.8% for carbon, sulfur, and oxygen, respectively; while no contribution
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19 of silicon was observed. The increases of sulfur and carbon atomic concentrations indicate
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21 the deposition of carbon and sulfur containing species onto the surface due to the
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23 fragmentation and subsequent reconstruction of thiophene rings.36 Although the film
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25 thickness of PPT films deposited on silica particles cannot be directly measured via
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conventional methods such as profilometry and ellipsometry, it can be indirectly estimated
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30 through changes of silicon signals originating from the silica substrate. The sampling depth of
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32 XPS is 8 10 nm for a Mg K source and a take-off angle of 90o.11 The absence of silicon
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34 signals therefore indicates the deposition of a PPT layer with a thickness of at least 8 nm.
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36 Upon water plasma treatment of PPT coated particles for up to 60 minutes, the atomic
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39 concentration of oxygen increases while that of carbon and sulfur decrease. By increasing the
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41 treatment time over 10 minutes, silicon signals also start to significantly contribute in the
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43 overall spectra. The oxygen atomic concentration increases from 6.8% for untreated PPT
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45 coated particles to 20.2% for PPT coated particles treated for 10 minutes. As still no silicon is
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contributing in the surface chemistry of the sample treated for 10 minutes, it can be
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50 concluded that such an increase in oxygen atomic concentration is solely due to the
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52 incorporation of oxygen atoms into the structure of PPT film and not from the underlying
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54 silica substrates. The formation of sulfur-oxygen groups can be explained by an
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56 activation/oxidation mechanism.37 According to this theory, reactive long-lived sulfur-centred
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60 11
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3 radicals are initially generated onto the surface via hydrogen abstraction or polymer chain
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5 scission; and are subsequently oxidised into stable groups via interactions with O and OH
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radicals. Generated long-lived radicals are also highly susceptible for post-treatment
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10 oxidation once exposed to atmospheric oxygen.38
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13 The oxidative plasma treatment of polymers is however always accompanied by a degree of
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15 ablation process.31 Water plasma may etch the PPT layer due to either physical interactions
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17 by high energy ions or chemical reactions forming volatile species.39 The influence of this
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19 concurrent process in the oxidation of PPT coated particles is highlighted for samples treated
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22 for longer than 10 minutes. The contribution of silicon in the surface chemistry of these
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24 samples indicates the reduction of PPT film thickness to less than 8 nm, which therefore
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26 reveals the substrate silicon signals. The significant reduction of sulfur and carbon atomic
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28 concentrations can thus be attributed to both incorporation of oxygen atoms in the film
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structure and contribution of silica substrate to the overall spectra. While higher
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33 concentrations of sulfur-containing moieties need to be obtained on the surface for optimum
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35 removal efficiencies, further increasing the plasma treatment time over 60 minutes is not
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37 beneficial.
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60 12
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3 Figure 1. XPS survey elemental composition of untreated and water plasma treated PPT
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5 coated particles as a function of treatment time.
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10 Sulfur high resolution spectra of untreated and water plasma treated PPT coated particles
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12 were curve fitted in order to study the formation of SOx(H) moieties on the surface.
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14 Representative curve fitted spectra of untreated PPT coated particles and samples treated for
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16 2, 10, and 60 minutes are shown in Figure 2. The S 2p peak is doublet due to the spin-orbit
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coupling of S 2p1/2 and S 2p3/2 with an associated splitting binding energy (BE) of 1.2 eV.40
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21 The ratio of S 2p1/2 to S 2p3/2 was fixed to 1/2, as the photoionization cross-section of S 2p1/2
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23 is half of S 2p3/2.31 According to the literature,31, 41 three doublet peaks were fitted in S 2p
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25 high resolution spectra associated with: (i) sulfur-containing compounds in neutral
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27 environments (S-H, S-C and S-S) at BEs = 163 165 eV, (ii) sulfur-oxygen compounds at
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30 low oxidation states (S-O and SO2) at BEs = 165 167 eV and (iii) sulfur-oxygen
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32 compounds at high oxidation states (SO3H, SO3 and SO4) at BEs = 167 169 eV, giving a
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34 total of six peaks. The individual identification of these compounds is not however possible
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36 via curve fitting studies as the differences of associated binding energies are too low in
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comparison to the XPS resolution.41 From Figure 2, it is apparent that upon water plasma
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41 treatment of PPT coated particles, sulfur-oxygen groups emerge at BEs > 166 eV. The
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43 concentration of these sulfur-oxygen compounds are quantified from peak fitted spectra and
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45 plotted in Figure 3. More than 90% of sulfur compounds for untreated PPT coated particles
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are in the neutral environment, and only less than 10% of sulfur-oxygen groups contribute in
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50 the S 2p high resolution spectra. By increasing the plasma treatment time, the concentration
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52 of oxidised sulfur moieties at high oxidation states increases, while that of sulfur compounds
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54 in the neutral environment significantly decreases. In contrast to highly oxidised sulfur
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56 groups (SO3, SO3H, SO4), the concentration of sulfur-oxygen compounds at low oxidation
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60 13
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3 states (SO and SO2) remain relatively constant as the plasma treatment time increases. Such
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5 behaviour may be attributed to the greater stability of highly oxidised sulfur compounds
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compared to partially oxidised SO and SO2 groups.
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42 Figure 2. XPS S 2p curve fitted spectra of untreated PPT coated particles and PPT coated
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Figure 3. XPS atomic concentrations of curve fitted S 2p components for untreated and water
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20 plasma treated PPT coated particles as a function of treatment time.
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23 The surface chemistry of modified silica particles was further studied via ToF-SIMS negative
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25 ions distribution maps displayed in Figure 4. As observed, plasma polymerization of
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27 thiophene onto silica particles results in a significant increase of S- and SH- species and
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29 elimination of Si- counts. Such changes in negative ions counts were expected due to the
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polymerization of thiophene which adds sulfur containing species on the surface, while
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34 concealing silicon signals originating from the silica particles. For untreated PPT coated
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36 particles, it is evident that sulfur species in a neutral environment (S- and SH-) are of
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38 significantly higher density in comparison to sulfur-oxygen species (SO3- and SO3H-). Upon
39
40 water plasma treatment of PPT coated particles, the density of S- and SH- counts however
41
42
43 decrease; while that of oxidised sulfur species increase. The comparison of SO3- and SO3H-
44
45 ion distribution maps of untreated PPT coated particles to those treated for 10 minutes
46
47 highlights the substantial increase of SOx(H) functionalities. As previously discussed, such
48
49 variations in surface chemistry denote the effectiveness of water plasma treatment for the
50
51
52
development of sulfur-containing species through an activation/oxidation mechanism. Water
53
54 plasma treatment of PPT coated particles for an extended duration of 60 minutes however
55
56 exhibits a negative effect on the density of both S-/SH- and SO3-/SO3H- counts. It is observed
57
58
59
60 15
1
2
3 that the decrease of sulfur-containing species is accompanied by noticeable increase in Si-
4
5 counts in the recorded data. According to the sensitivity depth of ToF-SIMS (1 2 nm),42 the
6
7
detection of Si- counts implies a film thickness of less than 2 nm. Such a reduction in film
8
9
10 thickness can be once again associated with the concurrent ablation mechanism as suggested
11
12 by XPS data (Figure 1). The high spatial resolution of ToF-SIMS also provides the
13
14 opportunity to disclose any possible inhomogeneity of the coating. As observed from Figure
15
16 4, ToF-SIMS images closely reveal the rough shape of silica particles for both untreated and
17
18
19 treated PPT coated particles, demonstrating the uniform distribution of functional groups.
20
21 The deposition of homogeneous coatings on particles is of particular importance to obtain
22
23 efficient adsorbents for heavy metal removal. ToF-SIMS findings further support the XPS
24
25 results and demonstrate the successful generation of SOx(H) functionalities onto silica
26
27
particles via a combination of thiophene plasma polymerization and water plasma treatment.
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Figure 4. ToF-SIMS distribution maps of (Si-), (S-, SH-) and (SO3-, SO3H-) for uncoated
55
56 silica particles, untreated PPT coated particles and PPT coated particles treated for different
57
58 durations. (Scale bar = 100 m).
59
60 16
1
2
3
4
5
6 3.2. Morphology of WP-PPT Coated Particles
7
8
9 ESEM micrographs of uncoated and untreated/treated PPT coated silica particles are shown
10
11 in Figure 5. Although homogenous nano-thin plasma polymer films were not expected to be
12
13
14
visible on the particulate surfaces, ESEM images provided useful information regarding the
15
16 preserved morphology of silica particles. From these images it is clear that after both plasma
17
18 polymerization and plasma treatment processes, individual particles are still completely
19
20 separated from each other and no agglomeration has occurred. In surface engineering of
21
22 particulate surfaces, the agglomeration of particles must be avoided as it reduces the effective
23
24
25 surface area in practical applications such as water purification.28, 43
Agglomeration of
26
27 particles during plasma polymerization/treatment would also result in the modification of
28
29 only the outer layer of the agglomerates.26, 29
ESEM images along with surface chemistry
30
31 results demonstrate that plasma polymerization/treatment using a rotating barrel plasma
32
33
34
reactor is an effective approach for the deposition of -SOx(H)-functionalized coatings onto
35
36 particulate surfaces without altering the substrate morphology.
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60 17
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Figure 5. ESEM micrographs of uncoated silica particles, untreated and water plasma treated
30
31 PPT coated particles (WP-PPT). (Water plasma treatment time = 10 minutes)
32
33
34
35
36 3.3. Electrokinetic Properties of WP-PPT Coated Particles
37
38
39 The surface charge of particles is of great importance for adsorption applications. For the
40
41 removal of positively charged contaminants, such as heavy metal ions, it is ideally required to
42
43
44
produce adsorbents with the lowest zeta potentials over the greatest pH range.44 The influence
45
46 of developed sulfur-containing functionalities on the isoelectric point (IEP) and zeta potential
47
48 of particles was investigated via electrokinetic analysis. The zeta potential of a functionalized
49
50 surface is highly pH-dependent as the dissociation of surface functionalities varies with pH.45
51
52
The zeta potentials of particles are plotted as a function of pH and shown in Figure 6. In
53
54
55 order to conduct measurements at a constant ionic strength, the pH value was not reduced to
56
57 lower than 3. High volumes of HCl are required to further decreasing the pH, thus also
58
59
60 18
1
2
3 significantly increasing the ionic strength. It is observed that the zeta potentials of all samples
4
5 decrease as a function of pH due to the higher rate of deprotonation reactions at higher pH
6
7
values.11 Uncoated and PPT coated silica particles show IEPs at pH values of approximately
8
9
10 5 and 4, respectively. The negative zeta potentials of uncoated and PPT coated silica particles
11
12 at pH > IEP result from the dissociation of silanol groups (Si-OH Si-O- + H+)46 and
13
14 deprotonation of neutral sulfur-containing groups such as thiol functionalities (RSH RS- +
15
16 H+),44 respectively. The positive zeta potentials observed at pH values smaller than IEPs
17
18
19 suggest the protonation of such functionalities owing to the great concentrations of H+ ions.
20
21
22 The water plasma treatment of PPT coated particles for durations up to 10 minutes not only
23
24 significantly reduces the zeta potentials but also shifts the IEPs to pH values less than 3.5.
25
26 Such changes in electrokinetic properties follow the trends of SOx(H) concentration
27
28 observed from XPS (Figure 3) and ToF-SIMS (Figure 4) data. It can be therefore suggested
29
30
that the introduced negatively charged moieties such as sulfonate (SO3) and sulfate (SO4)
31
32
33 together with the deprotonation of strong acidic groups such as sulfonic acid (SO3H + H2O
34
35 SO3- + H3O+) play a significant role in the modification of electrokinetic properties of silica
36
37 particles. The plasma treatment of PPT coated particles for 10 minutes results in lower zeta
38
39 potentials in comparison with the treatment time of 2 minutes, as higher concentrations of
40
41
42 negatively charged groups are likely to be obtained on the surface due to a longer treatment
43
44 time. Water plasma treatment of particles for 60 minutes however results in an increase in
45
46 overall zeta potential and IEP. Such behaviour is once again in agreement with the surface
47
48 chemistry results which suggested a lower concentration of sulfur-containing groups on the
49
50
51
surface due to the pronounced influence of the ablation process. The electrokinetic analysis
52
53 findings confirm that the combination of thiophene plasma polymerization and water plasma
54
55 treatment produces highly negatively charged particles with significantly low IEPs.
56
57
58
59
60 19
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 Figure 6. Zeta potential of uncoated silica particles, untreated PPT coated particles and PPT
19 coated particles treated with water plasma for different durations as a function of pH.
20
21
22
23
24 3.4. Influence of Water Plasma Treatment Time and Initial solution pH on MRE
25
26
27 Metal cations can adsorb onto any negatively charged surface via a simple electrostatic
28
29
interaction.16 The magnitude of negative zeta potential and the IEP of a surface are therefore
30
31
32 crucial characteristics influencing the efficiency of cationic contaminants removal. As
33
34 discussed in section 3.3, water plasma treatment time of PPT coated particles significantly
35
36 improved these characteristics. The effectiveness of developed surfaces in heavy metal
37
38 removal was investigated through adsorption of copper and zinc ions as model positively
39
40
41 charged contaminants, while water plasma treatment time was varied. The initial solution pH
42
43 is also one of the most important parameters governing the adsorption of metal ions through
44
45 influencing the solution chemistry and ionization of surface functionalities.13 At pH values
46
47 lower than ~ 6, copper and zinc metal ions are in predominant forms of Cu2+ and Zn2+.14, 47-49
48
49
50
At higher pH values, hydrolysis of zinc and copper ions may form other complexes such as
51
52 Cu(OH)+ and Zn(OH)+ together with precipitates of Cu(OH)2 and Zn(OH)2.50-51 In order to
53
54 avoid the interference of such a precipitation mechanism in the adsorption process, removal
55
56 tests were conducted at pH values less than 6.
57
58
59
60 20
1
2
3 The influence of water plasma treatment time and initial pH of solution on the MRE of
4
5 particles is shown in Figure 7. It is clearly observed that both untreated and water plasma
6
7
treated PPT coated particles show significantly higher MREs for all pH values in
8
9
10 comparison to uncoated silica particles. Increasing the water plasma treatment time up to 20
11
12 minutes significantly increases the MREs for both copper and zinc ions. Further increasing
13
14 the plasma treatment time however results in a noticeable decrease in MRE. The presence of
15
16 high density SH functionalities on the surface of untreated PPT coated particles, as observed
17
18
19 from ToF-SIMS images (Figure 4), may explain the higher MREs obtained for PPT coated
20
21 particles compared to uncoated silica particles. The significant improvement in the adsorption
22
23 behaviour of WP-PPT coated particles correlates with the variations of SOx(H) groups
24
25 concentration (Figure 3 and Figure 4) and surface zeta potential (Figure 6) as a function of
26
27
plasma treatment time. As more SOx(H) functionalities are generated onto silica particles at
28
29
30 longer plasma treatment times, surfaces with lower zeta potentials are produced, thus also
31
32 resulting in a greater driving force for metal cations to adsorb via electrostatic attraction. The
33
34 presence of sulfonic acid groups (SO3H) and reactive basic centres such as SH
35
36 functionalities on the surface of modified particles (Figure 4) may also enhance the
37
38
39 adsorption of metal cations through pH-dependent complexation and ion-exchange
40
41 reactions.52-53
42
43
44 The decrease of MREs for treatment times of 30 60 minutes can be attributed to the
45
46 ablation mechanism of sulfur-containing groups, as suggested by surface chemistry results.
47
48 The reduction of MRE is however less significant compared to the reduction of sulfur atomic
49
50
51
concentration observed in Figure 1. Such a discrepancy can be simply explained by the
52
53 higher surface sensitivity of the adsorption process which only sees the very topmost of a
54
55 surface. A significant proportion of the WP-PPT film should therefore be ablated away before
56
57 it affects the MRE.
58
59
60 21
1
2
3 From Figure 7, it can be observed that the MRE is smaller for lower pH values for all
4
5 uncoated, untreated and water plasma treated PPT coated silica particles. The greatest
6
7
adsorption of metal ions is achieved at pH = 5.5. For uncoated silica particles, for example,
8
9
10 MREs of approximately 20% and 13% are observed at pH = 5.5 for copper and zinc,
11
12 respectively; whereas these values decrease to approximately 3% and 5% at pH = 3.5. The
13
14 low MREs of uncoated silica particles at pH = 3.5 is attributed to their relatively high IEP of
15
16 pH 5 (Figure 6), resulting in an increase in the concentration of positively charged (Si-
17
18
19 OH2+) groups on the surface due to protonation. The positively charged groups therefore
20
21 repel the cationic metal ions from the surface,54 also significantly decreasing the MRE. The
22
23 competition between metal ions and protons (H+) becomes more significant at acidic
24
25 conditions which may also play a role in reducing the MRE.20, 50-51 In contrast to uncoated
26
27
28
silica particles, the protonation of WP-PPT coated particles occurs at significantly lower pH
29
30 values (IEP < 3.5), as discussed in section 3.3. Such low IEPs result in greater electrostatic
31
32 attractions at lower pH values which therefore increase the MRE. The adsorption capability
33
34 of WP-PPT coated particles at acidic conditions is of particular interest as many of the heavy
35
36 metal adsorbents reported in the literature suffer from poor removal efficiencies at low pH
37
38
39 values due to their relatively high IEPs.50-51 According to the obtained results, the maximum
40
41 MRE for both copper and zinc ions is achieved at a treatment time of 10 minutes, where the
42
43 greatest concentration of SOX(H) functionalities is generated on the surface. PPT coated
44
45 particles treated for 10 minutes were therefore applied for time and particle mass variable
46
47
48
removal experiments.
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60 22
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34 Figure 7. The influence of water plasma treatment time and initial pH of solution on the
35
36 MRE of PPT coated particles for (a) copper and (b) zinc. (Ci = 15 mg/L, removal time = 10
37
38 min., particle mass = 2 g/10 mL)
39
40
41
42
43 3.5. Influence of Removal Time on MRE
44
45
46 Time variable heavy metal removal was investigated to determine the removal kinetics and
47
48 the time required for an optimum removal. These experiments were conducted using WP-
49
50
51
PPT coated particles treated for 10 minutes, while the optimum pH value of 5.5 was kept
52
53 constant. As shown in Figure 8, the MREs sharply increase during the first 30 minutes,
54
55 while reaching their maximum values after removal times of 60 minutes. By further
56
57 increasing the removal time, MREs do not change significantly. The higher rate of
58
59
60 23
1
2
3 adsorption at initial stages of interaction can be attributed to a greater difference between the
4
5 concentration of metal ions in solution and those on the surface of WP-PPT coated
6
7
particles.13 Higher numbers of free surface functionalities initially available on the particles
8
9
10 may also provide easier accessibility of metal ions to unoccupied adsorption sites. The lower
11
12 uptake rates of copper and zinc ions observed at longer removal times can be assigned to a
13
14 decrease in the number of vacant adsorption sites as well as metal ions concentration.2, 55
15
16 Non-porous WP-PPT coated silica particles exhibit significantly faster adsorption kinetics in
17
18
19 comparison to porous adsorbents such as zeolites12 and fly ash pellets56 as the diffusion of
20
21 ions into a porous structure is not involved in the adsorption mechanism.
22
23
24 It is observed that slightly higher MREs are achieved for copper ions compared to zinc. Such
25
26 a difference may be attributed to differences in electronegativity and the first hydrolysis
27
28 equilibrium constants of copper and zinc ions.57 For an ion exchange mechanism, heavy
29
30
metals possessing a higher charge to mass ratio react more easily with a protonated site in
31
32
33 comparison to less acidic metal ions.58 Greater adsorption of copper compared to zinc has
34
35 also been previously observed for other adsorbents.12, 57
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53 Figure 8. MRE for WP-PPT coated particles as a function of removal time. (Water plasma
54
55 treatment time = 10 min., Ci = 15 mg/L, particle mass = 2 g/10 mL)
56
57
58
59
60 24
1
2
3 3.6. Influence of Adsorbent Dose on MRE
4
5
6 The influence of adsorbent dose on the heavy metal removal was investigated with particle
7
8 masses of 0.25 5 g/10 mL at a constant pH of 5.5. In order to ensure the achievement of an
9
10
equilibratory adsorption, a removal time of 60 minutes was kept unchanged for these
11
12
13 experiments. As shown in Figure 9, MRE increases for both copper and zinc ions upon an
14
15 initial increase of particle mass, and reaches a maximum of more than 96.7% for an adsorbent
16
17 dose of 3 g/10 mL. The lower MREs observed at smaller adsorbent doses indicates the lack
18
19 of sufficient adsorption sites for the number of zinc and copper ions in solution. Increasing
20
21
22 the adsorbent doses therefore increases the MRE due to additional adsorption sites.
23
24 Increasing the mass of particles over 3 g/10 mL noticeably decreases the MRE, despite the
25
26 addition to the total number of adsorption sites in solution. Such behaviour can be explained
27
28 by obscuration of adsorption sites. As more silica particles are added to a constant volume of
29
30
solution, even with high degrees of agitation, the particle-particle interactions become more
31
32
33 pronounced.13 These interactions may physically block the available adsorption sites, thus
34
35 also decreasing the MRE. A similar trend in changes of MRE as a function of adsorbent dose
36
37 has also been previously reported.11, 13 From Figure 9, it is observed that a slightly higher
38
39 MRE is achieved for copper than zinc for most adsorbent doses. This data is in accordance
40
41
42 with the results of removal time studies (Figure 8), and once again confirm the easier
43
44 removal of copper compared to zinc.
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60 25
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 Figure 9. MRE for WP-PPT coated particles as a function of particle mass. (water plasma
20
treatment time = 10 min., Ci = 15 mg/L, removal time = 60 min.)
21
22
23
24
25 The effectiveness of WP-PPT coated particles in the removal of copper and zinc ions is
26
27
28 compared with a number of other adsorbents listed in Table 1. Although a direct comparison
29
30 of adsorbents is not practically possible due to different experimental conditions such as
31
32 solution pH, plasma polymer functionalized particles are among the most efficient
33
34 adsorbents. The maximum removal efficiency and maximum adsorption capacity of WP-PPT
35
36
37
coated particles are either comparable or higher than other adsorbents. Moreover, the waste-
38
39 free and substrate-independent production process of WP-PPT coated particles makes them
40
41 attractive adsorbents for the removal of heavy metal ions. According to obtained results, it
42
43 can be concluded that our introduced plasma-assisted method is effective for the development
44
45 of efficient negatively charged adsorbents with excellent affinity for copper and zinc ions.
46
47
48 Any other positively charged species could also be theoretically removed via WP-PPT coated
49
50 particles owing to the contaminant-independent electrostatic interaction.
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60 26
1
2
3 Table 1. Maximum adsorption capacity, maximum removal efficiency, and optimum removal
4
5 time for plasma polymer functionalized silica particles and a number of other copper and zinc
6
7
adsorbents reported in the literature.
8
9
10
11 maximum maximum
optimum
12 adsorption removal solution
adsorbent adsorbate removal ref.
13 capacity efficiency pH
time
14 [mg/g] [%]
15 present
16 plasma polymer Cu 25.0 > 96.7 60 min. 5.5
work
17 functionalized silica particles Zn 27.4 > 96.7 60 min.
18
19 polyvinyl alcohol
Zn 38.6 ~ 75 90 min. 5 5
20 (PVA)/(EDTA) resin
21
22 graphene oxide/Fe3O4
23 Cu 18.3 ~ 55 10 hr. 5.3 48
composites
24
25 aminated electrospun
26 Cu ~ 24 ~ 60 12 hr. 4 2
polyacrylonitrile microfiber
27
28 aminated electrospun
29 Cu ~ 36 ~ 90 12 hr. 4 2
polyacrylonitrile nanofiber
30
31 bentonite Zn ~ 20 ~ 80 6 hr. 4 50
32
33
34
MnO2-coated magnetic Cu not ~ 97 30 min. 59
35 6.3
nanocomposites Zn reported ~ 80 30 min.
36
37
38 not
fly ash Zn ~ 98 3 hr. 6 55
39 reported
40
41
42
43 4. CONCLUSIONS
44
45
46 The application of a new class of synthetic adsorbent materials for the removal of heavy
47
48
49
metal ions was reported in this research. Sulfur-containing groups were initially deposited
50
51 onto the surface of silica particles via plasma polymerization of thiophene. Subsequent
52
53 oxidative water plasma treatments of plasma polymerised thiophene coated particles resulted
54
55 in substantial formation of SOx(H) groups as suggested by XPS, ToF-SIMS and
56
57
electrokinetic analyses data. It has been demonstrated that controlling the concentration of
58
59
60 27
1
2
3 SOx(H) functionalities on the surface tailors the zeta potential and isoelectric points of
4
5 particles, thus also controlling the magnitude of heavy metal removal. WP-PPT coated
6
7
particles showed excellent affinity for both zinc and copper ions, removing more than 96.7%
8
9
10 of metal ions in 60 minutes. Water plasma treatment of PPT coated particles for shorter
11
12 durations of 5 20 minutes showed greater removal efficiency in comparison to longer
13
14 durations of 30 60 minutes, due to the influence of the ablation mechanism of sulfur-
15
16 containing groups. Plasma polymerization of thiophene onto silica particles followed by
17
18
19 water plasma treatment has shown to be a successful approach for the fabrication of efficient
20
21 heavy metals adsorbents. This novel substrate-independent approach could be utilized to
22
23 convert other inexpensive natural materials to high-value adsorbents.
24
25
26
27
28
29 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
30
31 The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of Government of South Australia,
32
33
34
through the Premier Science and Research Fund (PSRF), and National Centre of Excellence
35
36 in Desalination Australia (NCEDA). The authors acknowledge the facilities, and scientific
37
38 and technical assistance of the Australian Microscopy & Microanalysis Research Facility at
39
40 the South Australian Regional Facility (SARF), University of South Australia, a facility that
41
42 is funded by the University, and State and Federal Governments. We are thankful to Mr.
43
44
45 Stuart McClure for conducting ESEM and Dr. John Denman for undertaking ToF-SIMS
46
47 measurements.
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60 28
1
2
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XPS S 2p curve fitted spectra of untreated PPT coated particles and PPT coated particles treated with water
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26 ToF-SIMS distribution maps of (Si-), (S- , SH-) and (SO3-, SO3H-) for uncoated silica particles, untreated
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ESEM micrographs of uncoated silica particles, untreated and water plasma treated PPT coated particles
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