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Chapter 4: Action Research

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CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research

Chapter 2: Qualitative Data Collection Techniques
Chapter 3: Ethnography
Chapter 4: Action Research
Chapter 5: Case Study
Chapter 6: Other Qualitative Methods
Chapter 7: Qualitative Data Analysis
Chapter 8: Coding Qualitative Data

CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this chapter, you will be able to:
Define what is action research
Justify the use of action research
Describe the steps involved in action research
Differentiate between the types of action research
Discuss the role of ethics in action research

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Preamble Case study: Mathematics

What is action research? Types of action research
What is not action research? Ethics
Why action research
Who gets involved in action Summary
research? Key Terms
Action research models References
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Chapter 4: Action Research

PREAMBLE

This chapter focus on understanding what is action research and how it is used in
qualitative research. The rationale for using action is discussed and who are the
people are often involved in action research. There are many several models of action
research but in this chapter focus will be one approach that consists of six steps.
Different types of action research are identified as well the issue of ethics is
discussed.

WHAT IS ACTION RESEARCH?

Have you reflected or though about your teaching? Have you asked yourself
whether what you have doing in the classroom is really helping all students learn? Is
there another way of doing things? Action research is a qualitative research method
that encourages the practioner (or teacher) to be reflective of his or her own practice
with the aim of improving the system (McNiff, 1994). As schools are increasingly
being held publicly accountable for student achievement, action research may provide
a way for helping schools understand better their problems and to make more
informed decisions about their practice that can lead to desired outcomes.

Action Research

THEORY PRACTICE

Personal Test Ones

Theories and Personal
Beliefs Theories in the
Classroom

Figure 4.1 Action Research bridges theory and practice

Action research is becoming increasingly popular in education (or for that

matter any social organisation). Action research is based on the belief that the teacher
(or practioner) is the best judge of his or her teaching (or practice). Each teacher has
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Chapter 4: Action Research

his or her own personal theories of educational practice. Action research helps the
teacher to bridge the gap between theory and practice (see Figure 4.1). Here teachers
have the opportunity to test some of their personal theories in the classroom using
action research.
According to Guskey (2000), educational problems and issues are best
identified and investigated where the action is, i.e. at the classroom and school level.
By bringing research into these settings and engaging those who work at this level in
research activities (i.e. teachers), findings can be applied immediately and problems
solved more quickly. Action research in education has also been called several
different names such as:
classroom research,
self-reflective inquiry,
teacher research,
teacher self-evaluation,
teacher as researcher.

Kurt Lewin is generally considered the father of

action research. He was a German social and experimental
psychologist who was concerned with social problems
especially in addressing conflicts, crisis and bringing about
change within organisations. He first coined the term
action research in his 1946 paper Action Research and
Minority Problems. He was interested in using action
research to investigate into conditions in organisations that
would lead to social action, He proposed a process which
was a spiral of steps involving planning, action and fact-
finding about the result of the action.
Another proponent of action research was Eric
Kurt Lewin Trist (1911-1993), an English social psychologist who was
(1890-1947) engaged in applied social research. He and Lewin
emphasised on the importance of professional-client
collaboration and were proponents of the principle that decisions are best
implemented by those who help make them.
The main reason for action research is for teacher to engage in the
improvement of their own teaching. Action research leads the teacher to come to their
own understandings about their own teaching. Most importantly, action research seek
to change some of the beliefs teachers have about how students learn and to improve
the quality of education.

Carr and Kemmis (1986) define action research as a form of self-reflective

enquiry undertaken by participants (teachers, students or principals, for
example) in social (including educational) situations in order to improve the
rationality and justice of (a) their own social or educational practices, (b) their
understanding of these practices, and (c) the situations (and institutions) in
which these practices are carried out.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

OBrian (1998) defines action research as learning by doing in which a

person identifies a problem, does something to resolve it, see how successful
his or her efforts were, and if not satisfied to try again. To achieve this goal,
the teacher (or practioner) has to work in collaboration with students (or
clients) stressing the importance of co-learning as a primary aspect of the
research process.

McNiff (1994), states that action research when applied to classrooms is an

approach to improving education through change, by encouraging teachers to
be aware of their own practice (reflective), to be critical of that practice, and
to be prepared to change it.

Ferrance (2000) defines action research as a process in which participants examine

their own educational practice systematically and carefully, using the techniques of
research.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is meant by the statement that action research is the

bridge between theory and practice?
b) Based in the definitions given, provide your definition of
action research?
c) Relate one example you are not happy about your teaching.

WHAT IS NOT ACTION RESEARCH?

First, action research is not problem-solving or

consulting in the sense that you are trying to find Is action research
out what is wrong, but rather a quest for similar to problem
knowledge about how to improve. Even though
the word research is used, it is not about doing
solving?
research on or about people, or finding all
available information on a topic looking for the
correct answers. For example, it is not a library
project where you investigate about a problem or
issue; neither is it interviewing people to find out
why. It involves people (your students) working to
improve your skills, techniques, and strategies,
that is to improve practice.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

Second, action research is not about learning why we do certain things, but rather
how we can do things better. It is about how we can change our instruction to
impact students.
Third, the main focus of action research is on turning the people involved
into researchers (OBrian, 1998). People learn best, and more willingly apply
what they have learned, when they do it themselves. The teacher or practioner
as researcher spends refining the methodological tools to suit the demands of
the situation, and collecting, analysing, and presenting data on an ongoing,
cyclical basis.
Fourth, the researcher makes no attempt to remain objective, but openly
acknowledges his or her bias towards the subjects or participants
Fifth, action research has a social dimension whereby the research takes place
in real-world situations, and aims to solve real concerns.

In short, action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teachers,

principals, school counsellors, or other stakeholders in the teaching/learning
environment to gather information about how their particular school operates, how
they teach, and how well their students learn. This information is gathered with the
goals of gaining insights, developing reflective practice, effecting positive changes in
the school environment, and improving student outcomes and the lives of those
involved (NEFSTEM, 2996).

WHY ACTION RESEARCH?

There are two main reasons for action research. One is to involve practioners
(such as teachers) in their work. The other is to encourage practioners (or teachers) to
be researchers with the purpose of bringing about improvement in what they are
doing. Action research means ACTION, both of the system under consideration and
of the people involved in that system.
The system could mean schools, factories, offices, airlines and so forth.
The people means teachers, managers, workers, supervisors, principals and so
forth.
For example, a teacher who discovered that if he adopted an alternative style
of dealing with students with discipline problems, student attention in class greatly
improved. He recommends the alternative method to his colleagues and soon the
whole school is seen practicing the method in all the classes. The action of action
research, whether on a small scale or large scale, implies change in peoples lives, and
therefore in the system in which they live.
Action research is used in real situations, rather than in contrived,
experimental studies, since its primary focus is on solving real problems. It can,
however be used by social scientists for preliminary or pilot research (OBrian, 1998).
However, action research is most often used when you want change to take place
quickly or holistically and is preferred because it is flexible. It is often selected as a
method by practitioners who wish to improve understanding of their practice or an
academic invited into an organisation by decision-makers aware of a problem
requiring action research (OBrian, 1998).
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Chapter 4: Action Research

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) How is action research different from problem-solving,

consulting and other types of research?
b) Why would one want to engage in action research?
c) Action research is about how can we do things better
Elaborate.

WHO GETS INVOLVED IN ACTION RESEARCH?

The Teacher who gets involved in action research:

Is not satisfied with the status quo and has the
confidence and resolution to attempt to change what
is going on. He or she will not be satisfied with the
present way of doing things and seeks to change it.
Is resourceful, committed and above all curious.
Refuses to be a servant, but instead wants to be an
acting agent and rise above being a skilled technician
and move towards becoming an educator.

[source: Jean McNiff, Action Research, Principles and

Practice, McNiff, 1988, 50]
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Chapter 4: Action Research

Action research is conducted by individuals who want to change their practice.

You are concerned that things are not going as you wish. For example, the curriculum
for teaching reading is not helping children who did not attend preschool and hence
you want to implement a new approach in teaching reading to children who do not
have preschool experience. You want practical solutions to your problem. You may
have read about how others have solved the problem but not sure whether it will
work for your group of pupils because you know that practice is often influenced by
context.

ACTION RESEARCH MODELS

What is the difference between teaching and action research on teaching?

When doing action research you will need to adopt a more systematic approach to
making observations and keeping records than may presently be the case. At various
stages in a project, your findings can be communicated to colleagues through
seminars, conferences and journal publications. There are several other models of the
action research process. In this chapter we will discuss three such models: The
original work of Kurt Lewin, the action research model by Gerald Susman and the
education action research model by Kemmis and McTaggart.

A) THE ORIGINAL WORK OF KURT LEWIN

The social psychologist Kurt Lewin was most interested in studying social
issues in organisations. He felt that the best way for an organisation to progress is for
its people to engage in improving their own practice. He stressed the importance of
the researcher to work collaboratively with others. He described action research as
being a spiral of steps: Planning, Acting, Observing and Reflecting (see Figure 4.2).

ACTING PLANNING

OBSERVING REFLECTING

Figure 4.2 Spiral Steps of Action Research

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Chapter 4: Action Research

EXAMPLE:

Planning: How can I make my dog better behaved? Perhaps I should take him to
training classes.

Acting: I take him to training classes.

Observing: I see how the dogs behave at class.

Reflecting: Perhaps I should do the same at home in a consistent fashion.

[source: Kurt Lewin, 1946. Action Research and Minority Problems, Journal of
Social Issues, 2: 34- 46]

This first phase continues to the second phase of the cycle involving Re-planning,
Acting, Observing and Reflecting. Lewin did not intend for his ideas to be applied in
education as he was more interested in social issues in organisations. However, his
concept crept into education and today his basic model is widely adopted in
educational settings with slight modifications [Refer to the action research model by
Kemmis and McTaggart].

B) ACTION RESEARCH MODEL BY SUSMAN

The model by Susman (1983) specifies five phases of the research cycle (see
Figure 4.3). The first step is identification of a problem followed by collection of
information about the problem. Then the data is analysed to find potential solutions
and based on the analysis, one possible solution or intervention is implemented.

Figure 4.3 Susmans Action Research Model (1983)

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Chapter 4: Action Research

Later the data on the outcome of the intervention is studied and reviewed to
find out how well was the plan was carried out and whether the outcomes was
successful or not. The Problem is reassessed and cycle starts again and continues to
evolve until an adequate solution is found.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What types of person will be involved in action research?

b) Briefly describe the action research model proposed by
Gerald Susman (1983).

C) ACTION RESEARCH MODEL BY KEMMIS AND McTAGGART

Action research is essentially a series of cycles of REFLECTION,
PLANNING and ACTION. Kemmis and McTaggart (1988) developed a concept for
action research. They proposed a spiral model comprising four steps: planning, acting,
observing and reflecting (see Figure 4.4).

Phase 1

Phase 2

Figure 4.4 Carr and Kemmiss Action Research Model (1986)

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Chapter 4: Action Research

The diagram shows the four steps in action; the movement from one critical
phase to another, and the way in which progress may be made through the system.
Action research is all about what happens in the classroom. Teachers are encouraged
to be researchers investigating what is happening in their classrooms.
Basically it is an approach to improve your own teaching practice. You start
with a problem you encounter in your teaching practice. It could be a concern that
students do not spend enough effort in reviewing course materials; or they have great
difficulty learning a particular topic in the course. Faced with the problem, the action
researcher will go through a series of phases (reflect, plan, action, observe) called the
Action Research Cycle to systematically tackle the problem.
In practice, things rarely go perfectly according to plan first time round.
Usually you discover ways to improve your action plan in light of your experience
and feedback from the students. One cycle of planning, acting, observing and
reflecting, therefore usually leads to another, in which you incorporate improvements
suggested by the initial cycle. Projects often do not fit neatly into a cycle of planning,
action, observation and reflection. It is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat
disjointed process if circumstances dictate.

EXAMPLE:

Planning: I am not happy with the textbook we are using, but it is the only
one available. What can I do about it? I cannot change the
book: should I change my method of using it? Perhaps I should
try paired work.

Acting: I show the children how to ask and answer questions of each
other to make otherwise boring material relevant to themselves.
We try out this technique in class.

Observing: I join various pairs and listen to their conversations. I record

some conversations. I keep my own notes.

Reflecting: The activity is lively, but some questions wander from the text.
I want to get across the material in the text.

Planning: Perhaps I could develop with the children an interview

technique, where A asks B questions which will elicit responses
based on the material. Will that make it boring again? How can
I guard against this? Perhaps I can involve them even more
actively.

Acting: The children record their own conversations. There are not
enough tape recorders to go around, so they work in fours,
taking it in turns to listen and talk. At the end of the two sets of
interviews they listen and comment on individual recordings.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

Observing: They really enjoy this. And they seem to be gleaning

information from the text in formulating their own question and
answers.

Reflecting: Points to ponder:

Am I correct pedagogically in teaching the content through this
process? I must consult my head of department on this. Should I
aim for this sort of learning more often and with other classes? I
am worried about practical difficulties such as too much noise
and insufficient tape recorder.

[source: Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: education, knowledge and
action research. Lewes, Falmer]

CASE STUDY:
ACTION RESEARCH IN PRIMARY MATHEMATICS TEACHING

Phase 1:

QUESTION YOUR PRESENT PRACTICE (Reflect on your practice)

Before you begin, you should ask yourself the following questions (Barrett and
Whitehead, 1985):

1. What is your concern? Is there something

bugging you that you are not happy about? You
are mathematics teacher teaching primary 3 pupils.
About one-third of pupils in your class are not able
to do fractions. It is already the end of the first
semester.

2. Why are you concerned? These one-third of

pupils who are ill-equipped with fractions skills
will find it difficult to cope when they proceed to
the second semester.

3. What do you think you could do about it?

I can do something about it. I have read extensively
about peer-tutoring which works quite in
mathematics teaching.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

1. PLAN:
I will reduce the amount of content to be covered. Break it down into smaller
manageable bits. Pupils are broken up into groups of three with one good pupil (i.e.
tutor) assigned to help the other two pupils (i.e. tutee) in the group.

2. ACT:
I begin the lesson with teaching the whole class about fractions. Then, pupils work
in their groups on the problems given to them. The good pupil is told to help the other
two weak pupils in his or her group. My role is that of a facilitator attending to
questions and issues raised by students.

3. OBSERVE:
[You have to decide what kind of evidence you need to collect to help you make some
judgement about what is happening]. I join the different groups and listen to their
conversations. I record as much of their conversations as possible which is jotted in a
journal. I keep notes of my impressions.

4. REFLECT:
The lesson is lively but not all students are asking questions. They are not discussing
with other. Some tutors did not know what to do and how to help their groups mates.
This is not what I had in mind. [You have to check that your judgement about what
has happened is reasonable, fair and accurate].

Phase 2:

1. REVISE PLAN:
I have to train pupils on the process of peer tutoring and strategies for
fulfilling their role of tutor or tutee.
I have to device a structured tutoring procedure in which tutors present
material previously covered by the teacher, and provide feedback to the tutee.

2. ACT:

Tutor: The purpose of this lesson is to understand fractions as part of a whole.

(Tutor states the learning objective.) You will practice writing a number as a
fraction by looking at the parts and the whole in different examples.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

Tutor: Look at Picture #1. Tell me how many small squares there are in the
picture.

Tutee: Four small squares

Tutor: Good! This is the number of small parts in the whole figure. Write that
number in the square at the bottom of the fraction sheet.

Tutor: Now, how many of those small squares are shaded?

Tutee: One small square.

Tutor: Great! This is the number of shaded squares in the whole figure. Write
this number on the top in the shaded square of the fraction sheet.

Tutor: Now we want to name this fraction by using the number of shaded
squares and the number of small squares. What are the numbers?

Tutee: 1 and 4

Tutee: That is correct! To name the fraction we say 1 out of 4. The bar divides
the parts on the top with the whole on the bottom. Another way is to say it is
that 1 shaded square out of 4 squares means , or one fourth.

3. OBSERVE:
Record their interactions by placing a tape-recorder in each group. Students are really
enjoying themselves. There is greater group discussion and consensus in decision
making.

4. REFELECT:
Weak pupils when grouped with a good pupil benefits from the peer tutoring process
which results in mastery of skills in fractions. I also realises that tutors tended to drill
their tutees to master the concept of fractions. Peer tutoring should move beyond
drillings skills. Should I aim for this sort of learning more often and with other
classes? I am worried about practical difficulties such as too much noise.
.

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) What is the first step in action research?

b) Describe what is done at the act stage of the process
c) Discuss the role of reflection in action research.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

TYPES OF ACTION RESEARCH

There are different types of action research depending upon the participants
involved. According to Ferrance (2000), a plan of research can involve a single
teacher investigating an issue in his or her classroom, a group of teachers working
on a common problem, or a team of teachers and others focusing on a school- or
district-wide issue. She identified the following types of action research:

A) Individual Teacher Research

Individual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom.
The teacher may be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management,
instructional strategies, use of materials, or student learning. Teachers may have
support of their supervisor or principal, an instructor for a course they are taking, or
parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes is evident in his or her classroom
and one that can be addressed on an individual basis.
The research may then be such that the teacher collects data or may involve
looking at student participation. One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it
may not be shared with others unless the teacher chooses to present findings at a staff
meeting, make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit written material to a
listserv, journal, or newsletter. It is possible for several teachers to be working
concurrently on the
same problem with no knowledge of the work of others.

B) Collaborative Action Research

Collaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or a group of several
teachers and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This
issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms.
These teachers may be supported by individuals outside of the school, such as a
university or community partner.

C) School-Wide Action Research

School-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may
have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for
a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or, the school may
be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of
staff from the school work together to narrow the question, gather and analyse the
data, and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school could
be to examine their state test scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then
determine a plan of action to improve student performance. Team work and individual
contributions to the whole are very important, and it may be that problem points arise
as the team strives to develop a process and make commitments to each other. When
these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and accomplishment
in the results that come from this school-wide effort.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

D) District-Wide Action Research

District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the
rewards can be great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-
based, or processes for decision-making. A district may choose to address a problem
common to several schools or one of organizational management. Downsides are the
documentation requirements (communication) to keep everyone in the loop, and the
ability to keep the process in motion. Collecting data from all participants needs a
commitment from staff to do their fair share and to meet agreed-upon deadlines for
assignments. On the positive side, real school reform and change can take hold based
on a common understanding through inquiry. The involvement of multiple constituent
groups can lend energy to the process and create an environment of genuine
stakeholders.

ETHICS

Because action research is carried out in real-world circumstances, and

involves close and open communication among the people involved, the researchers
must pay close attention to ethical considerations in the conduct of their work.
Richard Winter (1996) lists a number of principles:
Make sure that the relevant persons, committees and authorities have
been consulted, and that the principles guiding the work are accepted in
advance by all.
All participants must be allowed to influence the work, and the wishes of
those who do not wish to participate must be respected.
The development of the work must remain visible and open to suggestions
from others.
Permission must be obtained before making observations or examining
documents produced for other purposes.
Descriptions of others work and points of view must be negotiated with
those concerned before being published.
The researcher must accept responsibility for maintaining confidentiality.

To this might be added several more points:

Decisions made about the direction of the research and the probable outcomes
are collective
Researchers are explicit about the nature of the research process from the
beginning, including all personal biases and interests
There is equal access to information generated by the process for all
participants
The outside researcher and the initial design team must create a process that
maximises the opportunities for involvement of all participants.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

LEARNING ACTIVITY

a) Discuss the differences between the types of action research.

b) What are the ethical considerations when doing ethical
research ?

KEY WORDS

Action research
Act
Observe
Reflect
Plan
Learning by doing
Practitioners
Cycle
Change
Ethics
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Chapter 4: Action Research

SUMMARY

Action research is a qualitative research method that encourages the practioner

(or teacher) to be reflective of his or her own practice with the aim of
improving the system.

Action research is based on the belief that the teacher (or practioner) is the
best judge of his or her teaching (or practice).

Action research helps the teacher to bridge the gap between theory and
practice where teachers have the opportunity to test some of their personal
theories in the classroom using action research.

Action research in education has also been called several different names such
as classroom research, self-reflective inquiry, teacher research, teacher self-
evaluation, teacher as researcher.

Action research is not problem-solving or consulting in the sense that you are
trying to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest for knowledge about how
to improve.

Action research leads the teacher to come to their own understandings about
their own teaching.

Action research adopts a spiral approach comprising four steps: planning

acting, observing and reflecting.

One cycle of planning, acting, observing and reflecting, therefore usually leads
to another, in which you incorporate improvements suggested by the initial
cycle.

Because action research is carried out in real-world circumstances, and

involves close and open communication among the people involved, the
researchers must pay close attention to ethical considerations in the conduct of
their work.
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Chapter 4: Action Research

REFERENCES

Barrett, J & Whitehead. J. (1995) . Supporting teachers in their classroom research.

University of Bath, School of education.

Carr, W. & Kemmis, S. (1986) Becoming Critical: education, knowledge and action
research. Lewes, Falmer.

Elliott, J. (1991) Action Research for Educational Change, Buckingham, Open

University Press.

Lewin, K. (1946). Action Research and Minority Problems, Journal of Social Issues,
2: 34- 46.

McNiff, J. (1988) Action Research: Principles and Practice, Basingstoke, Macmillan

NEFSTEM, The Northeast Florida Science, Technology, and Mathematics Center for
Education. 2006. http://www.nefstem.org/teacher_guide/intro/definition.htm

OBrien, R. (1998) An Overview of the Methodological Approach of Action

Research. Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto

Susman, G.(1983) Action Research: A Sociotechnical Systems Perspective. Ed. G.

Morgan. London: Sage Publications, 95-113.

Winter, R. (1996). Some Principles and Procedures for the Conduct of Action
Research, In Ortrun Zuber-Skerritt (Ed.). New Directions in Action Research,
London: Falmer Press, 16-17.

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