1424 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.

9, SEPTEMBER 1969

Energization with Vacuum

Shunt Capacitor
Interrupters-A Possible Source of Overvoltage
EUGENE W. BOEHNE, FELLOW, IEEE, AND S. S. LOW, MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-The energization of a large capacitor bank with vacuum mechanical contact bounce, or both. This short-lived interruption
interrupters coupled with the simultaneous failure of a load trans- may persist up to several hundred microseconds before the cur-
former on a radial feeder prompted this study. The study reveals a rent is reestablished.
source of overvoltage accompanied by sudden and severe voltage Such interruptions and subsequent reignition, all on a high-
reversals at the transformer terminals. This phenomenon is char-
acterized by the momentary interruption and subsequent reignitions frequency base, can give rise to severe overvoltages and high rates
of the two predominant transient high-natural-frequency oscillatory of change of voltage on associated equipment. These observa-
capacitor closing currents. The momentary interruptions take place tions are influenced by the distributed circuit parameters, lines
at numerous higher natural-frequency current zeros, which occur and cables, as well as the randomness in the three-phase closing
during the short interval between the prestrike of the arc and the operations.
metal-to-metal closure of the contacts and at the first lower natural-
frequency current zero, which occurs either during the short interval RELATION TO PREVIOUS STUDIES
between the prestrike of the arc and the closing of the metallic con- The phenomena revealed, although new to the science of cir-
tacts, or during the contact separation- due to mechanical contact cuit interruption, have been postulated earlier as the cause of
bounce, or both. Analysis is in two parts, field tests and PACE overvoltage on transmission lines and defined under arcing
computer analysis. The computer studies duplicate field test results
and pernit the evaluation of various combinations of overhead and ground phenomena [1], [2]. In these earlier papers, the inter-
underground circuit parameters and corrective measures. mittent arcing across line insulators has been postulated on the
basis of the currents being interrupted at the natural current
zero of the high-frequency phenomena, and restriking on the
natural frequency recovery voltage [2, Theory I, Table I(a)].
INTRODUCTION This is the case reported here for the first time as associated with
IN AN ADVANCED program of system planning, the Depart- a circuit interrupter. In [2, Table I, case II ] is the well-known re-
ment of Water and Power (DW&P) of the City of Los Angeles striking phenomenon of early power breakers in which both the
has embarked on a program of adding shunt capacitor banks to leading power factor interruption and the reignition took place
the 34.5-kV distribution system to improve system voltage and on the 60-Hz power frequency basis. The present revelations
supply the kilovars required during the system peak load were made possible by the introduction of an interrupter so
periods. In keeping with the advanced technology of capacitor powerful that it is capable of interrupting the circuit with very
switching equipment, vacuum switches were introduced for small contact openings. When these openings occur during the
capacitor switching. During routine preservice testing, a trans- "closing" operation and are associated with the numerous cur-
former on an industrial site, one circuit mile from the capacitor rent zeros of the high-frequency closing transients, the resulting
substation, was severely damaged (Fig. 4). voltage transients at the time of reignition of the closing con-
This is a report of the extensive field testing and computer tacts gives rise to a family of phenomena which, on most counts,
analysis of the cause of this transformer failure; it comprises the are highly undesirable.
technical concepts of capacitive switching where the rates of
change of voltage and current are extremely high. None of the THE PHENOMENON
equipment used for these tests was designed, manufactured, or When a large ungrounded, uncharged, capacitor bank is
sold by the authors. In these studies, high-speed cathode-ray energized in a substation fed by lines or cables, the closing of the
oscillographic (CRO) records of switching operations, coupled first breaker pole is uneventful since no circuit has been estab-
with analytical treatment, and expanded through a PACE com- lished. Closing the second pole at the moment of the maximum
puter study, have revealed an important aspect of such capacitor value of line-to-line voltage between the two phases causes both
switching that is new to switching technology. The phenomenon phase voltages to collapse to zero, the uncharged potential of the
is believed to be unique to the vacuum interrupter under closing capacitors. As a result, traveling waves of voltage and current
operations in which an interruption of the circuit can occur at radiate simultaneously from the capacitor on lines and cables
one of the several current zeros of the two predominant high- associated with the two phases affected. These conditions are de-
frequency closing currents either following the prestrike and picted in Fig. 1 where all four linles have a surge impedance of Z1
prior to contact make, or following contact separation due to ohms. The voltage waves will all be alike and have a magnitude
of half the crest value of the line-to-line voltage. The waveshape
will be exponential with a sheer front as shown, and expressed as
Paper 69 TP 83-PWR, recommended and approved by the Switch-
gear Committee of the IEEE Power Group for presentation at the
IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y., January 26-31, e .= Em(L-L) _2t/Zic
1969. Manuscript submitted September 16, 1968; made available for (2
-printing May 29, 1969.
E. W. Boehne is with I-T-E Imperial Corporation, Philadelphia, where C is the capacitance in farads per phase to neutral of the
Pa. 19130.
S. S. Low is vith the Department of Water and Power, Los Ange- bank. When C is in microfarads, time will be in microseconds.
les, Calif. 90054. The time to half value T/2 will be 0.346Z1C. If Z1 = 30 ohms and
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRRUPTERS
Fig. 1. Origin of higher natural frequency (see Appendix II):
conditions microseconds after closing of second pole of three-
phase switch upon large ungrounded, uncharged capacitor bank.
C = 12 pF, the value of T/2 is 124 /ss. If Z, = 400 ohms, the half-
time will be increased to 1660 ps.
These waves reflect and refract at junctions of lines and cables
and at transformer terminals, to create what is here termed the
higher natural frequency of the observed phenomena (Appendix
II). In some cases of composite circuits consisting of cables and
lines in series, the phenomena can be amplified to give rise to
extremely severe transformer stresses. The possibility of the
higher natural frequency being in resonance with the internal
natural frequency of the terminal transformer cannot be over-
looked. The above high-frequency oscillation due to the multiple
reflections on the radial feeder to the load transformer is super-
imposed upon a lower natural frequency of the capacitor bank
oseillating with the source inductance and described in some de-
tail in Appendix I. This oscillation is the manner in which the
uncharged capacitor bus is raised to the three-phase potential of
the source bus. During this process, the capacitor bus can be
raised in excess of twice the potential of the source bus during
early stages of the lower natural frequency oscillations. These
voltage peaks occur simultaneously with the natural current
zeros.
The combination of these two natural frequencies being ex-
cited at random on single and compound circuits by the non-
simultaneous closing of the second and third poles of the capaci-
tor switch and then being reexcited within several hundred mi-
croseconds at double voltage by the reignition of each phase cir-
cuit following microsecond interruptions of each circuit prior to
the ultimate closing of the three poles of the vacuum switch, can
give rise to a family of undesirable overvoltage phenomena under
certain circuit topologies.
When these natural current zeros occur during the short inter-
val between the prestrike on each pole of the switch and the
ultimate contact closing, the vacuum interrupter may find condi-
tions acceptable for an easy interruption. Such interruptions
during closing can trap close to 2Em on the capacitor being
energized. Subsequent reignitions at random can result in a
family of overvoltage phenomena of unusual magnitude, which is
made more complex by the random closing of the second and
third poles and by the random nature of the reignitions.
DAMAGED TRANSFORMER AND CAPACITOR BANK INSTALLATION
The damaged unit was a new, 1000-kVA three-phase 34.5-kV
480/277-volt transformer with a h-Y grounded connection. This
unit had a basic insulation level (BIL) of 200 kV, and had no
1425
Fig. 2. 91/4-inch transformer bushing rod gap
similar to type that flashed over during cap-
acitor bank energization.
0
-0
I-
o
IDsIn 150
o
<G 140
o 130
<:100
0
0
7O-----_717
80
hL
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
TRANSFORMER BUSHING ROD GAP SPACING IN INCHES
Fig. 3. Sparkover-voltage characteristics of
typical 34.5-kV transformer bushing rod gap
as in Fig. 2.
electrostatic shielding [14]. The high-voltage windings were
severely damaged (Fig. 4); the simultaneous arrival of steep
waves of opposite polarity at the two terminals would place the
greatest turn-to-turn or coil stress deep in the winding. In addi-
tion, the A-phase transformer bushing rod gap was flashed over.
Fig. 2 shows the 91/4-inch transformer bushing rod gap similar to
the type that flashed over. Fig. 3 shows the corrected sparkover
voltage characteristies of this type of rod gap in 60-Hz crest volt-
age. Note that the sparkover voltage for the 9'/4-inch rod gap is
about 136 kV crest, which is 4.6 times the normal system operat-
ing voltage crest. These damages can be recognized as a typical
switching impulse breakdown failure.
The 34.5-kV 5400-kvar capacitor bank is connected in an un-
grounded Y arrangement. Each phase is made up of three series
groups of six capacitor units connected in parallel. Each unit is
rated 7.2 kV, 100 kvar, and is individually fused. A grounding
potential transformer is connected between the neutral of the
capacitor bank and the substation ground. This is used to provide
relay protection for unbalanced phase-voltage conditions in
capacitor bank. A vacuum switch used for switchiag is con-
nected directly between the capacitor bank and the distribution
substation bus. This was the first 34.5-kV capacitor installation
on the DW&P's system; Fig. 5 shows this capacitor bank in-
stallation.
 1426 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER
Fig. 4. Transformer damage
associated with energization
of 5400-kvar capacitor bank.
Fig. 5. Typical 34.5-kV 5400-kvar capacitor bank installation of
type used in field tests-capacitance per phase 12.1 pF.
FIELD TE-STS
Fig. 6 shows the test circuit and the instrumentation connec-
tions. The field tests were conducted by switching the 5400-kvar
ungrounded capacitor bank with a vacuum switch under circuit
conditions similar to those that existed at the time of the trans-
former failure. Since the transformer failure occurred during the
initial energization of the capacitor bank, most of the test records
were made of similar closing operations. During the early part
of the tests, only the distribution substation bus was instru-
mented, but both the open-end line terminal and the substation
bus were instrumented during later tests. Customers' loads
normally connected to the line used in the test were reconnected
to another circuit, making the test system completely isolated
from the load system. Tests were made with the line open ended
and also with the line terminated by a 333-kVA single-phase
transformer to simulate the load condition.
Two CRO [31 units were used to record the transient voltages
on the substation bus el and on the line terminal e3 as shown in
Fig. 6. Each CRO unit records three traces of transient voltage
1969
information simultaneously with a timing wave. In addition, a
steady-state 60-Hz voltage-zero reference line was added to each
voltage trace just prior to each test. Also, a magnetic oscillograph
(Visicorder) was used to record similar information at the sub-
station bus. Fig. 7 shows a typical magnetic oscillogram taken
during the tests.
The three sets of CRO records (Figs. 8-10) were selected from
many sets of records because they clearly demonstrate the unique
phenomenon occurring when a vacuum switch is used to close
into a capacitor bank. Each set consists of simultaneous CRO
records. Record (a) shows only one predominant frequency of
transient restoration voltage produced at the capacitor bus dur-
ing the energization. This damped low-frequency oscillation,
which is superimposed upon the 60-Hz source voltage wave can
be calculated using the inductance of the source and the capaci-
tance of the capacitor bank (Appendix I). In this reported case,
the frequency is about 520 Hz. Record (b) taken at the line
terminal shows two predominant frequencies of transient voltage
which superimpose on each other. The higher frequency is primar-
ily produced by multiple reflections and refractions of the travel-
ing wave from the junction of the cable and the open-ended line.
This frequency can be calculated by the simple formula v/4D,
where v is the velocity of the wave in feet per second, D is the line
length in feet, and 4 is the constant for an open-ended line condi-
tion in which a wave travels four times on the line to complete a
cycle. Assuming v = 1000 feet per microsecond, the calculated
frequency is 33 000 Hz and the measured frequency is about
32 000 Hz for this reported case. See Appendix 11 for more de-
tails of the high-frequency oscillation.
Microseconds following the prestrike of the second pole of the
vacuum interrupters during the capacitor energization, the volt-
ages measured at both terminals of the test transformer winding,
8400 feet away, exhibited a polarity reversal with respect to
ground from 425 to 60 kV. This sudden reversal of voltage
across the winding from 50 to -120 kV is extremely rapid (less
than 8 As), and represents a 2.4-times-normal voltage to ground
at each terminal. Assuming Zo = 30 ohms for the cable, and 300
ohms for the overhead line, the calculated initial voltage change
at the transformer terminal is E - 4E(300/330) = -2.6E. The
measured frequency and magnitude of voltage change closely
agree with the values calculated using well-known traveling wave
equations, and verify the validity of the study.
A study of the CRO records revealed the evidence that strong
voltage disturbances were occurring at the exact locations
where all analysis indicates a current zero to exit. There was
little doubt that these disturbances, shown in the oscillograms
by abrupt changes in the waveforms, were the result of a circuit
interruption followed by a subsequent reignition, and that this
event was occurring between the prestrike of the contacts and
the contact make or as a result of an interruption that might occur
due to contact bounce, or both. Although the circuit voltages
associated with the higher natural-frequency current zeros ex-
hibit some disturbances, the principal interruption was associ-
ated with the first current zero of the lower natural-frequency
current. It is at this moment that the capacitor voltage has
reached its highest value above the source voltage.
The subsequent reignitions produce voltage disturbances that
create a more noticeable effect on the high-frequency transient
voltage components than on the low-frequency ones. The effect
of these disturbances on the magnitude of the voltage transient
is dependent upon the time at which the interruption and reigni-
tion occurs. Fig. 8(b) shows a case where the magnitude of the
BOEHNE AND l.OW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
BULK POWER
SUBSTATION
138 KV
Fig. 6. One-line diagram of test circuit and instrumentation.
Fig. 7. Magnetic oscillogram of capacitor bank bus voltages and
phase currents during normal energization with vacuum switch.
high-frequency voltage wave increases substantially at the first
low-frequency transient current zero. On the other hand, Fig.
9(b) shows a case where the high-frequency wave neutralizes the
original wave, while Fig. 10(b) exhibits a case where the high-
frequency voltage wave only momentarily distorted the transient
in progress. These cases demonstrate the three possible types
of high-frequency transient wave modification resulting from
momentary contact separation, voltage increases, voltage can-
cellation, or distortion only.
The neutral voltage shift resulting from nonsimultaneous pole
closing also produces transients on the phase-voltage waves.
The disturbance of greatest magnitude takes place upon closing
of the last phase. In the tests the B-phase pole closing was de-
liberately delayed to clearly demonstrate the phenomenon
[Figs. 8(b), 9(b), and 10(b) Apparently, the most severe
1.
transient phase-voltage condition without multiple restriking
takes place when the last pole closes coincident with the first
low-frequency transient current zero on another phase. It is
quite possible that the flashover of the A-phase transformer bush-
ing rod gap occurred because of this severe voltage condition.
It is interesting to note that the phase-to-phase voltage transient
remains constant and shows no influence of the neutral shift
disturbance.
Any of these voltage disturbances also affects the rate of change
of transient voltage at the line terminal. Such rapid reversals of
1427
voltage transient cause high voltage stresses in the transformer
windings.
Fig. 11 shows the most severe low-frequency disturbance of
transient voltage caused by interruptions and reignitions during
closing encountered during the test series. This record was ob-
tained early in the tests. Later test records showed shorter high-
frequency interruption times and less violent changes.
CONCLUSIONS FROM FIELD TESTS
Observations from field test records lead to the following con-
clusions, which pertain only to capacitor bank energization when
employing the type of vacuum switch used in the tests.
1) Momentary interruptions of the high-frequency closing
currents took place either during the interval between the pre-
strike and the closing of the metallic contacts or during the con-
tact separation due to mechanical contact bounce, or both.
2) Reignition can cause the magnitude of the high-frequency
voltage transient to be increased, cancelled, or distorted, de-
pending on the particular time that reignition occurs. This is a
random phenomenon.
3) Reignitions increase the rate of change of the transient volt-
age appearing at the line terminal.
4) Whether the line is open ended or terminated with a trans-
former has no noticeable effect upon the transient voltages re-
corded.
5) The last pole closing, which shifts the neutral voltage ref-
erence, affects only the magnitude of the phase-to-ground volt-
age transient.
6) The abrupt change in surge impedance of the circuit from
cable to overhead line amplifies the transient voltages at the
terminal end.
7) Two predominant transient restoration-voltage frequencies
are produced at the line terminal during energization. The higher
frequency oscillation is determined by the length of the open-
ended feeder; the low-frequency oscillation is controlled by the
inductance of the source and the capacitance of the capacitor
bank.
8) Only one predominant transient-voltage frequency is ex-
hibited at the capacitor bus during energization. This is the
lower natural-frequency transient and is the same as described in
Appendix I. It is the predominant mode in which the capacitor
bank is raised to the potential of the source bus.
9) Deenergization of the capacitor bank with a vacuum
switch apparently showed no restrike or reignitions during all the
tests. For the interruption of capacitive circuit, the vacuum
1428 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARAT'IUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

I I' . .. L is | .
_
____
_ _ _
___
I_

_ xsw:X:i:ii{_

-
.

(a) (b)
Fig. 8. Typical transient overvoltages produced during capacitor energization witth vacullm switCih caahile
of interruptiorn during closing. (a) Voltage measured at capacitor buis. (b) Voltages measurled
simlnltaneoutsly at open end of test line. Second high-frequency voltage oscillationi was iiitialed bY in-
terruption and reignitioni of capacitor current at first current zero of low-freqimenvY oscillatioii.

(a) (b)
Fig. 9. Transient overvoltages as in Fig. S. (a) V'oltage measured at capacitor bus. (b) Voltages measured
simultaneously at open end of test line. Rleignition following interruption timed by chaiice so that voltages
neutralize to cancel original high-frequeincy voltage of initiating transienit.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Transient overvoltages as in Fig. 8. (a) Voltage measured at capacitor bus. (b) Voltages measured
simultanieously at open end of test line. Reignition following interruption timed by chance so that only
momentary distortion of high-frequency wave occurs.
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
Fig. 11. Capacitor bus transient overvoltages produced during current and voltage severities are proportional to the separation
energization of capacitor bank with vacuum switch. Note col- of the recovery voltage and the trapped charge voltage at the
lapse of voltage followed by low-frequency oscillation rising to moment of reignition.
double initial voltage (cf. Fig. 18).
switch is ideal. Care must be taken in applying this switch to the nature of the representation of the distributed circuit. This fact
closing of large capacitor banks.
10) Test results verify calculations using traveling w ave reignitions
equations.
ANALOG COMPUTER STUDY
Following the field study, a computer program was carried out
to duplicate the field results and to explore the effects of numer-
ous circuit parameters and several protective measures. This
work was carried out on the PACE computer, which accepts the
differential equations of the entire circuit, solves for any desired
quantity, and plots up to eight time traces. It permits manual or
automatic switching of any portion of the circuit as desired, and
will yield the results of this switching on the pacographic traces.
This method of analysis is exceptionally well adapted to momen-
tary changes and explorations of the switching sequences and
intervals, inasmuch as the graph speed can be reduced far below
the real speed of the phenomena. Figs. 12-17 exhibit samples of
the 150 solutions carried out.
Since the circuit under study is ungrounded, the first and most
important phenomenon develops when the second pole of the
energizing switch closes. Upon the second pole closing, a single-
phase circuit is created through two phase capacitors and two
source inductances (Fig. 1). Therefore, a single-phase computer
representation was employed. The value of the driving voltage
represented essentially 50 kV, the crest value of the phase-to-
phase voltage of the 34.5-kV circuit. The speed of the phe-
nomena was such that 60-Hz representation was not warranted.
A comparison of field oscillograms and computer results will con-
firm the wisdom of this choice.
The distributed circuits were simulated with 7r and T sections
designed in keeping with the known constants of the cables and
lines used in the field and studied oscillographically. Because of
the lumped circuit representation, common to all analog treat-
ment of distributed circuits, the results will fall short of display-
ing the true severity, particularly with respect to the initial
wave impact upon the transformer as discussed in Appendix II.
In addition, the rate of change of voltage at the terminal trans-
former will be softened due to presence of a lumped capacitor,
which is part of the last ir section of the appended line. Figs.
12-17 display the 12 records made on each test, labeled with re-
spect to the designations of Fig. 6.
1429
PACE COMPUTER RESULTS
Figs. 12-17, together with their captions, are the samples
chosen to confirm the field results and to describe the effect of
various circuital parameters and corrective measures. Particular
attention should be paid to traces IV and V, which show the
phase-to-phase voltage across the terminal transformer (equally
divided from each bushing to ground) and the switch current.
In every case, a smooth line drawn through the high-frequency
oscillations will yield the low-frequency current. This is so ex-
hibited in Fig. 13, which shows six cases in which the low-fre-
quency current of 520 Hz is interrupted at the first current zero
of the low-frequency oscillation, indicated as P on all traces,
and remains interrupted a specified number of microseconds
until reignition occurs at Q. It will be observed that the resulting
The recovery voltage transient between P and Q in all traces of
the computer program is exaggerated because of the lumped
in no way alters the conclusions of the investigation, since the
Each
were controlled at the will of the operator.
vertical division of all voltage traces represents 25 kV
with respect to a 34.5-kV system. The time divisions are indi-
catedon each figure.
CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Fig. 14 demonstrates that a 15-ohm resistor, the surge im-
pedance of two 30-ohm surge impedance cables in parallel, will
essentially eliminate the undesired phenomena when first in-
serted in the capacitor circuit. The short circuiting of this re-
sistor produces results just as mild. This practice, familiar in
circuit switching, would increase considerably the complexity of
the vacuum switch device used to energize large capacitor banks.
To reduce the rates. of change of voltage at the terminal trans-
former, a 1.75-AF protective capacitor was considered to be in-
stalled, line to ground, at the terminal of each of the three phases
of the terminal transformer. Fig. 15 displays the effects of this
capacitor-reduced voltage and rate of change of voltage at
terminal. A comparison of Fig. 15(a), where no protective
capacitor is used, with Fig. 15(b) and (c), where the protective
capacitor is present, will reveal its value in reducing internal
stresses in the terminal transformer. This expedient might be
further explored for cases now in existence that exhibitthe
phenomena reported here.
EFFECT OF DISTRIBUTED CIRCUITS FROM CAPACITOR Bus
All the studies above, both field and analog, have considered
compound service and radial feeder consisting of cables, adjacent
to the capacitor bus, that enter open lines to both the source and
to the load transformer. Of the three case studies, this combina-
tion proved the most severe for the terminal transformer. When
only cables were employed the terminal voltages were reduced
and the rate of change of voltage markedly reduced. This im-
provement was at the sacrifice of heavier duty on the energizing
switch. This, case approaches the severity of the back-to-back
Fig. 16 gives one example of this case.
switching requirements.
When the cables were replaced with open lines, the duty on
both the transformer and the switch were reduced. One such
sample is shown in Fig. 17. This example suffers from the
curacies associated with the lumped representation of tWhe inac-
open
line for the single-phase circuit involving two-phase capacitors.
1430 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS

100
50 50~Ei ~ .
A, 0E
- 50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED -50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
IN KV, PHASE -TO-PHASE IN KV, PHASE -TO-PHASE
oo CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE 1 CAPACITOR BUS -.
e
50t
o E m* v e,-5 0 E,T- V~OLT
hiCoVERYj_
I. VOLTAGE-- SFCAP.' EUS~
100
-50 -50
50 CABLE-LINE JUNCTION VOLTAGE o5o CABLE-LINE JUNCTION VOLTAGE
m -e50 ---
0EF,,
m e2
100
5030
-50
ISOUS - - 10uS-
TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.
e3
iO00
-100 Er -100 Em

2500 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT 2500 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT

zV 3
v Io _
0-'*0 ,.________--- _:_ _ (P

-1250 -1250
-2 50S -2500

m EC CAPACITOR VOLTAGE z E, CAPACITOR VOLTAGE

50 50

0 -0
VJATTAGE IN CLOSING RES.
W-2 E IIJidt WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES.
R = 1.0r
WAT T WATT
SECONDS 1250 SECONDS 1250
--

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT. RATEOF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT.

de,
C0 zm de3 10 ,

KV5i.i
V/ 250S
R 0E5001.0
C 0 j'D NOTE; MAGNITUDE IS KV/MICROSECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS
-. v RATE OF CHANGE RATE oF CHANGE

(a) (b)

VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS

100 100
eo o En-
- -50 0,Er n -.- --

-50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED - 50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED

IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE
loo CAPACITOR BUS ,00 EVOLTAGE
.50
CAPACITOR BUS_--.----
-
eA
.j_VOLTAG_E
o Er O-
-50 -50

150 CABLE-LINE JUNCTION 150 CABLE-LINE JUNCTION VOLTAGE

100 VOLTAGE in 100-
50 i
e2 e 0 E-.,
-50
100 us- I00DS-
TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN,. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.
3 Tr-:
-Z-e;,
0gi.....; ;;-
-100 En) -100 Er

2500 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT 2500 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT

V 1250 ,,,.'I. __ Y I o 1250 1il P -llb

1250 F REIGNITION
-
1250 REIGNITIINTIIIN
-2500 -2500

E EC CAPACITOR VOLTAGE m Ec CAPACITOR VOLTAGE_

50 50

VI WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES. V R(i%t WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES.

WATT
RJo ;R 1.OQ WATT
SECONDS 1250
Jo R= 1.0'
SECONDS 1250
o_ ---- -_

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT. RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.

de3 10

KV/MICROXECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS KV/MICROSECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS

RATE OF CHANGE
RATE OF CHANGE

(C) (d)
Fig. 12. Samples typical of 150 PACE computer runs simulating case of DW&P field test. (a) Traces of
normal closing; no interruption. (b) Same records allowing interruption at first current zero 'of low-
frequency transient current at P; no reignition. (c) Same as (b) but allowing reignition 125 us after interrup-
tion at P. (d) Same as (b) and (c) but allowing reignition 500 ,us after interruption at P.
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS 1431

FREQUENCY OSC
100I S INTERRUPTION I5
;
250, JS INTERRUPTION

FEUNp 15OpS- -

LOW Q/i lt
FRE~QUENCY OCC

e TRAPPED VOLTAGE ON
C 3~ IIOfls*j ~~~~~~~I -
CPACITOR

RECOVERY TRANSIENT
'1ll 1111
FOLLOWING INTER.AT P
_2 200 JS INTERRUPTION T 450 JS INTERRUPTION

_ 0 TO; ~ ~~
-, ~ P.
jeP- =
e3 ~ ~
1i PACE
COMPUTER
TRAPPED
3ON CAPACITOR7 VOLTAGEIM1,il111
REPRESENT-
ATION OF
IIPHENOMENA

UNDER fI150 S-.

1 15O0lS- STUDY
m1 50 )iS INTERRUPTiON 7T 750 ,US INTERRUPTION

~
0 ~ O T CURRENT,
IZERO
INT~ERVA L

Fig. 13. Load terminal voltage es and associated switch-closing

current Io for six interruption intervals, 100-750 ,us. Interruptions
at P; reignitions at Q.

TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.

I 130ooL I_e loo . -- ^ <:
0 --
-100E
VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
INKV,PHASE-TO-PHASE 2500 IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE
2500
CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT
_r?250
-1250
CLOSING
R = 15A
SWITCH CURRENT
p
I [I 250o
-1250 -
-2500 -2500
100 uS- 10O S-

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT. RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.

o 10 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ , ..

IIde3 -100 - --y NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS

I] -10 NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS
dl KV/MICROSECOND RATE OF CHANGE de3 KV/MICROSECOND RATE OF CHANGE

(a) (b)
Fig. 14. Subdued overvoltage occurring when 15-ohm resistor is introduced in series with closing switch.
(a) Interruption at P; no reclosure. (b) Interruption at P; reignition 150 ,s later at Q.

TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. VOLTAGE AT TRAN.

TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.
7~0o I e ,0ATERMINAL -
--------
-100 Em
-o0 E
-t00 En VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED IN KV, VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
SITCH,-Ns.
250PHASE-TO-PHASE III
250 Illl 2500 IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE
II
2500

E12
IN KG PHASE -TO -PHASE
5as, CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT 110250
____
,.CLOSING 7; ISWITHCURRENT --
JJ 501250 II... CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT
-1250 pJ JI -1250
-2500
-2500
lOoS5-.
-2500
100iS-
100 uS
RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.
-

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT 10 RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.

......
10
10
III -------~- _-_
NOTEIMAGNITGDE IS
II I ----- NOTE MAGNiTlUDE IS
de -10 de01
3-
de3-10
dt KV/MICROSECOND
NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS
RATE OF CHANGE.
dt3 KV/MICROSECOND
_d_t........................................ ........
RATE OFCHANGE
d-i KV/MICROSECOND RATE OF CHANGE

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 15. Protective value of 1.75-,F capacitor, line to ground per phase, at terminal transformer location.
(a) No terminal capacitor. (b) 1.75-M,F capacitor at transformer terminal; interruption at P; reignition at
Q. (c) Same as (b) but without interruptions; i.e., switch with no malperformance [cf. Fig. 12(a), trace
VIllI.
1432 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS

1 00
___
0
<
r- r
O0 0 --
-50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED - 50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED -50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
IN K V, PHASE -TO - PHASE IN KV, PHASE -TO- PHASE INKV, PHASE -TO - PHASE
CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE
00
e, O O lre 100 Et ,, - _,_ _ e, G0 j . ;---
-50 -50 -50
100 uS-
IS
cCABLE-CABLEJUNCTION VOLTAGE i5so CABLE-CAgLEs J UNiCTION VOLTAGE S50 CABLE-CABLE JUNCTION VOLTAGE
m loo
Nm5o t,
100

100
-so
e2
- 5o
TE-- , e 2 r0
-50
-

TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.

s-- e --0- - _-, --
- -, - - ----- - - ----- 57
e3
100 A- -
3 0 TE.
-100
To

-100 E. -100 E.

2500 p CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT 2500 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT 2500 ^CLOSING ..SWITCH CURRENT
Y U2 50 - G , 0\
- 1250 1250 -1250 P
-2500 -2500 -2500

E, CAPACITOR VOLTAGE z EC CAPACITOR VOLTAGE y E, CAPACITOR VOLTAGE

50 50
50 _-__ _-_ -__ --
0

TEa R t2RdtO'
jiI WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES. R (IUdt WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES. MI R(IOdt WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES.
WATT WATT
JOR- I.o'A IOdt
125 WATT _
SECONDS 5 SECONDS 1250
SECONDS 1250
_ 0- 0 --

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT. RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT. RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.
.de3 0 3 1D
di _E _dtt}-
'iS->
KV/MICROSECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS
RATE OF CHANGE
KV/MICROSECOND NOTE:MAGNITUDE IS KV/MICROSECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS
RATE OF CHANGE RATE OF CHANGE

(a) (b) (C)

Fig. 16. Evidence of reduction of overvoltage phenomena when supply and radial feeder are cable circuits
only (no overhead line sections). (a) Closure only; no interruptions. (b) Interruption at P; no reignition.
(c) Interruption at P; reignition at Q, 150 Ms later, showing lower transformer voltage but more intense
switch current on both closmg and reignition.

VOLTAGE OF SOUFCE BUS VOLTAGE OF SOURCE BUS

100
Iloo
500
5~-eO 5 Em -.-< O.
-50 VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED -VOLTAGES INDICATED ARE EXPRESSED
IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE IN KV, PHASE-TO-PHASE
100 CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE too CAPACITOR BUS VOLTAGE
e, 0 m
-50 -50
150 LINE-LINE JUNCTION VOLTAGE 150 LINE-LINE JUNCTION VOLTAGE
100
_ 100
50 + --- - ; .
e2 o07 !,\-
-50
-50

TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN. TERMINAL VOLTAGE AT TRAN.

e -, ---- e3 0
-100 Em, -100 E.

2500 IOOJS-- 2500 DONS-

i250 CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT y 1250o CLOSING SWITCH CURRENT
Io - -~- i-8--=
-1250
-2500 -200
1250 150,- 4
Ej EC CAPACITOR VOLTAGE s EN
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE
50 50

- 0-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
RfIdt WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES. PI dt WATTAGE IN CLOSING RES.
Jo0
VII
R - 1.0
WATT WATT
SECONDS 1050 SECONDS 1250

RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM.VOLT. RATE OF CHANGE OF TERM. VOLT.

de3 I0
dII 0
d 1-
KV/MICROSECOND NOTE: MAGNITUDE IS KVE/MICROSECODiD NOTE: M GNITUDE
R AT E OF C HAN GE
IS
RATE OF CHANGE

(a) ()

Fig. 17. Cables of Fig. 16 replaced with overhead lines-terminal voltages essentially same; voltage rates
of change increase; duty on closing switch reduced. (a) Single closure; no interruption. (b) Interruption at
P; closure at Q, 150 As later.
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
The short, highly damped phenomenon in trace II (el), and
trace V (Io) are questionable, and are perhaps the result of the
local circuit of lumped parameters in oscillation with the capaci-
tor bank being energized. More field studies of this case are war-
ranted to evaluate damping characteristics of the higher natural
frequency over open lines.
EFFECT OF SOURCE BUS IMPEDANCE
An examination of the computer graphs with particular ref-
erence to the voltage of the source bus, labeled eo and shown at
the top of Figs. 12, 16, and 17, reveals a large voltage dip as-
sociated with the energization of the 5400-kvar capacitor bank
some distance away. This comes about because the source bus is
considered as having small capacitance and is not reduced in
impedance by having many lines radiating from the bus. The
computer representation exhibited would be more accurate,
since the source bus was essentially a transformer terminal or a
bus of essentially high impedance compared with 12.1 uF per
phase. This fact will have an influence upon the nature of waves,
reflected at this bus, which return to the capacitor bank. Future
work should examine the effect of the impedance of the source
bus in relation to current zeros in the capacitor switch. In the
above light, the results presented here are believed to be slightly
pessimistic; however, any source bus ahead of lumped inductive
impedances is not likely to be large enough to avoid being con-
siderably influenced by 5400 kvar on one closing.
INTERRUPTIONS AT CURRENT ZEROS OF
HIGHER NATURAL FREQUENCY
During the computer study numerous current zeros were ob-
served early in the growth of the closing current. These were
caused by the high value of high-frequency current demanded by
the low surge impedance of the adjacent cables. These current
zeros were very evident during the field tests. Since the high-fre-
qi iency current uses the linearly rising low-natural-frequency cur-
rent as an axis, it is easy to show that early current zeros can exist
on the basis of no attenuation of either current, only up to a time
designated by the time 2L/Z, where L is the inductance per phase
of the source and Z is the surge impedance of each of the four
radiating conductors from the capacitor bus (Fig. 1). Should an
interruption occur on the last current zero up to a time 2L/Z,
then a current Em(L-L)/Z would have been established in the
source inductance, but reduced by the degree of attenuation or
damping of the high-frequency current. Should- this attenuation
be 50 percent up to this current zero, then a current of Em(IL)/
2Z would have been interrupted in the single phase, line-to-line
circuit of Fig. 1. This inductive current would then be required to
seek parallel paths through the terminal transformer, build up
voltages in the positive sequence capacitances remaining, or
seek eddy-current paths in the iron circuits associated with the
source, or all three, and in this manner establish a new natural
frequency capable of giving rise to some high overvoltages.
It was somewhat surprising to observe that when the PACE
computer was programmed to interrupt at one of the early cur-
rent zeros described above, some of the highest overvoltages were
encountered. 'rhis phenomenon is not unlike the high-frequency
pulsating of a dc circuit to create a current zero. It is also closely
allied to the work of Damstra [9], in which capacitance in
parallel with the nonlinear arc-voltage characteristics can pro-
duce ,agrowig-instability in a decaying current, which leads to a
premature current zero (heretofore called chopping). The phe-
nomenon described above occurs on the rising current and is
dictated by the circuit topology and switch characteristics. This
1433
subject requires more study with more highly refined computer
representation or instrumentation if the vacuum interrupter can-
not be cured of its eagerness to interrupt at all current zeros in
its arcing path.
MECHANICAL FORCES ON CLOSING CONTACTS
The extremely high calculated rate of rise of current of 1960
A/us (Appendix II) gives rise to a high rate of rise of wattage,
since this current must be drawn through the cathode and anode
drop of the vacuum switch. Since this arc drop increases with
current [121, it follows that, before the prestriking contacts can
close mechanically, there is a considerable release of energy
which could create forces in melting metal or ejecting electrons
that would encourage the contacts to retard their motion. In
this manner, more time would be created to permit interruption
at a current zero. The defined motion of the contacts under
conditions simulating actual field conditions should be required
procedure. Current measurements should be made with concen-
tric noninductive shunts.
WHISKER HYPOTHESIS OF INCREASING
PRESTRIKE DISTANCE
One unusual phenomenon sometimes occurring with certain
metals in a vacuum and exposed to electrostatic stress is the
growth of long, extremely small diameter crystalline filaments,
which rise normally to the contact surface. These have been
termed whiskers. These fine filaments are hardly visible to the
naked eye. Should a breaker closing upon a capacitor circuit en-
counter a whisker, it could easily increase the prestrike distance
and permit an interruption of the type described here without
the necessity of a reversal of the contact motion. This phe-
nomenon may account for the variation in performance observed
in the initial closing of vacuum switches that have been exposed
to open-circuit voltages for long periods, as compared to tests
made in relatively rapid succession.
CONCLUSIONS
Supplementing the conclusions presented after the description
of the field tests, the following are pertinent to this application.
1) Interruptions of current, no matter how small, during the
energization of large capacitor banks may be a hazard to ap-
pended equipment, and should be avoided through proper design
and application criteria.
2) Of the three circuits studied, the compound cable-line
feeder proved the most severe under the influence of the high-
frequency momentary interruptions during closing.
3) Two corrective measures to reduce stress on the terminal
transformer were effectively studied: a) the insertion of low-
ohmic-value closing resistors; or b) the use of small capacitors
shunting the terminal transformer. Both proved effective.
4) The higher voltage applications will experience longer pre-
ignition intervals and hence will have a greater probability of
having current zeros during the interval between preignition and
ultimate contact closing.
5) Some lightning arresters protecting terminal transformers
subjected to the high-energy surges reported are vulnerable to
damage or destruction.
APPEN3DIX I
LOWER NATURAL FREQUENCY
The lower of the two natural frequencies associated with the
energization of large capacitor banks is initiated with the in-
stantaneous collapse of the line or bus voltage to zero as the
1434 IEEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

switch is closed upon an uncharged capacitor. The manner LOWER NATURAL

FREQ. CURRENT, L,
RECOVERY VOLTAGE
OF BUS Following
which the bus-voltage change is oscillatory is the natural; Interruption X
See Eqs. (1)(4) a(5)
quency 1/(2,r\/LC), in which L is the source inductance; -1 TRAPPED
r VOLTAGE
phase and C is the capacitance per phase of the bank be 2E- It - A
RESTORATION VOTE
switched. The equation of the rms current, in the undam]ped ORIGINAL BUS VOLTAGE OF VLACO
VOLTAGE7 BUS ACROSS
form is See Eq.(6) SWITCH
Eo t Em / r60% VOLTAGE
V= L/csin L rms amperes. (1) BREAKER
INITIATES
CURRENT-
Axis of Voltage \
Oscillation
INTERRUPTION\ \

When L and C are expressed, respectively, in terms of k t=o t =V&e/I 20

and kvar, and substituted in (1) we have TIME t = 1TV

Fig. 18. Undamped initial current and voltage of lower natural

= Isc \/Ae sin rms amperes (2) frequency following closing upon unenergized capacitor with
interruption at the first current zero.
where
Ae = kvar/kVA (3) natural frequency as an axis. In this sense, the three are additive.
These relationships are displayed in great detail in [4] where the
and where I,, is the rms value of symmetrical short-circ-cuit
current at capacitor bank location, and co = 2rf = 377 for 610 r
exact equations of the circuit phenomena are described for the
lumped-circuit case.
Hz. When the vacuum interrupter permits the easy interruption
For example, when Ae = 0.04, representing a steady-sttate at the first current zero of the lower natural frequency, as pic-
voltage rise of 4 percent when the three-phase capacitor banlk is
closed upon the bus, then V/o.o4 = 0.2 and the above currLent
tured in Fig. 18, the maximum voltage is trapped upon the
will be 2/10 of the short circuit current at (60/0.2) or 300 1 Hnt capacitor which, in practice, approaches 2Em. Immediately, the
energizing circuit attempts to return to the voltage of the source
The initial rate of rise of current will be identical to that of the with a recovery oscillation, as shown, which is dependent upon
symmetrical short-circuit current, namely EOm/L amperes per the small capacitance of the source feeder or bus. This restoration
second, or di/dto = -V21sc amperes per second. or recovery voltage is shown in Fig. 18. The shaded area shows
When energizing an ungrounded capacitor bank, the clossing the manner in which the voltage now builds up across the "clos-
of the first pole yields no response since no power circuitt is ing contacts that have permitted the interruption. The text
formed. When the second pole is closed the maximum rms ccur- describes the events that follow the inevitable reignitioni of the
rent is capacitive circuit as a result of this risinig voltage across the
EL_L s t A/3 closing switch. The phenomenon is made more complex by the
V2L/ (C/2) V2L/ (C/2) 2 (4) traveling waves that radiate on the adjacent lines and cables
(described in Appendix II).
Here the current is 0.866, the single-phase case, but at the saame
frequency. APPENDIX II
Should the third pole close 90 or 4.17 ms later, the resultting HIGHER NATURAL FREQUENCY
additional current to be superimposed would be
The events that are possible on closing a three-pole switch
_ .5E,k t 5 upon an ungrounded, uncharged capacitor bank in a circuit com-
.____ ,- _--si
V1.5L/(C/1.5) prising lines and cables, as well as random interruptions during
33 sin =

1. 5L (C/1.5)
This current is 15 percent higher than the second pole closiing,
which is the magnitude of the single-phase case of (1) and has the
same natural frequency.
The restoration voltage that accompanies the above curreent,
in each case, has the general form
Em (1 - cos <) = Em(I - cos
This voltage rises from zero to 2Em in a time 7rV/LC or V Ae/
120 seconds, and occurs at the moment of the first current zerco of
the associated transient currents shown above in (1), (4) and (5).
( connected cables. These voltage waves have the form
It follows that should these currents be interrupted at the fi
current zeros, then the capacitors would trap a charge approa
ing twice the crest of the associated voltage.
This is what has occurred in the cases reported in the pa
when the contacts of the vacuum switch permitted an interr
tion to occur at the first current zero of the lower frequency
cillation. These conditions are described in Fig. 18.
Just as the lower natural-frequency currents and volta
oscillate about the 60-Hz current and voltage as an axis, so
high-natural-frequency phenomena (Appendix II) use the lo)
closing, are so numerous that it is necessary to reduce our con-
sideration here to the simplest case. Consider the schematic dia-
grams of Figs. 1 and 6 in which the three-phase ungrounded bank
is located in a radial cable-line feeder as shown. We shall, at this
time, neglect the closing of the third phase and be concerned
only with the chronological events that take place in the micro-
seconds following the closing of the second pole, the first pole
(6) having already closed.
At this moment of energization the voltage between the two
phases collapses to zero, permitting voltage waves, having a mag-
nitude of Em(L-L)/2, to radiate from the capacitor on all four
Ee=
Em(LL)
m -2t/CZi (7)
2
where C is the capacitance in microfarads per phase, Z, the surge
impedance of each of the four cables, and t is time in micro-
seconds. Each voltage wave is accompanied by a current wave
of the form
Em(LL) - 2t/CZi (8)
2Z1
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENkERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
As a result, the switch current is twice the wave current of (8).
It is also important to note that the actual current from two of
the cables flows into the capacitors while the same total current
flows out into the other two cables as directed by the polarity of
the voltage.
In the 34.5-kV system of DW&P, where the surge impedance
of each cable is 30 ohms, the switch current initially is 1660 am-
peres, while each wave current initially is 830 amperes. The cor-
responding wave voltage is initially 30 X 830 or 24 900 volts,
which is half the crest value of 34.5 kV.
When we consider the action of the current and voltage of a
particular cable when the wave encounters a line of surge im-
pedance Z2, the majority of the current reflects negatively with
respect to the incident wave and has a magnitude and shape
i Lz1iz i (9)
When the four cables of Fig. 1 have the same length, the waves
return to the capacitor bank simultaneously. As a result, the
wave currents permit a complete reversal of the switch current,
which in turn creates the first current zero in the closing switch.
Reflected current waves of opposite polarity to the original out-
going waves are again dispatched into the outgoing cable cir-
cuits where they reflect again from the cable-line junction [see
(2)] with opposite polarity and return to the capacitor to com-
plete the cycle and the second current zero in the closing switch.
These multiple current wave reflections on the cables create
what is here termed the high-frequency-closing transient current.
The frequency of this initial cable oscillation in the case of
DW&P, where the cable lengths are about 800 feet, is about 188
kHz. The origin of this current rises to its first crest of 1660
amperes at about 1960 amperes per microsecond for the case
depicted in Fig. 1.
In the meantime, the initial voltage wave that passed the
cable-line junction entered the line with an amplified value of
L2Z21
-2
= , +z el. (10)
[Z1 + Z2]_0
When this voltage wave arrives at the transformer terminal at
the end of the line, the wave will essentially double and reflect
back to the cable-line junction. Since the surge impedance of the
cable is so small with respect to the line, the majority of the re-
flected voltage wave that arrives at the junction will again re-
flect back to the line. These multiple reflections create what is
here termed the higher natural frequency. The period of this
frequency is 4 times the wave travel time of the line.
When the cable surge impedance Z, is 30 ohms, and the line
surge impedance Z2 is 300 ohms, then e2 = 1.82el. This wave at
the transformer terminal is 3.64e1.
But, the cable and line were initially at the potential el and
opposite to the polarity of the arriving wave. Hence, the line-to-
ground potential at the transformer bushing is only 2.64el. The
value of e1 in the DW&P case was 25 000 volts. Hence, in the
normal closing of the capacitor, the first peak voltage to ground
is 66 kV at transformer bushing.
It is important to note, however, that the bushing of the other
phase involved in the initial closing will, simultaneously, ex-
perience the same voltage, but at opposite polarity. Hence, the
A winding of the transformer will have 132 kY across the wind-
ing. The steepness of the above waves differs from shear vertical
fronts only by the wave sloping action due to line losses and the
capacitances of insulators, the bushing, and the impact capaci-
tance of the transformer winding. As these waves move toward
1435
each other within the transformer, the potential to ground is re-
duced at the expense of placing a squeeze upon the internal coil
and turn insulation within the transformer. The PACE computer
results, reported in the text, measured the magnitude of the rate
of change of voltage at the tranisformer terminal under the condi-
tions of the circuit simulation.
The above description is normal for the case of a cable-line
radial feeder terminated with a transformer. When a vacuum
switch permits an interruption at one of the current zeros as-
sociated with the lower natural frequency described in Appendix
I, demonstrated in the field study, and duplicated in the analog
study, it becomes apparent from Fig. 18 that a reignition (fol-
lowing an interruption) can occur when the phase capacitors
have been elevated to essentially twice the crest of the line-to-
line voltage and when the cable-line circuit is essentially at zero
voltage. As a result, the voltage waves radiating to the trans-
former terminal are twice as large as described above, resulting in
3.64 X 50 000 or 182 kV to ground at the transformer bushing.
Here, there is little or no reduction due to the original voltage on
the line, since the recovery voltage of the system has been lowered
to essentially zero following the interruption. It is at this point of
maximum voltage separation from the trapped capacitor voltage
that reignition is assured. Under these conditions, 364 kV could
appear across one A winding and at a rate of rise that would es-
sentially double the former case.
From the above analysis, it is easy to account for the flashing
of the bushing gap since 182 kV is 6.2 times the normal line-to-
ground crest.
This "high-speed" study of the events which can occur in the
first two milliseconds following the closing of the second pole, in-
cluding an interruption and a reignition at the most unfavorable
moment, is clearly on the pessimistic side of probable occurrences.
On the other hand, further complications associated with the
third pole closing can yield still higher voltages which are not
presented here.
The high rate of rise of switch current through the 30-volt arc
drop of the vacuum switch develops an energy release that per-
sists until the contacts are closed. Any tendency for this energy to
slow the closing contact will increase this energy to the detriment
of the contact life.
REFERENCES
[1] J. F. Peters and J. Slepian, "Voltages induced by arcing
grounds," AIEE Trans., vol. 42, pp. 478-493, April 1923.
[2] R. D.transients
Evans, A. C. Monteith, and R. L. Witzke, "Power-sys-
caused by switching and faults," AIEE Trans.,
tem
vol. 58, pp. 386-397, August 1939.
[3] A. Klopfenstein, E. York, and J. W. Kalb, "Effect of preceding
bias voltage on switching surge operation of spill gaps and
lightning arresters," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and
Systems), vol. 81, pp. 320-331, August 1962.
[4j E. W. Boehne, "EHV surge suppression of interrupting light
currents with air switches-I: capacitive currents," IEEE
Trans. Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-84, pp. 906-
923, October 1965.
[5] T. W. Schroeder, E. W. Boehne, and J. W. Butler, "Tests and
analysis of circuit-breaker performance when switching large
capacitor banks," AIEE Trans., vol. 61, pp. 821-831, November
1942.
[6] E. W. Boehne, "Traveling wave protection problems-I: a
graphical analysis with special application to the switching of
lines and cables," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and Sys-
tems), vol. 73, pp. 920-928, August 1954.
[7] ,"Traveling wave protection problems-II," AIEE Trans.
(Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 74, pp. 880-887, October
1955.
[8] J. E. Knudsen, "Measurements oftransformer capacity-current
switching overvoltages andvol.a resulting failure,"
Ingenioren (Internatl. ed.), 2, 4,
no. November 1958.
[9] G. C. Damstra, "Current chopping overvoltages relation
and in
to system parameters," CIGRE, Paper 120, 1964.
 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969
1436
[10] R. Rudenberg, Transient Performance of Electric Power I also recall conducting some tests with an oil circuit breaker in
Systems. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. which the pre-arcing at "make" of a capacitive circuit produced ex-
[11] - , Electrical Shock Waves in Power Systems. Cambridge, cessive overvoltages on the supply transformer. These conditions
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968. were actually worse than the breaking of the capacitor load.
[12] T. H. Lee, D. R. Kurtz, and J. W. Porter, "Vacuum arcs and This is of particular importance today with the trend toward un-
vacuum circuit interrupters," CIGRE, Paper 121, 1966.
[131 H. C. Ross, "Switching in high-vacuum environment," IEEE derground distribution coupled with the use of the vacuum inter-
Trans. Component Parts, vol. CP-10, pp. 155-169, December rupters.
1963.
[14] L. V. Bewley, Traveling Waves on Transmission Systems. New
York: Wiley, 1933.
[15] E. W. Boehne, "Voltage oscillations in armature windings
under lightning-I1nDn
impulses-I," AIEE Trans., vol. 49, pp. 1587-
1u1uo,
toir
uctober 11-430.
9

Lennart Ahlgren and Lars Hansson (Swedish State Power Board,

Vallingby, Sweden): It is a very interesting and unexpected problem
that the authors have described in their excellent report. In some re-
spects it resembles certain phenomena -encountered in- Sweden-on
switching out unloaded lines with restrikiigT-breakers. Then fre-
quent restrikes and interruptions occurred with a time interval of
Discussion 10-100 us. Up to six such restrikes have been recorded with a cathode-
ray oscilloscope before the final interruption. The frequency of the
transient after the restrike was 50 kHz. On one occasion the input
A. Semlyen (Polytechnic Institute of Timioara, Timioar'a,' Rut- coils of a transformer were damaged. The test is briefly described in
mania): When a capacitive arc current of power or natural frequeiicy CIGRE Rept. 101, 1960.
is interrupted upon passing through zero, important voltages may be As a remedy the authors suggest connection of capacitors to the
trapped on the capacitor. Still greater voltages may be eaused by transformer terminals in addition to the spark gaps. In Sweden we
subsequent reignitions. They are known to occur during deenergiza- always use lightning arresters instead of spark gaps as transformer
tion of capacitors and with arcing grounds, which seems paradoxical protection. In conclusion 5), however, it is said that lightning ar-
because in these cases a capacitor is overloaded just when the capaci- resters will not withstand the high-energy surges reported in the
tive circuit should be interrupted. It is a significant merit of the paper. A rough calculation proves that a modern magnetic type of
authors that they have identified these phenomena sof overvoltage arrester can handle the discharge of a 5400-kvar capacitor at 100-kV
generation during the prestrike arc of capacitive energization, when crest; that is, the estimated sparkover voltage of the arrester.
their occurrence is not expected. We are aware that- the rate of change of the voltage across the
Becauseas thecharging of'l'arge capacitors is rather slow, it is pos- transformer terminals might be so great that the input coils could be
sible to separate superimposed oscillations determined by other damaged even if the voltage to ground were not dangerously high.
circuit components. These will occur'in many cases, but severe over- In spite of that, we think it would be very interesting if the authors
voltages will be encountered only with an interrupter such as used by would comment on the possibility of using magnetic-type lightning
the authors-one so powerful that it will interrupt at a current zero arresters as transformer protection for this phenomenon.
even during the closing stroke in its arcing phase. It is again interest- On the market today there is at least one vacuum circuit breaker
ing to note that such interrupters will not produce overvoltages dur- with two interrupter heads for 132 kV. Is there reason to believe that
ing deenergization. energizing long lines and rapid autoreclosing operations with such
Dr. Boehne has described previously [4] similar high-frequency breakers would give rise to similar high-frequency overvoltages?
oscillations. The resultant voltage does not occur on the main ca- Of course the best way would be to get rid of the source of the
pacitor, but on the end of a ramification, or on the small equivalent overvoltages instead of protecting different kinds of equpment
capacitor, and it may easily exceed the'double-of-thesource voltage. against, them. Are there any signs today of improvements of the
This points 6out a very clear way of- explai se cases of over-- vacuum-- interrupter, apart from the already mentioned closing re
voltages encountered during energization. sstor, that would eliminate the described phenomenon once and for
The paper is very rich in-ilfustrative- material,, which demon- all?
strates first, the importance of the problem, and second; the 'cor-
rectness of the explanations. Therefore, my conviction is that this
paper is of great practical and academic importance, and I express Manuscript received March 6, 1969.
my appreciation for this valuable contribution to the problem of
overvoltages and their suppression.

Manuscript received February 7, 1969.

Donald F. Amer (Reyrolle-Parsons Ltd., Hebburn, Durham County,
England): The possibilities of producing overvoltages during circuit
making, particularly at relatively small currents where arc in-
stability can occur, have been reported on previous occasions. The
emphasis is clearly changing where vacuum-interrupting devices are
concerned.
I recall discussing these matters -with- -Dr. Wlheim, 4 ,England.
many years ago. In a particular case an airblast circuit breaker flashed
over between the contacts on making and cleared before the contacts
were engaged. The arc instability produced repeated interruptions
and restrikes before the contacts were in full engagement. This pro-
duced excessive voltages across the reactor equipment.
J. Ehlert Knudsen (The North Zealand Electricity and Tramway
Company, Ltd., Copenhagen, Denmark): The authors refer to a
paper I wrote in 1958 [8], in whieh-a transformer failure very much
similar to the ,one in Fig. 4 -is reported. Although the.mechanism
causing a sudden and- severe voltage reversa-l at. the'-transformer
terminals is entirely- different in the two cases, there is a striking
similarity between the methods of analysis.
In our case a low-oil-volume circuit breaker suffered repeated re-
strikes during the breaking of a long 132-kY unloaded cable. Oscil-
lograms taken of the phenomena (which occurred during a series of
no-load breaking tests) show a very steep -voltage jump..across the
breaker contacts just before the last restrike preceding the final
breaking.
Traveling wave analysis of the conditions following a restrike and
taking into consideration the actual busbar and transformer impe-
dances and the traveling times of reflected and refracted waves indi-
cated higfher natural frequencies of the order of 500 kHz. In [8] the
possibilities of a breaker interruption during this very-high-fre-

Manuscript received June 2, 1969. vManuscript received Februtary 11, 1969.

BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS 1437

quency oscillation are postulated and demonstrated by a graphical

analysis of the traveling wave currents through the breaker during
the very-high-frequency oscillations.
In Appendix II I find this possibility rendered more probable by
the almost identical analysis-giving in the DW&P case a higher
frequency of 188 kHz with numerous higher natural-frequency
current zeros. In both cases-however different the breakers are-
these interruptions of the very-high-frequency oscillations may give
rise to very steep-fronted waves entering nearby transformers and
damaging the windings in an almost identical way, which might be
seen by comparison between Fig. 4 and [8, Fig. 14]. In our case re-
strike-free breakers were installed at the critical points in the sys-
tem, and we have not experienced further cases of this highly unde-
sirable phenomenon.
I find the present paper extremely interesting in the attention it
draws to the problems connected with preignitions in breakers-
especially vacuum interrupters-when these are used to energize Fig. 19. Reactors, in series with capacitor
capacitor banks. An increasing number of these capacitors are being phases, of 0.2 mH.
installed in the power system, and every measure should be taken to
avoid undesirable secondary effects connected to their (normally
daily) operation. The paper adds a valuable contribution in this
respect.

Karl Lerstrup (A/S Laur. Knudsen, Haraldsgade 53, Copenhagen,

Denmark): These investigations present very strong evidence
through the close agreement between field test, theoretical investi-
gation, and analog computer demonstration. The main lesson to be
extracted may well be the conclusion that the customary distinction
between single-capacitor switching and back-to-back switching may
have to be abandoned; that is, all cases of capacitor switching have
to be treated as back-to-back switching.
It is true that this condition can be dealt with through the expedi-
ency of resistor switching, as suggested by the authors, but it is
equally true that this is a most undesirable complication. However,
it is also possible to get excellent results if the resistor is replaced by a
reactor, and this reactor may readily be so dimensioned that it can
be left in the circuit, and this greatly simplifies the arrangement
(Fig. 19). Such a reactor will delay the collapse of the voltage and
thus alleviate the ill effects of the traveling waves on the line, as well
as the fast transients caused by a back-to-back switching. Fig. 20. Oil-poor circuit breaker used to
Returning to the hardware of the investigated problem, the switch 18 Mvar at 66 kV.
vacuum switch, it does not appear likely that the phenomenon de-
scribed can be caused by a prestrike. Assuming a closing speed of
only one meter per second, the travel between the first prestrike and to the case reported. Permanently connected reactors of 0.2 mH are
the reignition after current zero should be in the order of one milli- used (Fig. 19) to alleviate the sudden collapse of voltage, and for con-
meter, which again would lead to the conclusion that a vacuum venience they are placed on top of the potential transformers serving
switch with no previous ionization should prestrike over more than to discharge the bank. It is not without significance that circuit
one millimeter at a voltage of only 25-kV peak. This does not seem breakers used for capacitor duty retain their rated breaking capacity
reasonable. (in this case, 2500 MVA) and thus provide full short-circuit protec-
Looking at Fig. 11, it strikes me that the initial disturbance, last- tion in addition to the capacitor switching duty.
ing about 0.1 ms (or 0.1 mm of travel) could be caused by a prestrike.
Then follows a -steady period lasting until, around 0.5 ms later, the
contacts bounce off, creating an arc. This arc continues until the
first current zero, extinguishes, and reignites on the transient re-
covery voltage, and then finally the contacts come to rest. However,
irrespective of the mechanical explanation, the electrical results re-
main the same.
From another point of view this paper is most interesting in that it
shows an interest in the use of a relatively untried device as a vacuum G. Catenacci (CESI-Centro Elettrotecnico Sperimentale Italiano,
switch for capacitor switching, justified solely by its restrike-free Milan, Italy): I was very interested to read this paper, which reports
operation. on a kind of overvoltage phenomenon which, even if it is not entirely
In the meantime the development of the oil circuit breaker has new, is now of much higher importance than in the past due to the
progressed significantly, and today it is possible to switch capacitor specific properties of such new switching devices as vacuum switches.
banks restrike free with up to 70 kV rms across a single break of an In effect, phenomena such as the interruption of high-frequency-
oil circuit breaker. For more than two years such oil circuit-breakers making currents during the prestrike stroke of the contacts of other
(Fig. 20) have been in service, with daily switching of capacitor kind of circuit breakers, for example small oil volume circuit break-
banks (both singly and back to back) rated 18 Mvar each and on 66 ers, have been observed only very rarely during no-load line energiza-
kV. That is three times the.power and double the voltage compared tion tests carried out by CESI in the field.

Manuscript received February 11, 1969. Maiiiiscript received February 3, 1969.

 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

I shall be grateful to the authors for clarification of some points.

1) In the section Analog Computer Study it is said that the dis-
tributed circuits were simulated with ,r and T sections on the PACE
computer. How many sections were used for each cable and line
section?
2) In the section Effect of Distributed Circuits from Capacitor Bus C~~~C: Vacumm Interrupter

T Coxial Shunt
it is stated that when only cables were employed there is a heavier
duty on the energizing switch. Can the authors explain to me the (a)
reason for this? In effect it seems to me that a piece of overhead line
connected at the end of the cable should not change the value of the
peak current through the switch, as I can see also from Figs. 12-17.
3) Have the authors attempted to ascertain whether a small in-
ductance coil permanently connected between the capacitor bank
and the switch can help in reducing both the duty of the switch and
II9
the overvoltages in the system at a reasonable cost? This coil is
beneficial also for the case of back-to-back capacitors switching.
I thank the authors in advance for their reply, and I congratulate (b)
them for their very fine work.
Fig. 21. Circuits for studying reignitions in vacuum interrupters.
(a) Single-frequency currents. (b) Double-frequency currents.

Allan Greenwood (Consulting Engineer, General Electric Company, (a)

Philadelphia, Pa.): The obvious care the authors have taken in pre-
paring this paper, and especially the high quality of the oseillographic
records, is very impressive. It is a credit to our TRANSACTIONS and (b)
deserves our sincere commendations.
The basic phenomenon the authors describe-the interruption of
current at a high-frequency current zero with the consequent trap-
ping of charge-is not unfamiliar to people in the switchgear and Fig. 22. High-frequency currents following ignition of vacuum
circuit breaker business. What will come as a surprise to some readers switch. Time 200 Ms/div. (a) Current 1350 A/div. (b) Voltage
is that this can take place in that short interval during closing, be- 20 kV/ div.
tween the initial prestrike and the mechanical mating of the con-
tacts. But this too we have observed. Indeed, several prestrikes and
reignitions can occur if the circuit conditions are propitious. Although
this phenomenon is not confined to vacuum, one would expect this
tendency with the vacuum interrupter because it is such an excellent
interrupting device or, as the authors put it, a "powerful" interrupter.
Our experience, however, differs from the authors' in that, al- (a:
though we have had in service for a considerable time a number of
installations in which capacitor banks are regularly energized by
vacuum circuit breakers, to our knowledge no serious overvoltage
problems have been attributed to this cause. This prompts the ques- (b)
tion of whether there is something different about the specific appli-
cation described by the authors.
Before discussing this point I would like to describe briefly an
exhaustive investigation we conducted some time ago to study this Fig. 23. High-frequency currents following ignition of vacuum
phenomenon in a general way. The results obtained are not restricted switch. Current 20 000 A/div. (a) Time 200 0s/div. (b) Time
to a particular application, but are quite broad in their relevance. 1 ms./div.
A vacuum interrupter was set up with a small but adjustable gap
between its contacts (in the 0-0.060-inch range). It was located as
shown in one or other of the circuits of Fig. 21. As the voltage was
raised, a point was reached at which the gap broke down, much as
the switch prestruck in the paper. The capacitor(s) then discharged,
giving rise to high-frequency currents. These were single frequency (EI
I"N,
[Fig. 21(a)] or double frequency (Fig. 21(b)]. The current amplitude
and its frequency could be controlled by the choice of the L and 1OQCr
4.o/ "ITY!
/
C of the circuit. A coaxial shunt with negligible inductance was used Tlli l--
to measure the current. r -4
As one might expect, it was found that the ability of the switch to
clear depended upon the frequency and the amplitude of the high-
11, -H f
frequency current, the higher the frequency and the greater the cur-
I I_/.
rent, the less likely was the switch to interrupt. Once interruption was . ,
X X,
ioc /_"
achieved, the circuit would recharge, another breakdown would occur
in the switch and the cycle would repeat. This is illustrated in Fig. 22,
which shows that this interrupter does not clear a 35-kHz current un- I

til its amplitude has "rung down" to a very low level, at which time,
as indicated, the trapped voltage is negligible.
Similar tests were conducted with several interrupters in series. I

An oscillogram from such a test is shown in Fig. 23. The upper trace L fOL 1O0L IOOQ L
lrlAUctfAr.c
Manuscript received February 14, 1969.
Fig. 24. High-frequency currents cleared by vacuum interrupter
at given voltage; no interruptions in barred area.
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS
is a replica of part of the lower trace with an expanded time scale.
This test was conducted on a two-frequency circuit. It shows that the
switches would not interrupt 12.5 kHz with the current shown, but
did clear 300 Hz at the first current zero.
Several thousand pieces of test data were collected in this way.
Different contact materials were investigated and for some of the
tests part of the circuit was changed to an artificial line to simulate
the effects of a cable. Presenting such data in a meaningful way be-
comes quite a problem. The method shown in Fig. 24 was chosen.
This chart has logarithmic scales of inductance and capacitance for
ordinate and abscissa, so that lines inclined at 450 are lines of con-
stant surge impedance (the quotient of L and C is constant), whereas
lines inclined at 1350 are lines of constant frequency (the product of
L and C is constant). From the experimental data an area can be
blocked out on such a chart: the shaded area in Fig. 24, for which the
switch will not interrupt either because the current is too high (as
determined by the surge impedance) or because the frequency is too
high.
From the experience gained by these tests I would say that the
problem described by the authors arose as a consequence of some or
perhaps all of the following contributing factors:
1) closing speed too slow,
2) the bouncing of the contacts,
3) inadequate synchronizing of the closing of the three poles and
the two interrupters of a single pole,
4) the kind of material used for the switch contacts,
5) the amplifying effect of the particular circuit layout.
From the oscillograms inl the paper it is evident that the frequency
of the current being interrupted is about 470 Hz, and that there were
a number of opportunities to clear. This indicates slow closing of the
switch. On the other hand, it is our experience that closing at 2.5
ft/s, which is not inconsistent with essentially bounce-free operation
with the correct contact material and mechanisms design, an 800-
1200 As prestrike is typical. This scarcely allows time for interruption
of frequencies on this order. Moreover, if such an event would occur
the contacts are by then so close together as to be unable to support
a significant voltage thereafter.
Were the contacts in the devices described made from a primarily
refractory material? The propensity of such materials to recover
rapidly a very high dielectric strength, after "whiskers" or other sur-
face exerescences have been removed, is well known. This is one of the
reasons that such materials are rarely used nowadays for vacuum
circuit breaker contacts.
I feel certain that 5) above was an important contributor to the
unfortunate events described. Perhaps the incident would never have
occurred but for the circuit configuration. The authors point out
that any disturbance created at the switch is amplified by the surge
impedance transitions, cable-line-transformer. Such a voltage will be
of short duration because it is quickly modified by further reflec-
tions from the cable-line junction and the capacitor bank itself.
Also, the steepness of the surge at the transformer is probably not as
great as the authors fear. If the surge impedance of the line is 400
ohms and the capacitance at the transformer location is 5000 pF,
the time constant for the rising voltage is 2 As. The fact that damage
occurred suggests voltage magnitude or repetition, rather than rate
per second. As the authors suggest, the expedient of a small surge
capacitor would radically change conditions at the transformer.
The use of resistors to damp the transients is always a solution,
but again, as a consequence of our experience, we question the need
of such an elaboration. Traditionally, reactors have been used with oil
switches, especially for bank-to-bank capacitor switching. This is be-
cause in an oil switch the excessive inrush current flowing through a
prestrike arc represents a potentially explosive situation. This condi-
tion does not apply with vacuum. Indeed, reactors should be used
with caution, for they may reduce the magnitude and frequency of
the high-frequency current components that are not presently inter-
rupted to a level at which interruption can occur.
On the matter of bank-to-bank switching, it would seem that the
phenomenon described would be still less a problem in that the
blocks of capacitance being switched are usually of comparable size.
Thus when they are connected together, they exchange charge by
both momentarily reversing polarity. The voltage excursions are
thus diminished and the chance of voltage escalation is greatly
reduced.
1439
Hugh C. Ross (Ross Engineering Corporation, Saratoga, Calif.):
Although this paper treats a rather isolated case of trouble with a
number of questionable assumptions, it does touch on several basic
studies and facts of interest.
With experience from the large number of similar installations
that have been operating essentially trouble free since as far back as
1955, and literally millions of large and small capacitor bank close-
open operations, it does not appear that the excitement we sense here
is as serious as the paper describes it.
The paper does contain an excellent recommendation for the solu-
tion of this possible problem, which could occur under the right
conditions with a particular type of vacuum contacts. The use of in-
rush-limiting resistors on the interrupter, or in some cases small
shunt capacitors at the load in question, has proven satisfactory when
the economics and probabilities can justify them.
Most experienced vacuum switch manufacturers have used re-
sistive insertion devices as a routine part of some of their installa-
tions where there is a question of contact life or of inrush oscillations
and resonances creating overvoltages on closing in with or without
prestrike reignitions.
From tests on other types of breakers, including oil breakers where
resistors were not used, we have seen this same prestrike oscillation
phenomenon, therefore the paper's claim that vacuum interrupters
are unique in having prestrike reignition characteristics is not valid.
The inrush current through closing contacts is certainly severe and
the resistors are also helpful to contact life. But the suggestion that
arc vapor pressure itself tends to force the contacts apart does not
appear valid in our experience up to 20 000 amperes nns, 60 Hz, and
over 500 000 amperes of high-energy storage capacitor discharge.
Vapor expansion from the small amount created has not been found
sufficient to raise internal pressures enough to overcome normal clos-
ing forces significantly.
Magnetic forces from high currents appear to create the major
problems along this line and can generally be compensated.
With high closing currents, contact losses certainly are higher due
to increases in arc energy and resultant temperatures, localized cur-
rent spots, and erosion from the resultant EI and coulomb values.
However, during preignition on closing, generally beginning in the
order of 0.010-0.030 inch (100-1000 ,us) before touching, the arc
voltage usually remains on the lower to moderate plateaus as as-
sociated with a very close contact spacing [13].
It should be noted that the particular vacuum interrupter de-
scribed (not of our manufacture) has contacts of a sintered pure re-
fractory metal. Many types of vacuum contact materials do not
have nearly as much tendency as these pure refractory metals to in-
terrupt at the close spacings where the prestrike is initiated or bounce
occurs. There has been some tendency to conclude that excessively
high recovery rate and the prestrike or preignition interruption is
inherent and may not be modified in the vacuum contact, however
the controlled recovery characteristics of the new alloys show this
conclusion would be invalid. The proper contact alloy with controlled
impurity (gaseous or high vapor pressure solid) can modify or mini-
mize current chopping, and slow recovery characteristics for both pre-
ignition and interruption at close spacings even better than adjusting
closing or opening rates. Most vacuum contact manufactuLrers now
use these new minimum current chopping alloys for power interrup-
tions.
Some of these new alloys also have less tendency for rough sur-
faces, pits, and points to develop during high-current closing. The
so-called whiskers occasionally associated with improperly processed
sintered-type refractory metals such as molybdenum and tungsten
were often found to be occluded gas molecule buildups from the
strong "gettering" action of these particular metals, as well as crystal
growth. Properly sintered and degassed units rarely exhibited these
characteristics, and newer alloys appear to be consideraly superior in
these respects.
In reference to higher voltage circuit breakers conclusion 4) is in-
valid since at higher voltages more contacts are used in series with no
greater voltage stress per contact, and therefore the preignition dis-
tance is not increased. With proper closing speeds, the higher ap-
plications do not therefore have longer preignition intervals and do
not have greater probability of current zeros. In fact there may be
less preignition time since the voltage stress per contact is usually
Manuscript received January 29, 1969.
1440 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER
less than in single contacts. There is more probability of bounce since
there are more contacts, however with the proper alloys, and proper
mechanism to minimize bounce, it should be insignificant.
A major value of this paper is that it represents another recom-
mendation for "softer" closing characteristics for certain types of
high loads of capacitance and inductance capable of creating high
in-rush currents or ringing possibilities. Also the low energy but sharp
spike transient suppressing benefits gained by placing small shunt
capacitors across the transient source and/or across the unit to be
protected is reinforced by the suggestion in this paper. This method of
transient suppression has proved invaluable for many types of appli-
cations connected with high-speed interruption.
The authors are to be commended for a considerable amount of
thought and applied theoretical analyses of problems possible under
certain conditions, combined with actual field tests, and determining
the possible reasons for this particular transformer failure. In the
past, actual field test and life experience has shown many of the
theoretical problems originally attributed to the vacuum interrupter
to be nullified by other effects, or to be either insignificant or easily
remedied for the general application.
H. M. Pflanz (Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, Boston,
Mass.): The authors have attempted to isolate and analyze cause and
response of prestriking phenomena on connecting a capacitor bank
to a system. Although the basic phenomenon of prestriking is not
new and has evidently been experienced with circuit switching means
[161, [17] before the advent of vacuum switches, rarely before has a
publication taught us so much detail.
The section Corrective Measures is important to the application
engineer. I agree that it is unfortunate that surge-suppressing switch-
ing resistors cannot be integrated economically in vacuum switches.
However, it is a consolation that protective parallel capacitors have
been shown by the computer study to reduce rates of change of volt-
age at the transformer terminal to acceptable values. This very same
remedy has proven itself in many arc furnace switching applications
with vacuum switches [18].
Other remedial means of lessening the effects of interruption and
reignition during the prestrike period of the circuit switching ap-
paratus should be realized from a study of the interaction of the dis-
charge path and the inherent circuit elements in the immediate
vicinity of the switching device. More specifically, recent work on
chopping [19]-[21] suggests other "excitable" circuit elements and
the discharge itself, in addition to the current-zero-producing phe-
nomena and instability oscillations stated by the authors, all of
which can produce current zeroes through the discharge path. Fre-
quencies up to the megahertz region were observed in this study with
oil breakers, air blast breakers, and load break switches. From in-
stability and high-frequency-current oscillations, arc time constants
of the core of the residual arc column of these three switching means
for low-current conditions were estimated as having the order of
magnitude 0.1, 1.0, and 10 us, respectively. It is very doubtful that
the time constant of the vacuum arc will be much different. Con-
versely, similar high-frequency-current-zero-producing phenomena
should exist near any current zero of relatively low-frequency current
oscillations flowing through a vacuum discharge. This suggests, first,
that any switching device could produce the observed phenomena.
The vacuum switch is therefore circumstantial in the study. Second,
it could explain the disturbance of the voltage across the vacuum
switch, which the authors mentioned. Unfortunately, they have not
resolved it in time. The earlier cited work suggests that this "distur-
bance" can be influenced byparallel capacitances. Caution must there-
fore be exercised with capacitive voltage dividers which may induce
just that kind of interruptions during the prestriking period the
authors reported. On the other hand, capacitances to ground and/or
parallel capacitances properly dimensioned could also be the elements
that help to keep the discharge alive during the prestrike period till
the contacts of the switch engage. This is of interest because it sug-
gests another area of unexplored remedial action to the interruption
during the prestrike period.
AIJanuscript received February 17, 1969.
1969
Finally, I want to congratulate the authors with their masterly
work and would like to urge them to further investigate the interac-
tion of circuit and discharge.
REFERENCES
[16] R. C. van Sickle, "Influence of resistance on switching tran-
sients," AIEE Trans., vol. 58, pp. 397-404, August 1939.
[17] P. Baltensperger, "Switching high-voltage capacitors with air
blast circuit breakers," Brown Boveri Rev., vol. 8, p. 1, 1956.
[181 E. P. Butz, "A revolution in are furnace switchgear," Steel
Foundry Facts, p. 12, December 1963.
[19] W. M. C. van den Heuvel, "Interruption of small inductive
currents in ac circuits," thesis, University of Eindhoven,
The Netherlands, 1966.
[201 W. M. C. van den Heuvel and D. T. J. ter Horst, "Interrupting
small inductive currents with oil filled breakers, part I," Allis-
Chalmers Rev., vol. 30, no. 3, p. 8, 1965.
[211 -, "Interrupting small inductive currents with oil filled
breakers, part II," Allis-Chalmers Rev., vol. 30, no. 4, p. 26,
1965.
J. M. Clayton and L. A. Kilar (Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
East Pittsburgh, Pa.): The authors have done an admirable job de-
fining the problem and describing the phenomena causing excessive
overvoltages from energizing capacitor banks with vacuum inter-
rupters. We would like to know what corrective measures were taken
by the Department of Water and Power of the City of Los Angeles.
Two countermeasures were suggested by the authors as a result of
their study. The first eliminated the problem by inserting a closing
resistor in series with the capacitors prior to closing the vacuum in-
terrupter. Since vacuum interrupters are not available with closing
resistors, auxiliary equipment is required to perform this operation.
This appears, at first glance, to be a costly solution. The second alter-
native of connecting shunt capacitors to the transformer terminals
seems to be the better choice.
Vacuum interrupters have been used for some tine to switch
capacitor banks with a high degree of success. Occasional trouble-
some applications, such as the one described in this paper, should be
viewed as such and should not impede the continued use and de-
velopment of vacuum interrupters for this purpose.
Manuscript received February 18, 1969.
E. P. Paulochik and R. J. Bacha (Pennsylvania Electric Company,
Johnstown, Pa.): The authors have pointed out and objectively ex-
plained an overvoltage phenomenon occurring on a circuit consisting
of a capacitor bank, vacuum switch, compound cable-line feeder,
and terminal transformer. Although this would not be standard con-
struction practice on our system, a survey of capacitor installations
was made in order to insure against the possibility of such a circuit
under certain highly selective or emergency operating conditions.
No such circuit was found to exist and no capacitor switching prob-
lems were reported, but increased installation of underground cable
and expanded capacitor utilization increases the probability of oc-
currence. The authors' observations and experience have, therefore,
alerted us to a potential problem.
If we had not been made aware of the problem, evolution, govemed
by standard construction practice, might have provided a similar
circuit except that station-type lightning arresters would have been
installed at the capacitor bank, at both cable terminations, and at
the transformer. Without preparing an analytical argument, it would
appear that the arresters would prevent the buildup of dangerous
voltages at the various highly reflective nodes, and would prevent
terminal equipment damage. Since the probability of this type circuit
existing would be remote and infrequent, the arrester operational
duty would not be excessive and would only occur under abnormal
operating conditions. The voltage on the protected equipment would
Manuscript received February 13, 1969.
BOEHNE AND LOW: SHUNT CAPACITOR ENERGIZATION WITH VACUUM INTERRUPTERS 1441

be limited to the arrester discharge voltage plus the voltage drop of the use of a 40-AH reactor would allow the capacitor bus voltage to
arrester lead and thus the voltage rate of change would be less than decay at a rate defined by a time constant of 2.67 ,us. Should lines of
the case of a rod-gap sparkover. 400-ohm surge impedance replace the cable, the time constant of the
Under these stated conditions, the problem is now addressed to the decay is 0.20 ,As! In both cases, the above rate of collapse would per-
energy level that the arrester would be required to discharge and the sist until wave reflections arrived from either direction. The reactor
seal-off capability of the arrester. It appears that the energy dis- shown by Dr. Lerstrup is 200 ,uH. When working against 400-ohm
charge requirements would be dependent on both the high- and low- surge impedance lines, the minimum time constant of decay would be
frequency voltage waves generated by the capacitor bank. The 1 ,us. This would prevent the high-frequency phenomena from ap-
authors made brief mention of lightning arrester application and pearing on the open end of a 1000-foot line.
seem to prefer circuit parametric changes in the form of closing re- Conditions immediately improve when we include the presence of
sistors or protective capacitors. Do the authors have information the inherent or installed capacitance to ground of or at the capacitor
relative to arrester performance or optimum location under these bus. A small capacitance C2 on the bus prior to energizing a much
conditions, and what was the final or interim solution to the actual larger capacitor Ci through a series reactor L will permit the bus volt-
field installation problem? age to be lowered as controlled by the period T/2 of the new
natural frequency of the tank circuit
T/2 7r-\/LCo
where
Eugene W. Boehne and S. S. Low: The authors are indebted to the Co_ VC,CIC2A
numerous discussers for their contributions and their interesting + C2/
viewpoints. It now appears that the paper has tended to draw to-
gether the body of experience describing interruptions that have Here when L = 40 ,H and Ci = 0.5 IAF and C2 is much larger, the
occurred during the closing operation of numerous types of circuit value of T/2 essentially becomes 14 iAs. This condition would protect
breakers, revealing that the vacuum breaker is not unique in this re- a much longer radial line terminated in a transformer by avoiding the
spect. It is recognized that when such interruptions occur in some buildup of the high-frequency component of the radial line under
circuits they have little significance or importance. However, where shock excitation. Conditions further improve when the total tank-
capacitive circuits are coupled with some overhead lines or cables, circuit inductance is included in which the reactor L becomes a part.
there is the possibility for trouble unless certain precautions are When both lines and capacitors are considered together, the pro-
taken. This fact has brought to light the possible growing importance tection is im-proved. The point to be made here is that the choice of
of this area of surge generation due to the wide popularity of the the reactor size would depend upon the length of line to be pro-
vacuum switch and the growing need to reduce the index of switch- tected, whether it was open line or cable; it would also be dependent
ing surges that reach solid-state circuitry and computer installations, upon the value of the capacitance at the bus at the time the larger
to say nothing of their impact upon terminal equipment. The present capacitance is to be energized. It is felt that this method of correct-
study is motivated toward application criteria that will minimize ing the circuits that are vulnerable to the phenomena described in the
these occurrences and thus take advantage of the excellent interrupt- paper will prove to be the most economical.
ing characteristics of the vacuum interrupter and its low maintenance In contrast, the other three protective measures are: 1) resistor
features. switching, 2) lightning arrester protection of terminal equipment,
At the same time, the study reported here has served to aid in the 3) capacitor protection of terminal equipment.
explanation of numerous apparatus failures that have occurred on Two-step switching resistors will provide an excellent solution, but
energizing large capacitor banks with vacuum switches that have not is difficult to apply to vulnerable circuits in the field. Moreover, it
employed one or more of the protective features described in the creates a complexity of equipment and expense which should be
paper and reviewed here as a result of the comments and questions of weighed with alternative methods.
the discussions. Several discussers have pointed out that arresters should provide
Since the eleven discussions tended to duplicate numerous ques- an excellent means of reducing the voltages at the transformer termi-
tions and, at the same time, make similar contributions, it is our in- nals. This is certainly true, and modern arresters are available which
tent here to divide our rebuttal into five specific technical areas and, provide this protection. Unfortunately, arresters located at the
as closely as possible, to credit each discusser with his contribution. capacitor bank are of little use in controlling the overvoltage at the
Dr. Lerstrup's analysis of the prestrike phenomena is based upon end of feeders radiating from the switching point. In addition,
an assumed closing contact speed of one meter per second, which is should such arresters be initiated in the presence of a large capacitor
three times faster than the speed measured for the particular device bank they are vulnerable to heavy energy surges, which must be
used in the reported case. Separate tests in which a travel record allowed for in selecting the arrester thermal capacity. It should be
monitored the closing stroke clearly demonstrated that interruptions made clear that the arrester has little or no control of the rate of
occurred before the contacts engaged. This characteristic was also change of voltage at the transformer terminal. This is certainly true
confirmed by Dr. Greenwood in his discussion. Of course the overall if the magnitude of the voltage is below the arrester sparkover. Since
performance, including contact errosion, would be complicated by a it is believed that initial transformer failures are the result of turn-
bouncing contact. The field oscillograms in the paper give evidence to-turn or coil-to-coil sparkover, either the rate of change of the in-
of some bouncing later in the voltage traces. These are so indicated coming wave should be modified at the source by lowering the
on the oscillograms. voltage more gently (as described above) or the steep incoming
We are indebted to Dr. Lerstrup for the photographs showing the wave should be modified at the transformer by means of a shunt
series reactors used in each -capacitor leg and suggesting, with others, capacitor.
that this artifice would go a long way to minimize the generation of Shunt capacitors at the transformer terminal, either alone or in
the higher superimposed natural-frequency voltage by permitting a parallel with arresters, provide excellent protection. Standard rotat-
slower collapse of the circuit voltage to the capacitor at the moment ing machine protection will be recognized in this combination [15].
of capacitor energization. Such series reactors are in common use in This form of protection was reported in the paper. Traces III in
suppressing the high tank-circuit currents and voltages during back- Fig. 15 exhibit the remarkable protection provided by a 1.75-,uF
to-back switching. capacitor. In most cases, a 0.5-,uF capacitor would do a splendid job.
Although extremely effective when a similar lumped capacitor is Use of unswitched capacitors on the bus at the point of energiza-
present the bus (as in back-to-back switching), the use of series
on tion is discussed above. Here the unswitched capacitance, working
reactors L in the separate legs of the initial bank to be energized with the series reactor allows a much slower collapse of the sending-
bears close study and analysis. When the capacitor bus is sandwiched end voltage. The rate of collapse of sending-end voltage defines the
between incoming and outgoing lines or cables of surge impedance shape of the front of the traveling wave that radiates to the terminal
Z the collapse of voltage is controlled by the time constant 2L/Z. transformers. For example, when Em collapses to zero at the ex-
Hence when cables of 30-ohm surge impedance radiate from the bus, ponential rate f-ZI12L the frontof the wave that leaves the capacitor
bank has the well-known shape of e(wave) = Em(l - &-Zt/2L).
As a result, it seems more,expedient to correct the problem at the
Manuscript received June 20, 1969. source by providing a small unswitched capacitor on the bus where
1442 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969

the larger bank is to be energized and installing an appropriate reac-

tor in series with each capacitor leg. From the various methods of
protecting the terminal transformer the user can select a method
most suitable. This method of correction at the source bus provides
the following side benefits, the majority of which are enjoyed by re-
sistor switching:
1) lower i2t duty on the capacitor fuses,
2) less internal stress in the capacitor units,
3) lower voltages across wave traps and CT terminals,
4) avoidance of possible high-frequency transients entering relay
and control circuits through CT and PT leads not adequately
shielded,
5) reduction in voltage dips at the source bus,
6) lower stresses on turn and coil insulation of all windings exposed
to the resulting waves of current and voltage,
7) less energy broadcast to local receivers at the time of switching.
We agree with Dr. Greenwood concerning the following points
which, acting together, were contributing factors in the particular
case described, namely: 1) the slow closing speed of the vacuum
interrupter, 2) evidence of contact bounce, 3) inadequate synchroni-
zation of the closing time of the two series interrupters per pole as Fig. 25. Oscillograph indicating nature of contact bounce and non-
well as the synchronization of the three pole closings, and 4) the volt- simultaneous closing of two series contacts of each pole. Tests
age amplification permitted by the particular radial compound cir-
made at 2 amperes, 125 volts dc.
cuit under study. The dead-time record of Fig. 25 confirms factors
1)-3).
Since the 34.5-kV vacuum switch used consisted of two series in-
terrupting contacts per pole, all six contacts were recorded simul- _GAP
T-OPERATING
G
SAP 2
ROD
taneously. The dead-time record exhibits inadequate synchronization !7j, A r,7
,, ITWO VACUUM SWITCH
not only of the three poles, but also of the series interrupting con- BATTLES PER POLE]
tacts of each pole. In addition, a test was made at the Department of .,T.CT
EONTACT
OV
_ 'W

Water and Power High-Voltage Laboratory to determine the spark- I

L
~ ~~~~
fi_OTAT ANARY
, CO~~NTACT I
_ --
over voltage vs. contact spacing characteristics for a single pole.
The object of the test was to determine the effect of inadequate series- > ~ _____________ _ TW E
SERIES CONTACT
contact synchronization. The results of the test are shown in Fig. 26.
VOTG SOARE A E CLOSE
XTA
We also agree with Dr. Greenwood that the circuit parameters C SlMLTbNEOUSLY
were a contributing factor in the unfortunate events described.
The severity would have been much less if both ends of the circuit
had been closed into the 34.5-kV network. Normally, this 34.5-kV
circuit is connected between two substations to form a loop distribu-
0
tion system. However, at the time of capacitor bank energization re-
ported in the paper, one end of this circuit was open because of a z SERIES CONTACTS
~~~~~~~TWO

station construction clearance. o ~~~~~~~SIMULTANEOUSEY

The conclusions of an exhaustive laboratory investigation de-
scribed by Dr. Greenwood are extremely valuable to an application
engineer. Fig. 24 exhibits the spectrum of the circuit conditions in
which a vacuum switch can or cannot be expected to interruption the
closing stroke. The investigation concluded with the suggestion that
this special closing characteristic is influenced as a function of the
natural frequency of the circuit as well as the current magnitude.
This prompts questions about whether it is more feasible economi-
cally to modify the system parameters for each application to assure
satisfactory closing operation of a vacuum switch, or to use low-ohmic
resistors to damp the transients. The latter is recognized as a perma-
nent solution and independent of the wide spectrum of natural fre-
quencies found in field applications.
Dr. Greenwood, along with Dr. Lestrup and others, comments
that the use of resistors to damp the transients is always a solution,
but he questions the use of such an elaborate expedient. The fact re-
mains that energizing a shunt capacitor bank without preinsertion
low-ohmic resistors not only increases the risk of system equipment
failures, but also causes momentary voltage dips at the customers'
loads. Numerous cases of temporary interruption of customers' loads
at time of capacitor energization, especially in solid-state electronic
equipment, have been reported in the United States. In our opinion,
the need for low-ohmic resistors as compared with other remedies
cited here should be based on the requirements determined by the
specific system conditions and service requirements.
In response to the question of Mr. Clayton and Mr. Kilar, the
temporary corrective measure taken by the Department of Water
and Power was to transfer all the loads away from the bus from which
the capacitor bank is energized. This simple solution was feasible
because this particular substation has a double bus with a breaker
and a half scheme.
Dr. Catenacci has inquired concerning the number of 7r and T sec-
tions used. Each line and cable consisted of three or sections. In
response to the relative duty on the breaker when lines or cables are
"ONE VACUAM BOTTLE BYPASSED
O S 10 IS 20 25 30
THOUSANDTHS OFAN INCH -MEASURED ON THE
LARGER OF THE TWO CONTACT SEPARATIONS
Fig. 26. Average breakdown voltage versus contact spacing
of two vacuum contacts in series.
used, the more severe breaker duty occurred with the much higher
and more prolonged transient currents, which were permitted by the
low surge impedance of the longer cable circuits.
When energizing high-voltage lines with vacuum switches, as
queried by Mr. Ahlgren and Mr. Hansson, we might expect an inter-
ruption at the first current zero that occurs with the return of the
initial traveling current wave from the distant open end. This will
occur in twice the line travel time, having presented to the breaker
arc a rectangular current of this duration. A duration of 2 pas per 1000
feet of open line is a nominal current duration. If the circuit breaker
is located a short distance from the source bus, the duration of the re-
sulting current pause will be correspondingly proportional to this
distance of separation. Should reignition be delayed beyond one-
quarter cycle, higher than twice normal voltage can result. For very
long lines the return of the first component of the multivelocity cur-
rent wave to a large bus is sufficient to create a current zero at which
instant interruption can occur. In this event the arrival of the slower
components of both voltage and current waves can considerably in-
crease the voltage on the line to the extent that the highest voltage
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, SEPTEMBER 1969 1443

can be observed to occur at the sending end rather than at the dis-
tant open end as usually occurs on shorter lines.
We are indebted to Mr. Ahlgren and Mr. Hansson for pointing out
that many modem arresters do have the thermal capacity to deal
adequately with the overvoltage problem described. This is particu-
larly true of arresters that depend principally upon a high internal
arc drop to arrest the overvoltage.
Dr. Pflanz has pointed out, like others, that oil and airblast
breakers have been observed on occasions to interrupt at current
zero in the closing stroke and, therefore, could produce the observed
phenomena. Indeed the case reported by Knudsen [8] documents
very similar behavior of an oil-poor breaker. We disagree, however,
that load break switches and air-blast breakers will also produce the
observed phenomena. An air-make interrupting switch was tested
with the identical circuit parameters. This type of switch, on closing,
excited the circuit natural-frequency currents without subsequent
interruptions and restriking. At the same time, however, such a
switch would have exhibited restriking on the 60-Hz base when
opening a large bank.
It is somewhat ironical that the remarkable restrike-free char-
acteristics of the vacuum switch on interrupting large capacitive
circuits are good enough to permit an interruption at a current zero
in the closing path, which in turn gives rise to the piggy-back type of
restrikes on the high-frequency base. The suppression of the super-
imposed high-frequency voltage transients that accompany this
phenomenon can be accomplished, as discussed earlier in the closure,
by the introduction of standard circuit artifices, which avoids the
sudden collapse of circuit voltage at the capacitor at the time of
energization. In this manner, the resulting overvoltages and rates of
change of voltage are, in general, halved. It is fortunate indeed that
only a small percentage of application circuits require this special
attention.

Late Discussion

Discussion of "Testing EHV Station Insulation

220
for Performance in Contaminated Conditions"' 0 SAMPLE 4500 ohm-cm
CONTAMINANT

Bruno Macchiaroli (Institute of Electrical Engineering, University

:> 2400-5
IN0
of Naples, Naples, Italy): I have read with interest the authors' paper, SAMPLE 2:CONTAMINANT
380 ohm -cm
I wish to compliment them for their work. ct) -2
There are some results reported in the paper that I would like to
discuss, namely the data of Table VII concerning tests conducted to
observe the influence of drying time on flashover voltage on 30-inch TO I10 2I0 30 410 510
DRYING TIME - MINUTES
station post insulator elements. It is noted that the flashover voltage
decreased in excess of 20 percent from the time the insulator was Fig. 1. Relation of flashover voltage to drying time for 30-inch
thoroughly wet to the point where the lowest flashover voltage was station post insulator elements.
observed with the insulator partially dry. The corresponding curves
are reproduced in Fig. 1.
Since I don't know whether, in the interim time, the authors have
found the reasons for this apparently unusual behavior, I would like
to propose a possible explanation. I am conducting some research
work on contamination with F. J. Turner in the High-Voltage Lab- t

oratory of the General Electric Company, Pittsfield,Mass., and, from i

the many tests we have performed, it has been confirmed that there
exists a systematic correlation between the flashover voltage of a
contaminated surface and the surface layer conductivity. >: L
Each time we prepare a saline solution of sodium chloride and a II

certain amount of water, it is necessary to wait some time, depending

upon the amount of salt added, before the conductivity stabilizes
at its highest value.
When high resistivity water is sprayed over a surface contami-
nated with a saline slurry, the same type of process could occur. That
is, after the dry contaminated surface is completely wetted with the
sprayed water, some time is necessary in order to obtain the com-
plete mixing of the saline products to form a new solution. The higher
the salt concentration, the longer the time. If the wetting degree is
constant with time, the layer conductivity will change in a qualita-
tive manner as shown in Fig. 2, curve A.
Also, on completion of spraying, a drying action begins at the
outer surface; therefore, if the contaminating material is in complete
Manuscript received November 13, 1968; revised June 27, 1969.
l J. D. M. Phelps, J. B. Owens, and A. Foti, IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systoms, vol. PAS-87, pp. 448-454, February 1968.
TIME
Fig. 2. Change of layer conductivity with time under different
conditions.
solution, the layer conductivity would decrease according to a law,
depending upon the kind of the slurry (curve B, Fig. 2).
Since both the mentioned phenomena exist together, the real
layer conductivity will be determined from the combined action of
both the parameters; the change of surface conductivity with time
will then be as shown by curve C of Fig. 2.
The position of the highest value of the surface conduotivity de-
pends upon the amount of salt on the surface. The higher the salt
concentration, the greater the time to the maximum conductivity
point.