RED 7745
Literature Matrix
APA Citation
Rasinski, T. V., & Samulels,
S.J. (2011). Reading Fluency:
What it is and what it is not.
What research has to say about
reading instruction (4th ed.). pp.
94 114. Newark. DE:
International Reading
Association.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Cultural and Social Capital
Major Findings Recommendations How is this area of reading Other
(Synthesis of article) pertinent to reading assessed? What do we learn notes/Comments/Questions
coach support (Analysis) from the assessments? (Overlaps if applicable)
Fluency: The bridge from Rather then teaching Teachers can distinguish Disflent readers are not automatic
phonics to reading by focusing on between oral reading that is in word recognition so they have
comprehension (Figure reading rate, fluency should fluency or disfluent but to devote cognitive energy to
4.1.) focus on the development fluency is much deeper than word recognition and less to
Fluency is NOT fast of word recognition that. devote on comprehension.
reading. automaticity within the Silent reading fluency
larger process of protocol: Scaffolded Silent Fluency should be viewed as a
Two major components: 1. comprehension. Reading. critical link from phonics to
Automaticity in word Such as: assisted reading, comprehension, defined as
recognitions wide reading and repeated simultaneous automaticity,
2. Prosody or readings. prosody, and comprehension in
expressiveness in oral Fluency interventions that reading, and should be taught in
reading provide opportunities for ways that reflect authentic, real-
students to transfer their life reading and use scientifically
Fluency is not simply oral skills to silent reading. based methods.
reading. Most reading MAPPS is a guide for
happens in silence. working on fluency with
Instruction needs to students. (Could create
happen for both areas. poster for this)
M Modeling fluent
Automaticity improves reading for students (Read
reading rate, reading aloud)
comprehension, and A Assisted Reading for
overall reading proficiency. Support (Coral or group
Fluency is not just for reading)
primary grades. All grade P Practice Reading, Wide
level teachers need training. and Deep (Make repeated
Including: upper readings valid, authentic
elementary, middle school, and effective)

Rasinski, T. V., Reutzel, R.,
Chard, D., & Linan-
Thompson, S. (2011).
Reading fluency. Handbook of
reading research (Vol. 4, pp.
286-319). Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
and secondary school P Phrasing of Words in
students. (Rasinski et al, Meaningful Groups
2009) (Instruction on phrasing
text while reading is
beneficial)
S Synergy to Make the
Whole Greater than the
sum of its parts (All
together the impact on
instruction will become
more than the sum of its
parts)
Fluency Development
Lessons designed as a daily
10 15minute lesson in
which students work with
one short text or poem.
Two copies are needed. 9
steps are given to follow.
Fast Start is a variation of a
FDL that parents can do at
home with their child due
to limitations in the school
day.
Prosody rubrics may not be Prosody rubrics may be an Fluency consists of three Vocabulary overlap with the
as precise as assessments of ideal assessment tool major components: 1. fluency intervention RAVE O.
decoding accuracy and because they provide Accuracy 2. Automaticity in Program developed around three
reading rate, but in the assessment information word recognition & 3. goals: 1. Development of fluency;
hands of knowledgeable that can also directly guide Prosody in oral textual 2. A focus on developing sub-
teachers, they provide instruction. Readers rated reading. lexical and lexical reading skills;
practitioners with tools for poorly on a prosody rubric, Informal reading inventories and 3. An evolving sense of
informing their own can use the descriptors on (IRI) is a valid measure of success due to acquisition of
instruction and students the rubric itself to guide reading proficiency. necessary cognitive tools and
with a method for guiding their improvement. Curriculum Based strategies aimed at decoding and
their own personal fluency Measurement (CBM) or Oral retrieving words. Word
Cultural and Social Capital
Personal-Social Identity
development. Look at assessment beyond Reading Fluency (ORF) recognition is pared with writing
oral speed. assessment is similar to IRI to bring automaticity in decoding
National Reading Panel because it requires readers to and word recognition to a higher
Report (2000) declared Might use a specific read grade level text orally; level. Vocabulary is needed in
reading fluency to be an instruction depending on the CBM/ORF score is order to complete task.
essential part of reading. the needs of the students operationally defined as the
based off of the six areas of number of words read Fluency &ELLS
Six areas of reading fluency reading fluency instruction correctly in one minute. Need to be familiar with syntax,
instruction and practice and practice. Qualitative rubrics or rating morphology, and word meanings,
reviewed: 1. Integrated scales to guide assessment. they impact reading fluency and in
reading fluency lessons ELLs may read fluently, Reader reads passage for 60 turn comprehension. ELLs might
(Fluency oriented reading decode accurately and seconds then the rater be unfamiliar with English syntax,
instruction, wide reading, automatically, and they consults the rubric and paraphrasing and vocabulary then
Oral recitation lesson, often read with prosody, assigns a score that most are less able to anticipate
shared book experience, but they do not closely aligns with prosodic upcoming text in a sentence and
fluency development lesson comprehend what they characteristics of the oral therefore, approach each word as
& retrieval, automaticity, have read. Could be due to reading. an independent word rather than
vocabulary elaboration, inadequate background Multi-dimensional 12-point part of a sentence with meaning.
orthography); 2. knowledge, and difficulty prosody rubric.
Independent reading; 3. with English syntax., ELLs reading fluency might be
Assisted reading (Less grammar, and vocabulary. Fluency assessment needs due to familiarity of the topic or
Round Robin Reading, Follow-up with reading considerable research readability level of the text.
reading partner assisted comprehension measures. attention.
fluency practice, & Concerns DIBELS ORF Do current reading assessment
technology assisted reading Studies have indicated narrow and restrict classroom tools and procedures acting to
practice); 4. Prosody benefits of bilingual fluency fluency instruction and inhibit necessary attention to
instruction; 5. Reading for instruction in English and practice to reading for reading comprehension in
performance (Readers if the student speaks accuracy and rate and classrooms?
theater); and 6. Spanish, instructions are neglecting reading
Family/home fluency also given in Spanish. comprehension. No efforts to develop assessments
programs(Home daily that determine the role of
lesson provide for about Guided repeated reading vocabulary knowledge and how
10-15 minutes). activities also work for it affects students fluency
ELLs along with any other development.
instruction given for

Kuhn, M. R., & Stahl, S. A.
(2013). Fluency:
developmental and remedial
practices revisited.
Theoretical models and processes of
reading (6th ed. pp. 385 - 411).
Newark, DE: International
Reading Association.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Cultural and Social Capital
monolinguals.
Fluency instruction Struggling readers at any
compared to basal reader, grade level may benefit
showed fluency instruction from fluency instruction.
improved childrens
reading fluency and Table 1 has many repeated
comprehension. reading studies that show
the benefit of unassisted
Findings in research to be repeated reading. Where an
problematic because not increase of fluency was
many of them. found and increase in
comprehension was also
found.
Assisted Reading Strategies
table 2
Reading while-listening:
Could be used with
recorded text but active
engagement needs to be
had if it is to be effective.
Student listens to recorded
story and the student needs
some way to be held
responsible for the reading
or this does not work.
Did not discuss assessments.
paired up and one student would
Classroom extensions of assisted
reading had specific jobs for
students. Students would be
be the lead reader and the
struggling reading would be the
assisted reader, would receive
support and feedback from a
partner. Pairs were changed
weekly.
Repeated reading conditions
worked in pairs where they
learned to select their own texts,
to follow the strategy, and to
provide both self-evaluations and
evaluations of their partners.

Variety in instruction such

as echo reading, repeated
reading, and partner
reading integrated into a
lesson plan.

Structured reading time

with explicit directions

Kuhn, M.R., Schwanenflugel,
P. J., & Meisinger, E.B.
(2010). Review of research.
Aligning theory and
assessment of reading
fluency: Automaticity,
prosody, and definitions of
fluency. Reading Research
Quarterly, 45(2), 230-251.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Personal-Social Identity
The purpose of this article
is to expand our knowledge
on fluency by
understanding theoretical
perspectives surrounding
automaticity and prosody.
Looks at four major
definitions of reading
fluency and their
relationship to accuracy,
automaticity, and prosody.
Gives recommendations
for assessment and
instruction based of their
findings.
work best.
Reading buddies provide
cross-age reading strategy.
Extend class reading
activity to home.
Integrated Fluency lessons.
Look at fluency as more
than just words per minute.
Students should not be
focusing on rate at the
expense of meaning.
A measure of
comprehension should be
used in combination with
any evaluation of reading
fluency.
Examples would be: Brief
discussions of the passage
being read to answering a
range of questions, from
factual to inferential, which
are related to the material
to student retelling of the
text.
Recommendations: Text
that is used for fluency
assessments be connected
in content is varied but is
not one book taken apart
to read multiple times.
Prosodic measures such as Connection with prosody and
NAEP oral reading fluency comprehension.
scale (Pinnell et al., 1995) or
multidimensional fluency Look at fluency as one part of the
soring guide (Rasinski et al. overall puzzle of reading of
2009). understanding learners reading
ability to have effective
Fluency should be looked as instruction.
one part of a broader range of
assessments.
Qualitative measures work
best in fluency. Questions to
ask yourself include: What
miscues are the readers
making and in what context,
how does the readers rate
vary with the type of text and
its instructional level, and
how appropriate is their
prosody for the text they are
reading (Rasinski, 2004)?

Rasinski, T., Rikli, A., &
Johnston, S. (2009). Reading
fluency: More than
automaticity? More than a
concern for the primary
grades? Literacy Research and
Instruction, 48(4), 350-361.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Looking at fluency as more
than just the rate in which
the student reads, instead
looking at prosody as a
form of measure.
Third, fifth and seventh-
grade students were looked
at for fluency. Showing that Reading rate does not
fluency is significant at the provide the complete
upper levels in education as picture of fluency.
well as the primary.
Correlations between
fluency and silent reading
comprehension and it was
measured my standardized
tests.
Purpose of the study was
to look at the relationship
between reading
comprehension and
reading fluency, as
measured by prosody
(Phrasing intonation, pace,
Range of options, such as
scaffold reading with a
partner and reading while
listening to be partnered
with traditional silent
reading, student has many
different opportunities with
text.
Should consider
components of fluency,
automaticity and prosody
as measures of reading
fluency and instructional
methods for improving
fluency.
The Stanford Achievement More research is needed in
Test was administered (9th adolescent students, especially
ed.). Students in this study those students experiencing
preformed above national difficulty in achieving high levels
norms after the guidance of of literacy.
prosody instead of reading
rate. Sample size:
3rd (n=391), 5th(n=421) &
Students read a narrative 7th(n=392), urban school district
passage from a trade book (does not include demographics).
that was published and
matched their grade level. Overlap with comprehension
Had a minimum of 200 being the ultimate goal using
words, readability levels of fluency.
were verified using Lexile
(The Lexile Framework for
Reading, 2008) & Flesch-
Kincaid readability formulae.
(Figure 1: Mult-dimensional
fluency scoring guide).
Reading specialists and
teachers were trained to listen
to electronic recordings of
students oral reading and
assign a score based off the
different elements in figure 1.

Reutzel, D.R., Fawson, P.C.,
& Smith, J.A. (2008).
Reconsidering silent
sustained reading: An
exploratory study of
scaffolded silent reading. The
Journal of Educational Research,
102(1), 37-50.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
etc.).
Purpose of this study was
to implement and evaluate
scaffolded silent reading
(ScSR) compared with the
evidence-based practice of
guided repeated oral
reading (GROR) with
feedback on 3rd grade
students fluency and measurement that is used.
comprehension growth.
Looked at: 1. Reduction in
error rates; 2. Increase in
words read correctly per
minute; 3. Increase in
expression rating scores;
and 4. Increase in reading
comprehension, as
measured by the
proportion of idea units
recalled from reading
divided by the number of
words read correctly per
minute.
Define fluency as: involves
accuracy, rate, and
expression.
Samuels (2007) define
fluent reading as
simultaneous decoding and
comprehension and is the
GROR. Showing that the
Students should be asked
to retell as a measure of
comprehension after they
read.
ScSR approach is an Lack of studies on silent sustained
alternative to the traditional reading (SSR) even though many
GROR for promoting reading curriculums have it in daily
fluency and comprehension reading instructional routines.
growth. Pretty consisted
across all areas, except ScSR Study was done in two high
had some significant growth poverty, low-preforming schools
in expression rating verses in the southwestern U.S.
ScSR is just as reliable as the 3rd graders: N=72
GROR.
ScSR- students read silently
or wide reading of
independent-level texts
selected from varied genres;
periodic teacher monitoring
of and interaction with
individual students; and
accountability through
completed book response
assignments.
GROR- Students read aloud
many times (3-5 times) a
single text (generally grade or
instructional level) while they
receive feedback from a
teacher or other students. It is
scientifically supported that
National Reading Panel
(NRP) highly recommends.
Young, C., & Rasinski, T.
(2009). Implementing
Readers Theatre as an
approach to classroom
fluency instruction. The
Reading Teacher, 63(1), 4-13.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Cultural and Social Capital
Personal-Social Identity
Reutzel, D.R., Jones, C.D.,
Fawson, P.C. & Smith, J.A.
(2008). Scaffolded silent
reading: A complement to
Readers Theater can create
an academic avenue that
leads to increase reading
fluency, regardless of
whether students are
striving or thriving.
Same methods for
improving fluency among
non-ELL students also
work on ELLs.
Reading for speed is a
dangerous way to measure
fluency.
Fluency should include
accuracy, automaticity, and
prosody.
Readers Theatre is a
performance of a written
script that demands
repeated and assisted
reading that is focused on
delvivering meaning to
audience.
Qualitative data showed
unmotivated struggling
readers become motived
and thrived in reading.
Article is easy to digest.
Would recommend for
teachers.
Discusses how Scaffold
Readings should be
modeled, assisted, and
repeated readings to
improve fluency (Chomsky,
1976).
Authentic use of text
should be used to be a
form of practice or
rehearse (assisted and
repeated readings) and
multiple types of genres.
Readers Theatre allows
practice of prosody
because the students have
to express vocabulary
through their voices. It was
a station among other daily
routines.
Readings might be used in
shared, guided or
independent reading. Done
weekly.
Positive effect on all
readers. Gives opportunity
for struggling readers to
not be afraid to read aloud
or be in the spotlight.
In order for ScSR to work
teachers have to assist
students in the right book
choices. ScSR is less hands
DRA was used at the
beginning and the end of the
school year to measure
students independent reading
level based on word
recognition accuracy and
comprehension. Word
recognition, automaticity and
prosody also measured using
the DRA.
Texas Primary Reading
Inventory (TPRI) used to
measure automaticity and
prosody. Students were given
a pre- and posttest measure
automaticity and prosody on
a grade level passage.
Prosody was based on a
rubric that incorporated
observations and recorded
the fluent reader. One would
be least proficient and four
would be most proficient.
ScSR compared to GROR
Pretest passage and posttest
passage was used for
Classroom-based research, 2nd
grade, N=29 monolingual
students in Dallas, TX.
8-girls
21 boys
9-ELLS
Reading level ranged from early K
to midyear 3rd.
Gains in prosody of 20% overall
in students ability to read with
expression that represented
meaning.
DRA average at the end of the
year was higher than normal at
31.2 from 19.4 at the beginning of
the year and a typical score of
level 28.
Participants: year long study
4 third grade teachers
N=72 students
guided repeated oral reading
that works! The Reading
Teacher, 62(3), 194-207.
Cognitive Knowledge and
skills
Personal-Social Identity
Samuels, S.J. (2007). The
DIBELS tests: Is speed of
barking at print what we
mean by reading fluency?
Reading Research Quarterly,
42(4), 563-566.
Silent reading (ScSR) on with feedback while
provides an alternative to student is reading so
teachers on assessing teaching involvement in the
fluency. Looks at reading beginning of book
rate and comprehension. selections is essential
(Table 1).
Students are allowed to
select books to help
increase motivation.
I also like how the teacher
in this article had a wide
reading genre wheel that
students were able to look
at when making a selection
(figure 2).
Minimum of 5 books each
nine weeks read by each
student.
accuracy, rate, expression, and Weaknesses for ScSR:
oral retelling.
No significant difference
between two assessments.
Allow teachers to use both
assessments to increase
motivation, reading fluency,
and reading compression.
1. No teacher guidance
about how students can
select appropriately
challenging texts to read
2. Poor control of the time
allocated for reading
practice
3. Little or no teacher
interaction with students
around reading texts
4. No feedback to students
about the quality and
quantity of their reading
5. No student accountability,
purposes, or goals for the
time spent in reading
practice.