ene A Guide v Tareas Ec Lellae) Practical Scaffolding Pecan The Construction and Use of Basic Access ScaffoldsSS Chevron 8.0 SCAFFOLDS 8.1 SECTION CONTENTS ‘This section provides general information and pertinent safety guide- lines for single pole and independent pole wood scaffolds and tubu- lar steel scaffolds which are needed for occasional Company work such as painting, insulating, maintenance work, pipefitting, etc. Re- fer to applicable code regulations for guidance in the use of other types of scaffolds. 82 General and Dosign Requirements for Scaffolding. 83. Genoral Requirements for Wood! Pole Scatfoldin 8.4 Tubular Stool Scatiolding and Staging... 85. Typical Scaffolding Erection Arrangements 86 Notes and References. NOTE: An asterisk (*) after a section of text indicates that the infor. mation in that section is new or revised as of the publication date of this manual. September 1996 8+ page 1joy ntesign: ——____________ & Chevron _ 8.2 GENERAL AND DESIGN REQUIREMENTS FOR SCAFFOLDING PEE PE eee ee eee A. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL, 1, See 191028() fr safely rqitemerts fo at als. SCAFFOLDING. Chevron Guidelines 1 Scaffolds are temporary, elevated platform structures which shall be provided for all work that cannot be done safely from permanent of solid construction (minimum 20 inches wide), or cannot be done safely from ladders. ‘The erection and dismantling of scaffolds shall be per formed under the supervision and direction of a quali- fied person experienced with or trained in scaffold erec- tion, dismantling, and use as well as knowledgeable about the hazards involved. Personnel shall not work on scaffolds during storms or high winds nor on scaffolds covered with ice or snow. Some jurisdictions may require 2 permit for scaffold use. EEE EEE Eee eee ee eee See eeee eee B._GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS ‘Chevron Guidelines 1 2 Platform Footings + The footing or anchorage for scaffolds shall be sound, rigid, and capable of carrying the maximum antici- pated load withoutsetiling or displacement. Unstable objects such as boxes, loose bricks, concrete blocks, or serap lumber shall not be used to support or level scaffolds or planks. © The scaffold shall be erected as near as possible to the building or structure. + All poles shall be set and maintained pluntb for the full height of scaffold. Guardrails and Toeboards + Open sides and ends of working levels 10 feet Oinches or more above grade shall be guarded by top rails, midrails, and toeboards with a top of railing at 42 inches above the platform level. (Some jurisdictions may require guarding of open sides and ends of work- ing levels 7 feet 6 inches or more above grade - see Cal. Code of Regulations), + Where personnel are required to work or pass under a scaffold platform, a screen (28 gage, 1/2-inch mesh ov equivalent) shall be installed between top rail and toeboard of platform guardrail 1 page 2 September 1995Section 8 Scatfolds hevron 2. Design Load ‘© Scaffolds and their components shall be capable of supporting without failure at least four times the maximum intended load. 4 Ac © Assafe means of access such as a walkway, stair or fixed ladder shall be provided to all scaéfold plat- forms. A portable ladder may be used if securely at- tached to the scaffold. + All ladders shall extend 3 feet minimum above the platform deck or 12 inches above top rail for handhold during mounting and dismounting 5, Planking and Overlaps «© Wooden planking shall be scaffold grade as recog- nized by lumber industry standards + Where planking is lapped, each plank shall lap its end supports by a minimum of 12 inches or secured from movement. Overlapping of planks at the unsup- ported end or overhang of a plank is not permitted. + Where the ends of planks abut each other to forma flush floor, the abutted ends shalll be secured to sepa~ sate bearers. + Where planks est on bearers, ends shall extend mini- mum 6 inches, butnot more than maximum 18 inches over end supports. ‘+ Platform slopes shall not exceed 2 inches in 10 feet 8.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR WOOD POLE SCAFFOLDING Chevron Guidelines 1. Lumber Note: See 1910.28) fr general ecurements for + Scaffold lumber shall be select grade as recognized | "os Po® sabi. by the lumber industry standards, + Lumber shall be inspected for defective ox damaged pieces before and regularly during use, and substan- Gard pieces shall be replaced (see Figures 8.1, 8.2, and 8.3) 2. Splices + When poles are spliced, their ends shal] be squared and fit squarely together ‘= Splice plates shall be atleast 4 feet 0 inches in length and be the same width and have at Jeast the cross sectional area of the poles being spliced. Splice plates shall be provided on two adjacent sides and shall overlap the abutted ends equally. # Splice plates of other equivalent strength materiel may be used. September 1996 8* page 3‘ety in Designs ‘OSHA 191028 3. Nailing © Douible-headed nails shall not be used where projec- ‘ions create a hazard such as on guardrails. Also h bricaied, wax-coated nails are not permitted. + All nails shall be 8d or greater, shall be driven full Jength or to the first head of double-headed nails, and shall not be subjected to a straight pull 4, Ledgers » Ledgess shall span pole spaces without splicing be- tween poles, © Ledgers shall be reinforced by bearing blocks securely nailed to the side of pole to form a support for the ledger. 5. Bearers ‘+ Bearers shall be set on edge and! long enough to project, over the ledgers at least 3 inches for proper support Figure 8.1 Typical Wood Scaffold Specifications—Single Pole and Independent Pole Dimensions are minimum nominal sizes and maximum allowable spacings. * page 4 September 1996 ‘SCAFFOLD COMPONENT LIGHT DUTY | mEDIUM DUTY] HEAVY DUTY] Maximum uniformly distributed load 25 PSF 50 PSE 75 PSF Maximum Height 20 | 60 80" Pole size axar|atxa | axat axa dt Longitudinal polespacing & 10) 8 ia = Scatold with (single pole) 5 B 5 a ae Scaffold width (Independent pole) & 10 8 7 Ledger size axe" |arxio] 2x10" 2x10" | Bearer size "xe" far tor] 2x10" ax ie" — Maxirnum vertical spacing 7 rT Tv ee’ 7 | Horizontal members ast {single pole) Dim “A” Figure 8.3 Maximum vertical spacing 7 7 7 ae | Horizontal members ior {independent pole} Dim “B" Figure 8.2} | Diggonal & Cross Bracing wxer| xe | axe xa :‘reven Chevron ———— Full Diagonal Bracing + Full diagonal bracing shall be installed across the ‘entire face of scaffold in both directions to prevent movement parallel to the building wall and buckling. * Braces shall be spliced only at the poles. Cross Bracing * Cross bracing shall be provided between the inner and outer sets of poles in independent pole scaffolds. ‘The free ends of pole scaifolds shall be cross braced. Height Limitations + Wood scaffolds over 60 feet in height shall be de- signed by a Civil Engineer fegistered within the ap- propriate jurisdiction. * Scaffolds shall not be built beyond reach of effective fire fighting equipment. Securing + All scaffolds shall be securely guyed or tied to the building or structure. Ties shall be doubled 12 gage iron wite or equivalent and shall not be more than 20 feet apart horizontally or vertically + Heavy duty scaffolds require ties every 15 fee! hor zontally or vertically. September 1996 Bepage5S Chevron ity in Designs PLANKING 2” x 10” MIN. (TYP) al UOT) p——] GUARDRAIL| || MIDRAIL 2 xa" 2” x 4" TYP] (TYP) Ls BEARING BLOCK (TYP) Woy, SEE FIG. 8.1 FOR MAX. SPACING OF BEARERS (DIM. "B" 7 DIAGONAL BRACE Figure 8.2 Wood Independent Pole Scaffold * page 6 September 1995 -Section 8 * Soaffolds S Chevron GUARDRAIL MIDRAIL 2x4" 2" « 4" (TYP) (TYP) \ \ on (tab [E22 = age ee if De use BSE =F Se SECURED AND BRACED TO STRUCTURE OR EQUIPMENT Eau \ z | AND REINFORCED WITH BASE DIAGONAL i 3/16 x 2 STEEL PLATE 10” x 2" x 10" BRACE Figure 8.3 Wood Single Pole Scaffold 8+ page 7 September 1996sfety in Designs See 1910:20(c) for requirmants for tube and coupler scatfols + page 8 & Cheyron 84 TUBULAR STEEL SCAFFOLDING AND STAGING Chevron Guidelines L Material * Staging pieces suchas poles, ledgers, bearers, ribbons, and braces shall be 2 inches nominal OD tube steel or other material of equivalent strength. “Tubelox” staging material may be used + All siaging pieces shall extend 1/2 inch minimum through couplings to prevent crimping of ends. Bearers + Bearers shell be at Jeast 4 inches, but not more than ‘LZinches longer than the pole spacing. Height Limitations + Tubular steel scaffolds exceeding the maximum heights listed in specifications (Figure &.4) shall be de- signed by a Civil Engineer registered within the ap~ propsiate jurisdiction. + Scaffolds shall not be built beyond reach of effective fire fighting equipment. + Intermediate rest platforms should be provided for climbing to levels where the change in elevation is greater than 30 feet + Rest and intermediate platforms shall be fully planked, equipped with guardrail and toeboard, and shall not be used for storage of material or as an ad- ditional working platform Securing + Staging shall be tied securely to structures or equip- ment to prevent tipping over. + Ties shall be doubled 12 gage iron wire or equivalent and not be spaced more than 30 feet horizontally or 26 feet vertically. + The ties should beas close as possible to the top work ing platform. + "TCC" clamps with staging pieces may be used in- stead of tie-wires to stabilize staging (Figue 8.14). Diagonal Bracing fll height of all staging shall be braced. Both the front and back of longitudinal staging faces shall be braced. + Diagonal bracing shall be installed at approximately a 45° angle from near the base of the frst post up- ward to the extreme top of the scaffold. Repeatat the base of every Bfth Iongitudinal post + Similarly diagonal bracing shall be installed from the base of the last post extending back and upward to- ward the first post (see Figures 8.5, 8.6, and 8.7 for details). September 1996Chevron 6 Cross Bracing Section 8* Scaffolds Bee Bead + Cross bracing shall be installed across the width of the scaffold ai least every third set of posts horizon- tally and every fourth ribbon vertically (see Figures 8.5 and 8.6 for details) | Tyee STANDARD MEDIUM DUTY HEAVY DUTY Inspection, Painting meng} Reftac: |Retrac-| other Appticaion | Insulating, |xchangers| BRING] tory | tory | Special weldingend | cleaning | ¢B&) | Work | Work Pipefieing ng DISTRIBUTED 25 50 50 50, 70 70 LOAD 185.80. FT ‘CONCENTRATED 300 zoo | 350 | 378 | 350 | 450 LOADILBS. POST SPACING 10" 8 8 6 we” | oo LENGTHWISE / DIM “B* SEEFIC.8.5 4 POSTSPACING 8 5 3 ela LENGTHWISE Di "A" SEERIG. 8.5 a maximum | 4 a} 4 2 1 NUMBER OF LOADED! WORKING || puatrorms | | apomionaL J @ | 4 | 0 6 0 6 PLANKED LEVEL (NOT FOR STORAGE OR WORK) maximum | 125'] a25']9v| 125° 78 125" HEIGHT Figure 84 Typical Tabular Stee! Scaffold Specifications September 1996 8° page 9afety in Designs page 10 8.5 & Chevron TYPICAL SCAFFOLDING ERECTION ARRANGEMENTS Suggested Erection Arrangements and Nomenclature (seefol- Jowing pages) Figure 8.5 Figure 6.6, Figure 8.7 Figure 8.8 Figure 8.9 Figure 8.10 Figure 8.11 Figure 8.12 Figure 8.13 Figure 8.14 Typieal Bracing Requirements ‘Typical Tubular Sieel Nomenclatere ‘Typical Tutndar Sicel Diagonal Bracing ‘Typical Tubular Sieel Cross Bracing ‘Typical Front and Side Access Scaffold Ladders ‘Typical Tubular Stee! Platform Staging amd Ladder ‘Typical Tubular Steet Footing Connections ‘Typical Tubular Stee! Connectors and Coupler Typical Tubular Stee! Planking Details ‘Typical Tubular Steel Tie and Clamp Details September 1996,Section 8* Scaffolds POLE SPACING LENGTHWISE. FIG. 8.4 DIM. ”B” POLE SPACING WIDTH. FIG. 8.4 DIM. "A\ FORM TIERS BY HORIZONTALLY FRAMING RIBBONS & LEDGERS AROUND & THRU STAGING AT REGULAR ELEVATIONS MAX. SPACING 6'-6"" BRACING BARS & RIBBONS TO BE CONTINUOUS EN CONTINUOUS eae BRACING & RIBBONS CAN ~ 4 BE FABRICA | USING STAGING PIECES CONNECTED 2 BY BAYONET A “— RIBBONS MUST BE CONNECTORS a“ oF CLAMPED TO ALL B INTERMEDIATE POSTS: AN, c Figure 85 Typical Bracing Requirements 8+ page 11 September 1996— § Chevron i foty in Designs LADDER RUNG ABOVE TOP yt 3 FOR PLATFORM pa STAGING SEE FIG. 8.10 | ADJUST RIBBON }/~~ SPACING TO FIT LADDER RUNGS = 6 MAX. BEARER TWO LADDER ADJUSTABLE CLAMPS REQUIRED COUPLER fore SECTIONAL STAGING LADDER LADDER CLAMP REQUIRED ON oe ALLRIBBONS ALTERNATE SIDES STAGING TAG (THIS TAG IS FOR SUPERVISOR'S NAME, WHO BUILDS THE STAGING, AND DATE) SAFETY YELLOW RIBBONS: is STAGING LADDER CLAMPS ON KICKBAR CLAMP UNDER RUNG p KA ee ot @ ASSEMBLY rire 8.6 Typical Tubular Steel Nomenclature * page 12 Septembor 1996 a ON TOP RIBBON { aSection 8° Scaffolds t ITY STAGING — 3 FRAMES LONG OR LESS STAGING — 4 FRAMES LONG CLAMP TO POST AS CLOSE TO TOP RIBBON (AS POSSIBLE: WITHIN 12°" POST SPACING } eo LENGTHWISE | FIG. 8.4 DIM, “B" r f [~ CLAMP BRACING TO ALL INTERMEDIATE POSTS oor INSTALL BRACING AT = 45° \.4- BRACING SHOULD saaae CLAMP TO AN EXTERIOR POST AS CLOSE TO THE INTERSECTION OF ALEDGER AND RIBBON AS POSSIBLE: x WITHIN 727° pS CLAMP BRACING 5 6 ASCLOSE TO BASE STAGING — 5 FRAMES LONG AT AS POSSIBLE: POLE LINES A&C (SEE FIG. 8.5) WITHIN 12 & To Figure 8,7 Typical Tubular Stee! Diagonal Bracing | September 1996 8° page 13afety in Dosis Ss Chevron a BRACING ACROSS STAGING WIDTH CLAMP TO POST AS CLOSE TO PLATFORM. oy BEARER AS POSSIBLE: POST SPACI ass FIG. 8.4 DIM. ainsi i f CLAMP BRACING TO ALLINTERMEDIATE ~| POSTS LEDGERS MUST BE CLAMPED TO ALL + INTERMEDIATE i POSTS | INSTALL BRACING AT + 45° BRACING SHOULD BE CLAMPED TO EXTERIOR POSTS AS CLOSE TO THE INTERSECTION OF THE ~ RIBBON & LEDGER AS POSSIBLE: WITHIN 12” CONTINUOUS BRACING | BARS RUN BETWEEN ——b-— EXTERIOR POSTS FIRST LEDGER ——py MUST BE INSTALLED LESS THAN 30° ABOVE THE BASE 7 + A B CLAMP AS CLOSE TO BASE AS PRACTICAL: WITHIN 12”” BRACING AT POLE LINE 1,3 &5 (SEE FIG. 8.5) ~ Figure 8.8 Typical Tubular Stee! Cross Bracing: Across With of Scaffold page 14 September 1995 _S Chevron Section 8 Scaffolds TYPICAL SIDE ACCESS LADDER DETAIL PLANKING EX | LADDER MUST TOPOFRAIL | WIDTH BETWEEN POSTS | ot ERO AND, TED 24" MAY ‘ EXTEND ABOVE 20” ae |} Top RAIL. eer EXTEND 12" P ABOVE TOP RAIL TOP OF | ae = F PLANKING eee OUT USE LONG LEDGER ENDS OF TO HANG LADDER (TYP) PLANKS AT. ne | OUTSIDE POST 4 iz a | i Ce t | & L WIDTH 24" : MAX. TYPICAL FRONT ACCESS LADDER DETAIL PLANKING EXTENDS. SEE DETAIL 6" MIN. PAST FIG. 8.13 BEARER BUTLESS - a THAN 18" \ i SEE DETAIL~_7”| FIG. 8.13 . JAIL TOEBOARD TO N PLANKING WITH 8d DOUBLE HEADED NAILS AT 18°C. TOC. | LENGTH Figure 89 Typical Front and Side Access Scaffold Ladders RIBBON OR LEDGER SUPPORTS: MUST NOT INTERFERE WITH RUNGS OF LADDER. ADJUST SPACING TO ACCOMMODATE LADDER September 1996 8+ page 15afety in Designs PLATFORM STAGING TOP RAIL. onan PLANKS Le <— fl \ 2) POST BEARER COUPLER Piaearaete ToEBoaRDS |< Gait er TOEBOARDS: onenos Cy OF PLANKS ON SIDES OF PLANKS RIBBON ER COUPLER FOR BEARER CoaMtPS BELOW (SEE FIG. 8.12) SECTIONAL LADDER WITH BAYONET CONNECTORS USE SAFEWAY LADDERS WHEN STAGING PIECES INTERFERE WITH RUNGS OF STANDARD. SECTIONAL LADDER ‘SAFEWAY LADDER DETAIL SECTIONAL PIECES CONNECT WITH BAYONET FITTING CLAMP SWIVELS TO ATTACH TO POST. OR RIBBON \ PIVOTING _-—“ EYE BOLT BRACKET ADJUSTS VERTICALLY TO PROPER HEIGHT Figure 8.10 Typical Tubular Steel Platform Staging and Ladder B+ page 16 September 1995,ray Section 8* Scaffolds _& Chevron = TYPICAL FOOTING CONNECTION ON TYPICAL FOOTING CONNECTION ON SOILOR GRAVEL CONCRETE OR PAVING WITH LOCKING BAYONET CONNECTOR PosT | ANCHOR WITH 4-60 DOUBLE 7 | HEADED NAILS | | | POST STANDARD “TUBELOX"” BASE NOTE: ADDITIONAL CRIBBING OR CONTINUOUS MUDSILLS MAY BE \ REQUIRED DEPENDING ON THE USESTD. “TUBELOX” = 1-1/8" x 12” x 127 SPECIFIC SOIL AND LOADING BASE (7-3/4'"0) EXTERIOR GRADE CONDITIONS, PLYWOOD TYPICAL FOOTING CONNECTION ON A PLATFORM ANCHOR WITH 4-6d DOUBLE HEADED NAILS — PLATE | PLATFORM SUPPORTS | STANDARD “"TUBELOX” BASE EXTEND PLANK ACROSS NEAREST. PLATFORM SUPPORTS Figure 8.11 Typical Tubular Steel Footing Connections September 1996 8. page 17Safety in Designs LOCKING BAYONET CONNECTOR INSERT AND ROTATE 1/4 TURN TO LOCK. MATCH GROOVES ON MALE AND FEMALE ENDS. DO NOT USE ON BEARERS. STANDARD COUPLER ADJUSTABLE COUPLER FOR LEDGERS, FOR BRACES ONLY BEARERS, KICKBAR & RIBBONS m.— PIVOTING EYE BOLT Figure 8.12 Typical Tubular Steel Connectors and Coupler Be paye 18 ‘September 1986 -Section 8 * Scaffolds | TYPICAL DETAIL FOR GAP IN STAGING | PLANKS OR FRAMING AROUND AN OBSTRUCTION 4" x 6" ACROSS RIBBONS: a STAGING PLANKS TYPICAL FREE END PLANK DETAIL USE 2-8d DOUBLE HEADED NAILS TO SECURE TOEBOARDS ZTE DOWN BAR > OVER PLANKS COUPLED TO POST Figure 8.13 Typical Tubular Steet Planking Details ALTERNATE BEARER CONNECTION BEAREREXTENDS =| THRU COUPLER 1/2" BUT LESS THAN 5” PROJECTION TYPICAL DETAIL FOR INTERMEDIATE OUTSIDE POST 4x6 xenaest BBONS AT POST, “PROJECTION BEARER OVER. RIBBON WHICH \ BEARER EXTENDS THRU IS COUPLED COUPLER 1/2" BUT LESS TOPOST THAN 6” PROJECTION Low COUPLED KS CLOSE Rens ossBLE | ‘TO POST BEARER OVER RIBBON COUPLED TO RIBBON i STANDARD COUPLER | ‘AGAINST RIBBON. j EMPTY TO CARRYLOAD 2-160 NAILS EACH END / tw . PLANK OR LARGER / 2X10 STAGING STANDARD COUPLERAGAINST. RIBBON EMPTY TO CARRYLOAD September 1996 8+ page 19aiety in Designs TYPICAL “TCC” CLAMP DETAIL | _ INSTALL CLAMPS AS CLOSE TO AN INTERSECTION OF Ri UBOLTS AROUND STAGING —~, TEDGEAS AS POSSIBLE PLATE BEARS AGAINST Mytaeceicyery ~ "TCC CLAMP" 1/4" PLATE WITH 2-1/2" x 8" UBOLTS TYPICAL TIE DETAIL SUBSTANTIAL SUPPORT: u COLUMN, BEAM, OR POST PLATFORM SUPPORT _ DOUBLE WRAP — #12 ANNEALED IRON WIRE MAKE TIES AT AN INTERSECTION OF POST, RIBBON AND LEDGER ari TYPICAL DETAIL USING STAGING PIECES CLAMP TO RIBBON CLAMP. STAGING PIPE ‘Figure 8.14 Typical Tubular Steel Tie and Clamap Details * page 20 September 1996 ~A Guide to Practical Scaffolding The Construction and Use of Basic Access Scaffolds All dimensions given in this book conform to the standard dimensions specified in the Construction (Metrication) Regulations 1984 and BS 5973:1990 Code of Practice for Access and Working Scaifolds. All operations carried out in relation to scaffolding and described in this book must conform with the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations. CITB cestsCONTENTS Foreword PART 1 — Basic Scaffolding Common Scaffolding Definitions Basic Scaffold Requirements Materials Scaffold Foundations Ties Working Platforms Ladders Manual Lifting and Handling Ropes, Knots and Hitches Raising and Lowering Materiais Organisation and Working Methods Obstacles and Hazards - Protective Fans PART 2 - Basic Scaffold Structures Independent Tied Scatfoids Putlog Scatfolds Birdcage Access Scatfolds Tower Scattolds System Scaffolds Glossary of Terms Index Page 18 19 25 34 40 47 60 64 69 74 81 89 95 103 ant 119 127 135FOREWORD Scaffolding is one of the highest risk occupations in this country and, unfortunately, every year there are deaths and numerous injurles caused by accidents associated with scafiolds. This book was first published in 1985. It is a practical guide, not only for scaffolders but also for project managers, site agents, foremen, engineers, home users and others. Its use should minimise the chances of accidents occurring ~ accidents which often have appalling consequences. The training and assessment of scaffolding operatives in the construction industry has been addressed at great length in recent years, with the linking together of the building and civil engineering industry Record Scheme for Scaffolders and National/Scottish Vocational Qualifications. The contents of this book now mirror closely the requirements of the aforementioned schemes as well as including recent changes to scaffolding requirements. These have come about as a result of the new Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996. ae Hugh Try Chairman CITBPart 1 Basic Scaffolding—— COMMON SCAFFOLDING DEFINIHONS ————— Over the years scatfolders in different regional areas of the British Isles have evolved their own terminology, their own particular names for the various types of scaffold and scaffold fitfings in common use. This chapter explains in simple terms the common names of the basic components, where they are placed in the structure and the job they do. At the end of this book you will find a full glossary of the terminology used in the industry. Standards (also known as uprights) are the vertical tubes which carry the entire load tothe ground. Each standard should have a base piate which, by spreading the load, prevents the end of the tube from sinking into the ground. The Base Plate is made from stee! and has a central shank to locate the tube. Sometimes the base plate is nailed or pinned to a sole boardto stop lateral movement, particularly if no foot tie or kicker liftis employed. The Sole Board or Sole Plate is necessary, particularly on soft ground, as a means of spreading the weight over a greater area. Mai wansom \ Ledgers are the horizontal tubes which connect and support the standards and act as supports for transoms. The vertical spaces between ledgers are governed by the use for which the scaffold is intended. Main Transoms are placed horizontally at right-angles across the ledgers, adjacent to each pair of standards; or connected directly to each pair of standards. They hold both rows of standards in position, help make the scaffold more rigid and also act as scaifold board supports. Intermediate Transoms are placed across the ledgers between the main transoms and act as scaffold board supports, sometimes referred to as ‘board bearers’,Scatfold Couplers There is a wide variety of couplers available and their use and maintenance depends upon the type of fitting and its application. All fittings shouldbe lightly oiled and kept free from rust. The description and use of these items is covered in the chapter headed ‘Materials’. An example is shown below. Swivel Coupler Joint Pins (or Spigots) are used to connect tubes end-to-end. The joint pin (spigot) is inserted into the ends of the tubes and the centre bolt tightened, causing the two parts of the spigot to expand and grip the inside of the tubes. This fitting should not be’used in positions where it will be subject to bending or tension. Joint Pin (or Spigot) Sleeve Coupler Sleeve Couplers, generally called sleeves, are also used to connect tubes end-to- end, This fitting has a resistance to bending, at least equal to any tube. It has a safe working tension of 815 kaBASIC SCAFFOLD REQUIREMENTS The primary reason for erecting a scaffold is to support a working platform. Most consituction work involves working at heights which cannot easily or safely be reached from the ground or part of the building. By law, an employer must provide a safe working platform and a safe and convenient means of access. All scaffolds are subject to the Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1993 and BS 5973, the Code of Practice for Access and Working Scaffolds and Special Scaffold Structures in Steel. No scaffold should be erected, altered or dismantled except under the supervision of a competent and experienced person, and as far as possible by experienced scatfolders. Scaffolds erected or altered by people who have no knowledge or experience are liable to be dangerous and unsafe. Scaffolds must be rigid, built of sound materials on good foundations and be well secured 40 the building or structure. In public places, scaffolds must be well lit or have warning lights fitted at the base. Warning notices should be displayed on incomplete scaffolds and precautions taken to ensure that no unauthorised persons, (particularly children and other members of the public), can gain access to the scaffold at any time, In this introduction to scaffolding requirements reference will be made to the various critical aspects of scaffolds. Each subject is dealt with in greater detail under separate chapter headings, but is summarised below. MATERIALS Materials used to build a scaffold must be in good condition. Steel items should be free from rust; fittings should be well serviced and free from excessive oil or grease which may cause the fitting to slip. Boards should be clean and in good condition; the ends bound or nail-plated, and not split or warped and twisted. Scaffold boards should not be painted or treated in any way to conceal defects. :Standards Standards are the vertical element of the scaffold framework and as such carry the weight of the structure and its load. Standards must be vertical. The spacing of standards is determined by the intended use of the scaffold, the distance between standards being reduced as the expected load increases. Table 1 {page 12) abstracted from BS 5978 gives details of the maximum bay length (standard spacing) for different types of scaffold; the most common being 2.1 m for a general purpose scaffold. This is reduced to 2m for a heavy duty scaffold and fo 1,8. m for a scaffold being used for carrying out masonry and sionework The wiath of the working platform, and thus the distance between the front and back rows of standards is also determined by the purpose for which the scaffold is intended with a minimum permissible width of 600. This is usually expressed in terms of ‘the number of boards wide’ for example a four-board scaffold would usually require a width spacing of 870 mm from centre to centre of each standard. This measurement would only vary to accommodate different types of couplers, Joints in standards should be staggered, that is, joints should not occur at the same level in adjacent standards. Joints can be made with spigots, but can be strengthened with lapped tubes, or sleeve couplers, depending on the load, ae | Y All joints should be staggered and kept as close to the node point (the junction of standard and ledger) as practicablesupports for 38 mm scaffold boards or 2.6 m for 50 mm boards. The length of the = Transoms or putlogs should never be laid more than 1.5 m apart when used as putlog or transoms will be determined by the width of the proposed platform, which in tum will be decided by the use for which it is intended with a minimum width of 600 mm. \ / Main Transoms. Intermediate Transoms Intermediate Transoms If the litt is to be boarded over as a working platform, intermediate transoms will be required to support the boards. These are fixed across ledgers with putlog couplers, normally in the centre of each bay, although additional intermediate transoms may be required to support short boards. They may safely be removed and used elsewhere in the structure when the platform is no longer required. Ties To ensure that the scaffold framework cannot move away from, or towards the structure, it must be stabilized. This is normally achieved by securing the scaffold framework to the building with positive two-way ties. Ties are discussed in detail under the relevant chapter heading on page 25. Ties must not be removed, except by an experienced and competent scatfolder, who must ensure that the stability of the scaffold is not jeopardised. If removed for access or any other purpose, alternative ties must first be fixed to maintain the stability of the scaffold. Ties must be checked at regular intervals, and re-checked again before dismantling. Braces All scaffold structures must be braced in both directions. Facade (or sway braces) should be fitted along the outer face of the scaffold, from the base to the full height of the structure. In the case of large structures a brace must be fixed every 30m or less along the face and can be continuous or placed acros each bay ina zigzag (dog-leg) fashion. Joints in facade braces must be made with sleeve couplers, If joint pins (spigots) are used each joint must be strengthened with a lapped tube.Oversail Puncheon as. ‘a handhold Close boarded platform > standards spaced ~~ tesvppon leads up vou > adder slope LOADS ON SCAFFOLDS Care must be taken to see that any load does not exceed the permissible limits (see Table 1 for details of distributed loads). Materials should be distributed as evenly as possibly with heavy items, bricks, etc. stacked near to standards. INSPECTION All inspection should be as laid down in the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996MATERIALS Scaffolding materials consist primarily of tubes, boards and couplers. Additional items such as ropes, gin wheels and ladders are covered in individual chapters conceming these items. The care and maintenance of tubes, boards and fittings is of prime importance as it affects both safety and profitability. All scaffolding materials must be inspected before use by a competent and experienced scaffolder and unserviceable items discarded. Unserviceable items should be clearly marked and removed from the site to prevent their accidental use by others. SCAFFOLD TUBES Tubes should be manufactured and tested in accordance with BS 1139 Part 4 ‘Specification for tubes for use in scaffolding’. creer Three main types of tube are in common use: * Black steel tubes * Galvanised steel tubes * Aluminium alloy tubes Both black steel and galvanised steel tubes have the same dimensions with galvanised tubes being more resistant to corrosion. These common dimensions are: © Outside diameter, 48.3 mm * Nominal wall thickness, 4.0 mm © Weight, 4.4 kg/m Aluminium tube has the same outside diameter as steel, but is slightly thicker and much lighter. It is more flexible than steel and is not as strong. For this reason aluminium tube should not be used on the same lft as steel tube, However, advantage may be taken of the best characteristics of the two materials by placing aluminium tube on top of steel tube in tall scaffold structures, The common dimensions of aluminium tube are as follows: * Outside diameter, 48.3 mm * Nominal wall thickness, 4.5 mm © Weight, 1.7 kgim Aluminium tube is tempered, using heat, during manufacture. Any further heat applied to the tube may weaken it. Lightly corroded tubes should be cleaned with a wire brush and the extent of damage assessed by a competent and experienced scaffolder. Bent steel tubes may be straightened using a rolling machine, but bent aluminium tube should be discarded.SCAFFOLD BOARDS Nearly all scaffold boards are manufactured from sawn and seasoned timber. Boards should comply with BS 2482 ‘Specification for Timber Scaffold Boards’. This identifies the types of wood which may be used in the manufacture of scaffold boards and recommends a method of testing to assess their bending strength. Timber boards come in three thicknesses, 38 mm, 50 mm and 63 mm and are normally 225 mm wide and 3.90 m long. Shorter boards are used when necessary. The most common board is 225 mm x 38 mm in cross section. Steel Decking and Laminated Boards A number of firms market stagings which are made of steei or aluminium or laminated boards. These come in a variety of widths. Safe spans are quoted in the manufacturer's literature and timber items should comply with BS 1129. ‘Timber ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight staging for industrialuse’. These are often ised in conjunction with proprietary systems of scaffolding. Portable aluminium ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight stagings are covered by BS 2037. Identification of Boards Each board should be identified with the following information clearly marked on it: * The British Standard number (BS 2482) * The identification mark of the supplier * The letter M or Vi denoting machine or visually graded * The word ‘support’, followed by the maximum span in metres over which the board has to be supported followed by the abbreviation 'max’ e.g. BS 2482 AB Co. M support 1.5 max This is normally given on the hoop irons or nail plates which provide board end protection. Alternatively, a special identification plate may be used. Inspection and Maintenance Care should be taken of boards in use. No overstressing should be allowed, e.g. that caused by impact loading, Boards being used as ramps or as platforms over long spans should be supported reguiarly; they should not be placed where vehicular or other loads can be put on them. Boards showing any evidence of damage from vehicles, e.g. tyre marks, should be destroyed. 15SCAFFOLD COUPLERS Sometimes called scaffold ‘fittings’, these are designed and tested to British Standard specifications. Because of the diversity of design, many fittings achieve higher SWL (safe working loads) than those laid down by the British Standard and it would be impossible and improper to quote the different company fittings and values. All SWLs and values quoted in this manual are those specified by the British Standard. Right-angle Couplers, aiso called Doubles, are always used to connect ledgers to standards. They are designed and tested to achieve a right-angled connection with a minimum safe working load of 685 kg. Putlog Couplers, also called Clips and Singles, are used to connect transoms to ledgers; they are only suitable for light duty use (sometimes referred to as non-load bearing). They must be capable of passing the slip test as specified by the British Standards. Swivel Couplers are used to connect tubes at any angle; normally used to connect braces to standards and occasionally to make parallel joints. Swivel couplers should never be used as right-angle couplers. 17SCAFFOLD FOUNDATIONS Any structure, whether it be a house or a multi-storey block of flats, must have foundations capable of carrying the load safely for its entire life. This also applies to scaffolds. The foot of any standard or upright must be adequately founded on a suitable base plate in order to prevent slipping or sinking, or its displacement shall be prevented in some other way. BS 5973 Sections 11,1 to 11.7,also cover foundations and should be read in conjunction with this section. FOUNDATIONS In general the foundations for a scaffold must be adequate to carry and spread the load imposed, both locally at each standard, and to collectively carry the whole weight of the scaffold. Itis the responsibility of the scaffolder to ensure that the foundations are of adequate strength to support the scaffold, but in practice this is done in consultation with the scaffolding sub-contractor. The foundation for a scaffold must be maintained in an adequate condition during the life of the scaffold. Base Plates Hard surfaces ~ such as steel and concrete. Where there is a sufficient strength and thickness to prevent the scaffold tube penetrating into the surface, the uprights of a scaffold may be placed directly on the surface, although it is recommended that base plates should always be used. Surfaces of intermediate hardness — such as pavements, hard asphalt, timber and flooring. Where there is a possibility of the standards deforming the surface, base plates or metal packing plates should be used at the bottom of each standard. Sole Boards On any type of flooring or paving which would be penetrated by a standard with a base plate beneath it, or ff there is doubt about the surface, there should be a further spreading of the load by a sole board of timber or other suitable material When a sole board is used, the sole board beneath any one standard should be at east 1,000 cm®, with no horizontal dimension less that 22 cm. If the sole board is of timber, it should not be less than 3.5 om thick. On sites where the ground is soft or has been disturbed, the total area of each sole board should not be less than 1,700 em? when used under individual standards (e.g. under hoist towers) and not less than 3,400 cm? when combined under two standards. in this case, if the sole board is of timber, it may be necessary for this to be more than 3.5 cm thick (see table page 6). Heavy duty scaffolds and poor ground will require stronger foundations. 19This diagram shows the correct method for founding the scaffold shown on the previous page. Note that cross braces have been added to transfer loading away from the base of those standards which are near the tranch. BASIC RULES 1. The ground must be capable of supporting the scaffold, 2. The sole boards must be capable of spreading the weight of the structure without distortion. ‘Two standards per sole board are better than one. 4. Sole boards placed at right-angles to the building should not project too far beyond the face of the scaffold. 5. Sole boards should not be undermined. 24Pavement Scaffold Foundations The next illustration identifies some of the problems facing a scaffolder when trying to found on a pavement. Apart from the normal problems of founding, it may be necessary to remove the base lift braces for public access. Consideration should be given to the need for additional ties near the base. The illustration highlights some of the difficulties which can be avoided with foresight. If the pavement surface is tarmac, every standard should have a sole board, Sometimes pavernent lights may have been covered with tarmac and it is important to check this, Pavement slabs are normally adequate to take the weight of access scaffolds. positioned Inspection Sea public ‘covers Light duty access scaffolds can be founded on pavements, without sole boards, provided the pavement is capable of supporting the scaffoid, i.e. paving slabs of a continuous concrete paving. 23TIES Stability Soaffolds are often erected to subsiantial heights, and to ensure the stability of the scaffold it is necessary to tie it to the adjacent structure, The system of tubes which prevent movement either towards or away from the structure is referred to as a ‘lie’ GENERAL RULES Ties usually pass through the facade of the structure and should be secured to the scaffold with load-bearing right-angle couplers, as close to a node point (the junction of standard and ledger) as possible. In certain cases the tie may not be at right angles to the structure in which case swivel couples may be used. At least half of the ties should be ‘positive’, two-way ties; that is they should prevent movement both towards and away from the building, and not depend on friction (as in the case of a reveal tie — see illustration on page 29) or merely restrict movernent in one direction. It is important to ensure that the building is strong enough to sustain the load which will be transferred to it via the tie. Parapets or decorative architectural features, balustrades, railings, etc, are seldom strong enough for this purpose and should not be relied upon. The tie tube should always be horizontal or slope slightly downwards away from the building, and preferably be attached to both standards, or to both jedgers at a point not ‘more than 300 mm from a braced standard. Where wire or banded ties are used they should be turned round a node point or otherwise be prevented from slipping along a ledger or upright by fixing safety couplers either side of the point of attachment; and butt transoms should be used in addition. A butt transom, as the name implies, being one which butts hard up against the structure being served by the scaffold. NUMBER AND POSITION OF TIES Scatfold ties should be fixed every 25 m? of the face area and be evenly spaced, both horizontally and vertically, at least every 6 m. For independent scaffolds where ties will not be removed the spacing may be increased to one tie every 40 mé, evenly spaced. It should be remembered that the figures above are the minimum requirements on reasonably standard scaffold, and that it is often wise to put in additional ties. The basic rules of thumb worth remembering are. * Space ties every other lift and every 6 m along the face of the scaffold * Ties should be fixed with load-bearing couplers, as close to the node points as possible © Avoid the use of reveal ties where possible. At least half of the ties on a scaffold must be ‘positive’ * Take full advantage of structural features of the building e.g. pillars, columns, lintels, rebates, eto. to provide additional strength and stability to the tie 25‘Thea ahold oped ‘comm ar porcine | Sino coats Box Ties These ties take advantage of the physical characteristics of a building and consist of an assembly of tubes and couplers fixed around convenient columns and other features of the building, being wedged where necessary to resist both the inward and outward pull of the scaffold and to provide additional lateral stability. Box ties should be set preferably at lift level and be secured to both inside and outside ledgers on standards unless this is likely to obstruct free access through the scaffold, in which case they may be fixed to a single inside standard. Load-bearing couplers should be used. 27Itis important to ensure that the facade material forms an integral part of the building ————-struetufe-and-is-not merely cladding with litte or ne actual-strength,-as-in-the-case-of timber-iramed housing or system-built structures, Ring botts, tie rings, etc., which rely on an expanding wedge to secure the anchor into a pre- drilled hole should not be overtightened. Where appropriate the special tool supplied by the manufacturers should be used to fix the anchor, and the ring bolt or other fixing inserted and tightened by hand, Drilled in ties should be tested before use by a competent scaffolder. They will be prevented from becoming unscrewed by the tube or band passing through the ring. sonore ensepen ems po ! Oni saan canis em ski orc Reveal Ties Itis not always possible to provide a positive tie such as a box tie, or to drill the face of a building for screw or anchor ties. In these circumstances, a reveal tie may sometimes be used. A reveal tie relies on a tube (the'reveal tube) being wedged tightly between two opposite and parallel faces in the building structure, such as the opposing sides of a winclow opening or the underside of a lintel and the sill. The most common device is a threaded bar and nut (calied a ‘reveal screw pin’) which can be adjusted, expanding the reveal tube assembly into the opening, and gripping it with considerable force. It is frequently necessary to use some form of packing at end of the reveal tube to prevent damage to the building surface. A 150 mm x 150 mm piece of plywood, 10 mm thick is usually adequate for this purpose — excessive packing should be avoided as it may shrink and reduce the grip, causing the reveal tube to become loose, The tie tube should be fixed to the reveal tube with a right-angle coupler, as near as. possible to the end opposite the reveal pin and in all cases within 150 mm of the face of the opening. It should also be fixed to the scaffold in two places with right-angle couplers, as for through ties. Every opportunity should be taken to take use the architectural features (structural not decorative) of the building to provide additional security and stability, 29First Working Lift When a working lift is required at 1.35 m as in a putlog scaffold, or at 2 m height in the case of an independent scaffold and no firm part of the building has as yet been constructed to attach a tie, the scaffold may be temporarily stabilised by use of rakers. When only two ties are required as in the case of a small house scaffold (without returns), rakers should be located, one elther end. Rakers may also be used during the dismantling of a scaffold if itis not possible to stabilise the structure in any other way. TIES r© 7} — These Ties have replaced the Brace. Or They cannot be removed Braces removed for access. + Critical Tie do NOT | remove. Normal Tie. be Ties are essential to the stability of a scaffold. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, the criteria governing the number and position of ties (BS 5973) distinguishes between scattolds where a tie is likely to be removed and scaffolds with non-movable ties - and between sheeted and non-sheeted scaffolds. It should be emphasised, however, that no tie should be removed without ensuring there are sufficient alternative ties in place to prevent any reduction in the scaffold’s stability A critical tie is a tie which has been placed in a scaffold (a) Where ledger to ledger braces have been removed Where a protective fan is erected Where a cantilevered ladder stage, loading or landing stage is erected (d) In the centre of a bridged scaffold The illustration opposite shows some examples. The scatfold was originally erected with normal ties at points A, B and C. The cantilevered ladder access must include a critical tie. Where the diagonal braces have been removed, on the fourth, sixth and seventh levels, additional ties must be added at points E and F. However, because braces are removed from two consecutive lifts, (numbers 6 and 7), the normal tie at point C will also be a critical tie, (b) {c) Remember, ordinary ties can be repositioned. Critical ties must not be removed. 31SCAFFOLD TIES - Checklist 1. 2 10, Can the scaffold move away or toward the building? Are all the ties fixed with load-bearing couplers? All ties should be fixed with right angle couplers — unless ties are placed at a different angle — when they may be fixed with swivel couplers. Are all ties correctly positioned? The best ties are connected to two standards, preferably braced, If the ties are connected to ledgers the connection is best made within 300 mm of the standards Are there a sufficient number of ties? In the absence of expert advice, detailing larger spacing requirements, ties should be fixed on alternate lifts to the full height of the scaffold and at every 6 malong its entire length. Reveal ties should not exceed 50% of the total number of ties. Are all the critical ties intact and secure? Remember critical ties are essential at any cantilevered point (fans, loading bays) and where braces have been removed for access. Remember never allow the removal of critical ties without expert advice from a competent scaffolder. Have any alterations been made to the scaffold? Check items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 very carefully at the points where alterations have been made. Ensure reveal ties have been physically checked and tightened. Ensure all anchorage points for screw or anchor ties are strong enough! Always doubie check the ties after adverse weather (especially high winds). If in doubt - seek advice from the experts. 33Boarded Lifts The spacing of putlogs and transoms used to support a boarded platform is determined by the strength and thickness of the boards used. For 38 mm boards this must not exceed 1.5 m and for 50 m boards, not exceed 2.6 m, In practice, a standard 38 mm board, 3.9 m Jong must be supported at four places. “Two boards, upto 1.0 m ong, fixed each end 0 @ suport Board, upto 2.13 mong, Fixed 0 three supports 10 prevent ting The space between the edge of the working platform and the building must be as. small as possible. Boards must rest firmly and evenly on their supports. BS 5973 states that boards should overhang their supports by not less than 50 mm and not more than 150 mm in the case of 38 mm boards (200 mm for 50 mm boards) unless they have been secured against tipping, Short boards tip more easily than those of a full length (3.9 m). To be safe, short boards (less than 1.8 m long) should be fixed at both ends. The platform, wherever possible, should extend at least 600 mm beyond the end of any wall or working face. This distance is known as the aversail, see sketch page 34. Tripping hazards can be minimised by fitting bevelled pieces, or fillets, where boards overlap. As a general rule, boards should be laid with their ends butted, 356-8 boards wide ~ these are used by stonemasons and other who may require to dress or shape stone or undertake other heavy work, or to support a higher platform These wider platforms are outside the scope of this book; they should only be erected under the supervision of a qualified scaffold design engineer. Guard-rails and Toe-boards Every platform where a person could fall 2 m or more must be provided with guard- tails and toe-boards (or barriers). These legal requirements are summarised pictorially below: Guard-rails and toe-boards may be removed for temporary access, but must be replaced as soon as possible. Where materials are likely to be stacked above the height of the toe-boards, a stack of bricks for example, brick guards or other, similar barriers must be erected to prevent materials falling off, endangering those below. ai eal a ce = ——— ee : = a Lf com + H Pan vow datal A, rt 37Gangways and Runs Gangways and runs should be at least 600 mm wide if used only for access, and at least three boards wide if used for barrowing materials. Gangways, and runs should be set level if possible but may slope up to 1:4. If the slope is more than this, stepping Jaths must be provided which may incorporate a gap, not more than 100 mm wide for the barrow wheel, Like all other platforms, where a person could fall 2 m or more, gangways and runs must be provided with guard-rails and toe-boards. Gap for barrow whee! Keeping the Platform Clear One of the greatest dangers associated with working platforms is that caused by obstructions to free access and movement. Working platforms must be kept free from unnecessary obstructions which can cause tripping and falling incidents, Materials should not be stored on the working platform unless required for immediate use, They should be evenly distributed over the entire length of the platform, and care taken to stack heavy items as near to the standards as possible, Rubbish must be removed regularly and trailing cables, ropes etc., clipped up out of the way. The load on the platform must never exceed the design limits (see Table 1 page 12). 39Inspection of Ladders Stiles - check stiles for warping, splintering, cracking, bruising (which admits moisture into the timber and encourages decay). The feet of the stiles are particularly vulnerable to damage. Rungs ~ rungs should not be worn or missing. Examine rungs especially at point where they enter stiles. If they are wedged, these should be correctly positioned, Grasp the rungs firmly and twist to make sure non rotate. Soundness of construction.— take each end of the ladder in tum and try to pull stiles apart - then push together. Movernent will indicate a defective ladder. A further check should be made by laying the ladder flat, raising one end and attempting to push one stile while pulling the other. If the stiles can be removed relative to each other in this way, the rungs are loose. Check that metal tie rodss are in place and secure and that none are missing. Damaged or Worn Ladders Defective ladders must be taken out of service as soon as the fault or damage is discovered. They should be marked clearly ‘DEFECTIVE — DO NOT USE! and remain out of use until repaired. Where it is not possible or practical to repair a ladder which is unfit for use, it should be destroyed immediately. Carrying Ladders Short ladders can be carried by one person either vertically against the shoulder or horizontally across the shoulder as shown in the illustration above. 4Placing Ladder The angle at which a ladder is set up against a structure should be 75° or a ratio of 4 up to 1 out. The base of the ladder should rest on firm, even ground. Never pack one side of the ladder to compensate for uneven ground; either level the ground or, alternatively, bury the foot of the ladder so that it stands evenly. On soft earth, put a board down. The essential point is that the foot of the ladder should rest on a secure, stable base. Never attempt to gain extra height by placing the ladder on boxes, drums or any other type of makeshift platform. If it is not long enough for the job, get a longer one! Ladders must project at least 1.0 m above the landing place. The landing rung should be level with or slightly above the working platform. There should be space above each rung for a proper foothold. Ensure the foot cannot become trapped between rungs and obstructions behind the ladder. Where ladders are positioned on intermediate platforms these should be close boarded and provided with toe-boards and guard-rails. NOTE: When moving or placing ladders, beware of overhead power lines and other electrical hazards. 43Use of Ladders A secure footing is essential in any ladder work and this requires sound footwear with soles in good condition; free of mud or grease. In wet or icy weather extra care will be necessary to maintain a secure footing. Check there is nobody else on the ladder before climbing or descending it. Always face the ladder and hold anto the stiles, not the rungs. Thighs and hips should be kept between the stiles and feet should be placed in the middle of the rungs; ladders are not designed for any degree of side loading. Do not climb higher than the third rung from the top. Try to avoid carrying up materials and tools. If a hoist line is available, it should be used. Alternatively, tools may be carried up in pockets, on a belt designed for the purpose, or ina bag. Whichever method is used, it should leave both hands free to hold onto the ladder. Overreaching or stretching whilst on a ladder is extremely dangerous and can lead to loss of balance. If the work area cannot be reached, move the ladder or obtain a longer one as appropriate. 45—_— MANUAL LIFTING AND HANDLING ———___ When there is a need to manually move any object at all, reference must be made to the Manual Handling and Work Regulations. Of the serious accidents in the building and construction industry each year 30% involve injuries sustained through manual lifting and handling of materials and equipment. A further 30% are caused by slips and falls. A scaffolder spends most of his time lifting and handling scaffolding material under a variety of conditions. The nature of the job dictates that he must be mentally alert to the inherent dangers of a physically strenuous job. Muscles and joints can be strained by sudden and awkward movements, twisting or jerking whilst lifting or carrying a load, or by attempting to lit too heavy a load. Back injuries are common. They may be the cumulative effect of repeated minor injuries or the result of abrupt strain. The risk of injury can be reduced by adopting a correct mental attitude, which encourages good lifting techniques. Stoop lifting should be avoided; it greatly increases the chance of back injury. The stress imposed on a rounded back is much greater than if the trunk is kept upright, using the leg and thigh muscles to power the litt The illustration shows an example of stoap lifting, The trunk is twisted to enable the hand to reach down to the load, which is grasped by the finger-tips, and the knees have been locked to prevent the man overbalancing. The muscles in the lower back are about to do the workand will come under great strain as the worker attempts to simultaneously straighten up and lift the load. The consequence of this may be a slipped disc or torn back muscles [" DIAGRAM DEPICTS DANGEROUS PRACTICE Kinetic Lifting The kinetic method of lifting enables the worker to make full use of the body's own weight and momentum to initiate the lift. The natural shape of the spine is maintained throughout (although the body may be bent forward the spine should remain straight) and the lit is powered by the strong leg and thigh muscles. This method of lifting involves the minimum amount of muscular effort and reduces stress and fatigue. 47not only straighten the neck; but the whole spine and it will bring about many other corrections in body movement, automatically lifting the chest and preparing the arms for a mare efficient action. This head action should be carried out at the initial stage of all liting movements. Head The head should be gently raised and the chin tucked firmly in. This will Straight Back A bent back is a weak back. It will lead to excessive muscular tension and damage to the spine. It will also undermine shoulder and arm afficiency. Generally, if the correct head position is adopted, the back can be kept straight, even if it is not vertical. The back should straighten automatically, prior to the hands taking the load. The illustration shows a difficult lift; the feet are well planted, the knees well positioned and the back straightened as the chin is being drawn in. Arms Arms should be as close to the body as possible. The further the arms are extended the greater the strain. The elbows should be kept into the body. Grip A good grip is essential for the scaffolder as he spends the majority of his time handling tube which because of its shape, is difficult to grasp. Whenever possible, one hand should be below the load, with most of the weight being taken by the palm and roots of the fingers. 49___LIFTING SCAFFOLD TUBES The following sequences show some of the common handling and lifting tasks required of scaffolders every day. Safety Check Before lifting, check ~ (a) _ that the area is clear of any tripping hazards (b) that your action will not endanger anybody (c) that you are capable of liting the load Lifting a Long Tube The correct foot position has been adopted — front foot in the direction of the lift, the rear foot ready to thrust behind the load. The chin is still to be tucked in, but the back is straight. The tube is lifted — the feet have been adjusted to allow the lifter to walk to the centre of the tube using a hand over hand movement to maintain the weight of the load. The chin has been tucked in thus maintaining a straight back.As the lift nears the correct height the feet have begun the adjustment which will allow the body to turn under the tube and allow the shoulder to receive the weight. The load has been released by the load bearing hand and transferred to the shoulder, the other hand is kept in position to steady the tube. The feet have nearly completed the adjustments. The shoulder hand has been placed into the steadying position, the feet have completed the adjustments and so allowed the body to. complete the tum safely. The lift is complete, and the carry can begin. To place the tube back on the ground, the actions are reversed. 53Having butted the tube it can be raised above the head and with the bodyweight behind the tube, and the palms and heels of the hands bearing the weight, the tube can be walked to a near upright position, The tube is now ready to be lifted, with the knees unlocked, the back straight and the chin tucked in, the bodyweight is positioned to resist the movement of the tube. NOTE: The high hand forefinger is again acting as a sensor To begin the lift, the knees bend and both hands maintain the same distance apart by sliding down the tube equally. This will incline the tube even more towards the lifter, who accommodates the movement by slightly bending the high arm — which is the arm that is about to take the entire load — the bottom hand is only acting as a guide and restraint. 85______Lifting Short Tube: sete This method is normally used when lifting short tubes (between 1.5 m and 2.4 m) which are placed at ground level. The natural position is adopted for selection of tube. As the initial selection is made by inserting the fingers into the ends of the tubes, it is essential to ensure they are free of sharp edges. As soon as they are clear of the ground the free hand is placed under the tubes to assist in control. NOTE: Three tubes have been raised although the third one is hidden by the other two. The tubes are now upright and can be adjusted to form a pyramid pattern with the base toward the shoulder. The knees have remained unlocked; back is still straight. The feet have made the necessary adjustments. Chin remains firmly tucked in. The bodyweight is still behind the load. 87The illustrations have shown a man lifting tubes at ground level. It can be clearly seen that the job is physically strenuous. Scaffold tubes are unwieldly and difficult to handle. The problem is even more difficult when tubes are handled vertically. The scaffolder has to use the same handling skills when working on a three or four board wide platform a considerable height above the ground. Apart from using the correct techniques a scaffolder must be even more careful in making the usual pre-lift checks when handling long tubes vertically. The final illustrations show some of the dangers which may be encountered. TH DAGRAN DEES copings fea ane \ Sanibe sien at / Electricity oF tele- phone cables et // Open windows Wen Ho Ornate sills Tube ends should be good and sleeve or spigot serviceable inadequate temporary platform Some hazards which might be encountereda re and Use of Fibre Ropes a Fibre rope, like wire rope, can be damaged while it is being removed from the shipping coil. A new coil or rope, should be laid flat on the floor and unwound through the coil in a counter-clockwise direction. Even when the rope is unwound carrectly, loops and kinks may form and these must be carefully removed, fo avoid damage to the rope. After use, the rope should be re-coiled in a clockwise direction. When coiling the rope remove kinks as they form Storage Poor storage can cause fibre rope to deteriorate as rapidly as harsh use. In order to keep ropes in good condition for as long as possibie: Store them in a dry coo! room that has good air circulation Do not store ropes on the floor, in boxes, or in cupboards where the air circulation is restricted. They should be hung up in loose coils on large- diameter wooden pegs well above the floor Protect ropes from wet weather and sunlight. They should be kept away from boilers, radiators, steam pipes and other sources of heat and all exhaust gases Dry and clean wet ropes before storing them. Moisture not only hastens decay but also causes the rope to kink very easily. Ita wet rope becomes frozen, it must not be disturbed until it is completely thawed, otherwise the frozen fibres willtbreak when handled. Allow wet and frozen rope to dry naturally. Too much heat will cause the fibres to become brittle and the rope will be Unfit for further service. Use of Ropes Never overload a rope Never drag a rope along the ground. The outside will be damaged and grit will become embedded and destroy the intemal fibres Never drag a rope over sharp or rough edges and never drag one part of a rope over another Avoid all but straight line pulls with rope; a knot or bend will weaken it by approximately 50% Pack all sharp comers when lifting materials, to prevent them abrading the rope When a wire rope is attached to a hook or ring a thimble should be placed in the loop or eye to reduce the wear on the rope Never use fibre rope near welding or flare cutting operations. The sparks and molten metal can damage the rope or set it on fire. Avoid exposure to all forms of heat 61Timber Hitch Suitable for lifting boards, sometimes used in conjunction with a half-hitch Square Lashing Used in scaffolding to secure ladders to the scaffold structure. Begin the lashing with a clove hitch and pass the rope over and behind the transom or ledger and back in front of the ladder stile four times. Make two trapping tums and finish if with another clove hitch. Lash both stiles. Square Lashing 63 Timber HitchLight line, sometimes called a ‘hand line’, is often used on scaffolds up to 15 m high. Tubes, boards or sacks of fillings are tied to the lower end of a 13 mm fibre rope and then hauled up by hand. It is essential to adopt a safe position when doing this. This involves using a standard for support, ane leg being placed behind the standard to act as an anchor and prevent the lifter from overbalancing, Body positioned behind standard Back straight - Knee slightly bent Crouch Back tends position to bend Leg Feet S placed planted behind & firmly either side on i of ledger B standard Foot position wide _ Rope attached in wrong place TAG DENTS | CANNOT OVERBALANCE STANDARD ACTS AS | AN ANCHOR DANGenoun PRACT COULD OVERBALANCE NO FAILSAFE BACKUP 65OTA, | \ o ! ee Io Zz p G p \ The maximum load that should be raised or lowered by a gin wheel and rope at any one time is 50 kg. The load imposed on the scaffold will be double that being lifted. Make reference to Manual Handling and Work Regulations. Care should be taken particularly when lowering materials. If the weight is too great either the man lowering the load will weigh less than the load and will be pulled off his jeet; or the complete assembly may collapse. 67ORGANISATION AND WORKING METHODS oa Erecting a scaffold involves a great deal of hard physical effort - it is hard work, generally only undertaken by fit young men. As with all work of this kind there is no absolutely right, or correct way of doing the job ~ much will depend on the particular circumstances; the height and extent of the structure, the nature and location of the site, the numbers employed and so on. It remains true, however, that unless some thought is given to planning and preparing for the job a great deal of time and effort can be wasted. Wasted effort means unnecessary expense, tired operatives, (who are likely to cut comers or make mistakes), and sub-standard work. The result may be an increased tisk of accidents to all those using the scaffold and even to innocent passers-by. Example 1A A gang of scaffolders artive at a site to erect an independent scaffold, 36 m long by 25m high. They have a choice of unloading at points, A, B or C. They choose C, unload the lorry and begin laying out material from point A and working back towards the unloading point. ,rrrars Az BUILDING LINE “, ; |<—_________.__ SCAFFOLD POSITION 36m LONG —__________»| A B c Material Stack The material has to be carried and laid out for each of the lifts Each 6 m section of the 36 m run contains: 2-65 m ledgers 2-25 m braces 6~1.8 m transoms 26 - scaffold fittings Each lift of scaffold requires one person to catty and lay out these materials six times. 69Comparison a The distance between the two positions B and C is only 18 m, but through lack of foresight, over 10 tonnes of material has baen carried an additional 8 km. Expressed more simply, by thinking ahead and planning where the materials should be unloaded (and betore that, at the Depot, of how they should first be loaded onto the lorry), the effort, time and cost of laying out the materials can be considerably reduced, as can the risk of tired men taking mistakes and causing accidents. To achieve a planned and organised work pattem it is necessary to examine existing methods of work. Each task should be analysed: (a) What can | do to improve the flow of work? (b) What can go wrong? if question (a) had been applied to the first example, a considerable amount of time and effort would not have been wasted. Question (b) is necessary when planning a work pattern to identify potential hazards. The next example shows how these questions give results that improve productivity and decrease the risks. Example 2 One further example will serve to show how a thoughtful, common-sense approach to the job can save time and effort to reduce the risk of accidents. In the sketch below three men are employed in erecting an independent scaffold. eal Let Ca Man A is fixing right angle couplers to standards, ready to receive ledgers. Man B is throwing up fittings, dragging the sack of fittings along behind him, Man C is catching the fittings and placing them on the platform, ready for Man A. a____ Safety and Efficiency eee ee These are only two examples of how, with forethought and planning, and by adopting an intelligent approach to the job, scaffolding work can be made easier, less costly and safer. There are many opportunities in scaffolding work to practice these principles. What is needed above all is a thoughtful, conscientious attitude to the job and a concern for safety. As in so many instances involving scaffolding work, efficiency and safety go hand in hand; efficient working methods are usually also the safe way of workingBridging over a garage roof: can the roof take the weight? Resting on window. ledige=tied if possible. Helps to stop scaffolding Some weight taken to siiding down oot window ledge BUT can garage roof take the rest? NOTE: FRONT SCAFFOLD OMITTED FOR CLARITY. A lightweight bridge over the garage. Protection Reveal Tie over Doorway, Spur Raker both taking weight of bridge NOTE 8RACES, BOARDS, etc, OMITTED FOR CLARITY 78Braces Blind Box = LN =f | Baseplotes nailed Stondards approx to Soleplate. _ 180mm apart NOTE-SWAY BRACE OMITTED FOR CLARITY Atypical arrangement oma shop front. The inside standard is founded at the first floor level and r | the outer standard on the pavement. Generally these scaffolds are for decorators. Occasionally a fan will be added to the scaffold when roofing or chimney work has to be cattied out. it may then be necessary to double the outer standards as shown. Box Shop Name Sigh Brace 10 stiffen & Strengthen Normally Standards, aot Shop Boorway The same principles can be applied to the base of a house with a basement floor. Reference to the chapter on Foundations will show other typical obstacies that face scaffolders. 77The first duty of a scaffold gang is the protection and safety of the public. Particular ——prebiems wit depenc-orrthe tocatiorr of the-seatfeld-Ht-mnay-be ta-2-busy-shopping— area, with a narrow pavement adjacent to traffic lights, or near a school, a park or playing area, or public house or fish and chip shop. Whatever the location the following problems will need to be considered: ‘At busy and congested sites a very early start will enable the gang to unload the lorry and erect the base of the scaffold before the traffic builds up. It may be necessary to remove ledger braces to permit access under the scaffold, and provide a close-boarded bottom lift to stop anything falling onto pedestrians. if guard-rails or foot tie ledgers are provided, the ends of the tubes should be capped and all joints should be wrapped to prevent injury to passers- by. Children are inquisitive and fearless. They will climb ladders or even shin up standards, and have a habit of getting themselves into danger. A special watch should be kept when children are out and about after school. Always attach a scaffold board flat against the rungs of the ladder when leaving the job for lunch or tea breaks to prevent unauthorised access. The evening and night-time can bring problems from older children, vandals or adult revellers. All spare material should be secured, either by removing it from the site or stacking it securely on the first lift. Always remove ladders and put in a safe place — out of reach. If through ties have been fixed, someone should ensure that the open window cannot be used by an intruder. 73PROTECTIVE FANS Fans are erected to afford protection from anything which may fall from a scaftold or a building. They comprise an inclined framework of scaffold tubes covered with scaffold boards. The diagram below illustrates the general arrangement. \ rr window wae | ourriccers | (NEEDLES) TRANSOMS Fans are not intended for access to a scaffold, nor for the storage of materials. Warning notices to this effect should be clearly displayed on the fan. FANS ARE FOR PROTECTION ONLY DO NOT USE FOR ACCESS OR STACKING Types of Fan PAVEMENT. ROAD Fans are classified lightweight or heavyweight according to their load capability. It is not always possible to predict what weight will fall and from what height. CLASS A A light duty fan with a maximum loading equivalent to 0.75 kN/im?, suitable for protection from paint and mortar droppings. 81Fans Attached to Buildings (Ciass A) These are generally used in conjunction with cradles for window cleaning, stone cleaning operations or other maintenance work on the face of the building. The suspension points for the cradle and wire for supports may often be the same. Large quantities of water are often required for these jobs. In these circumstances corrugated iron sheets must be fixed so as to afford adequate and safe drainage { \ { @ Detail of * ( & J-hook fixing General Construction Requirements Outriggers (needles) should be spaced every 1.5 m for fans attached to buildings, and every bay when attached to scaffolds. Class B fans should be fixed at every scaffold bay. Support Transoms must be spaced so as to make sure there are no ‘traps’ in the decking. Parapets should be erected by fixing puncheons on the outside fan ledger and fixing toe-boards to these. Spurs and Rakers are generally described as transom supports if used to support the fan from above instead of wires. The term ‘spurs’ is generally used to describe raking tubes used to support the fan from below. Spurs should be fixed to the outside fan ledger or an additional ledger within the outside third of the fan. Wires The diameter and strength of suspension wires should be designed according to the size and loading of the fan. Most purpose-made slinging wire is 8 mm independent wire rope core (IWRC), which has a breaking strain of 4 tonnes; but a safe working load of 0.5 tonnes. Wires should be fixed using a round turn and two bulldog grips. ON NO ACCOUNT SHOULD 6 mm DIAMETER WIRE LASHINGS BE USED. Additional Ties must be fixed at the level of the fan (see chapter on Ties); only load- bearing fittings may be used in their construction. Large fans supported by spurs will require additional bracing. 83SAFETY CHECK * Spacing of outriggers to suit load on fan, ie. type of decking and duty of fan © Scaffold must be: ~ close boarded — properly lashed or held down — properly supported, i.e. no ‘traps’ © Corrugated iron sheeting must: = have a minimum of four clips or hook bolts per sheet — drain properly, Guttering and drain pipes must be fixed where necessary. * Fan should be inspected by the user and particular care taken after high winds and storms. Any damage to the fan must be repaired immediately. 85Part 2 Basic Scaffold StructuresINDEPENDENT TIED SCAFFOLDS The independent tied scaffold is perhaps the most commonly used scaffold. It consists of two rows of standards parallel to the building, joined together with ledgers fixed with right angle couplers. in turn transoms are fixed at right angles to the ledgers with ‘putlog’ couplers. The assernbly must be braced with ledger bracing, usually at altemate pairs of standards and with longitudinal or facade bracing every 30 m along the face of the scaffold. Independent scaffolds must be tied to the building (see Ties, page 25). Transoms: Joint pin Ledger to ledger brace Uses and loadings The uses to which independent scaffolds may be put and their associated permissible eee bentes oadings are summarised in BS 5973 Table 1 (see page 12). Most independent scaffolds are five boards wide with four boards between the standards and one board between the inside standard and the building. Two: and three board scaffolds are used when there is restricted access between buildings or or inspection purposes only. Independent scaffolds may net be built higher than 50 m without expert advice. 8gAlternatively, ladders and landings can be built into the scaffold itself. The distance ____between-Jandings-must-not-be more than 9.m_Access-holes through landings should. ____} not be more than 500 mm wide and should be as small as practicable in the other direction. Ladders should project at least 1.0 m above each landing. They should be set at an angle of 4 vertical to 1 horizontal and supported only by the stiles, which should be secured at the top using lashings or proprietary fixings. ROUTINE SAFETY CHECK Each Night * Ladders should be boarded up to prevent unauthorised access to the scaffold * Lights should be placed so that the public are protected from accidentally damaging either themselves or the scaffold e.g. by driving into it © Check that warming signs are in position Each Morning «Make sure that scaffold has not been interfered with, particularly by children, and is safe for use Every Week «Statutory inspections must be made every week and after severe storms by a ‘competent person’ and form F91 Part 1 completed When Dismantling «The order in which a scaffold is dismantled is not necessarily the reverse of the order of erection. Generally, scaffolds should be taken down lift by lift and not from one end to the other, however, reference should first be made to the relevant risk assessment. Hazard Awareness Independent scaffolds are in common use and are often taken for granted Whilst independent scaffolds are straightforward to erect and use, carelessness can result in accidents. An awareness of the potential hazards is essential if accidents are to be avoided. 4Place braces i position at both ends B. Plumb standard | SQ AMAA Attach intermediate standards and transom 93 INANANAANNAAARANNASANNTPUTLOG SCAFFOLDS The puilog scaffold, also called a bricklayer's scaffold is erected with tubes and fittings to support a work platform adjacent to a wall or building, The scaffold consists of a single row of standards parallel to the face of the wall, supported and tied together by a ledger. The ledger also supports the outer end of the putlog, the other end of which is inserted into the wall. “The putlog is in effect, @ transom which has been flattened at one end to form a blade; alternatively, the transom can have a putlog adaptor connected at one end. The blade is fully inserted into the bed joint of the brickwork or laid flat on top of the brickwork; or inserted on edge into a vertical joint, when the scaffold is erected against existing brickwork, CONSTRUCTION Standards ‘These should be placed on base plates, founded on sole boards. The spacing between standards should not exceed 2.1 m with @ maximum distributed load of 2.5 kN/m@. The lift height is normally 1.35 m Ties Through ties must be inserted on alternate lifts to the full height of the scaffold, and every 6 m horizontally. On progressive bricklayer's scaffolds, care must be taken when the brickwork is ‘green’. The scaffold should not be worked on until the brickwork is capable of supporting the scaffold. On walls without openings single bricks should be left out to accept ties. 95Standard Standard 7 se E eeeeeeeee eee Guardrail. Platform Toeboard, Working Platform The working platform should be five boards wide, with sufficient room between the face of the brickwork and the edge of the inside board to allow the bricklayer to plumb the brickwork. The gap also allows the superfluous mortar to drop to the ground without spoiling the face of the brickwork. In addition to the normal arrangement of quard-rails and toe- boards; brick guards should be erected to ensure material cannot fall from the platform. 97ERECTION SEQUENCE Erect standard on sole board and base plate and fix first putlog to standard with right- angle coupler. 2 Fix second standard and putlog as before. 3 Fix ledger to standards below putiogs. The structure is temporarily supported with rakers. 99SAFETY CHECKLIST Before Erection Clear all debris and level ground Ensure all backfilled trenches are firmly compacted Ensure the scaffolder is aware of the backfilled trench positions Ensure the scaffolder is aware of the position of future groundworks After Erection of Baselift Standards plumb and properly founded on soleboards and baseplates Ledgers level and connected to the standards by well-serviced right-angle couplers Putlog ends (or putlog adaptors) are properly inserted into, or laid on the brickwork Putlogs are level, properly spaced and connected to the ledgers (main putlogs within 300 mm of each standard) Bridles are connected to the putlogs with right-angle couplers Boards are close laid, properly supported and sufficient space has been allowed between the inner edge and the face of the brickwork to allow the bricklayer to plumb the wall Guard-rails, toe-boards and brick guards are in place Proper access has been provided in the correct position, (normally adjacent to the brick stack, and the mixer) Ensure the bricklayer, foreman and the fork-lift driver are aware of the maximum loads the scaffold is capable of carrying, e.g.: 2.1m standard spacing = 2.5 kN/m? which in turn equals approx. 140 bricks (stacked next to each standard), one loaded mortar board and the bricktayer and his tools ~ per bay 401— BIRDCAGE ACCESS SCAFFOLDS The ‘Birdcage! scaffold is so called because it resembles a cage! It is normally used inside buildings to provide a platform for working on ceilings, soffits or in the installation of lighting or ventilation or sprinkler systems. Small jobs would generally be done using a tower or hydraulically operated aerial platform where possible, but for larger projects involving longer periods of time, a birdeage scaffold is required. The scaffold is constructed using standards arranged at regular intervals in parallel lines, usually evenly spaced. Standards are laced together with a grid of ledgers and transoms at every lift height and the top lift is boarded out to provide the working platform, 403Base Plates-and Standards Base plates must be placed on sole boards to receive standards. These should be nailed or screwed to the sole boards if there is any danger of movement. Standards should be plumbed and joints in alternate standards staggered in order to obtain strength and stability. Ledgers Ledgers should be fixed in @ horizontal plane at all times. It is advisable to fix the first lift at 2.5 m and subsequent lifts at 1.8 m—2m centres, (The British Standard recommends that the first lift maximum should be 2.5 m, subsequent lifts at 2 m maximum.) Transoms On non-working lifts, transoms should be fixed to the standards by right-angle couplers. On working lifts, transoms should be fixed to the ledgers with right-angle or putlog couplers and spaced as other scaffolds to support boards evenly. (See Table 3 page 12.) Generally, one transom should be fixed in each bay, not more than 300 mm from a standard. Joints in transoms must be staggered in order to obtain maximum rigidity and safety. Bracing Stability is obtained by diagonally bracing to the full height of the scaffold at each corner in both directions, particularly if it is not possible to include ties. (See under Scaffold Requirements opposite.) Ties Tying is normally achieved by butting walls with alternate ledgers and transoms. (Ends of tube may have to be padded to prevent damage.) Alternatively box or reveal ties may be necessary. Foot ties should be provided throughout the scaffold except where access is required, and at least in alternate bays in both directions to form boxes. (See under tying and Butting.) Working Platform The working platform must be close boarded a minimum of 600 mm wide and if 3.9m boards are used, each board must span at least four transoms. Hand-rails and toe- boards must be provided where the space between the decking and the wall exceeds 450 mm. These must be fitted on the inside of the standards. Access Access requirements must comply with BS 5973 Section 16. Access is generally provided at the edges of the scaffold using ladders and landings. (See under Access page 38.) 105Insert intermediate standards and ledgers Fix facade braces at each corner 407Attach ledgers for second lift Continue facade bracing in a zig-zag or dog leg fashion 109—__—_FOWER SCAFFOLD: When scaffold towers are formed from standard stee! scaffold tube and fittings they may either be fitted with castors or wheels for mobility, or constructed as stationary towers. They usually support a single working platform not projecting beyond the base area and are provided with hand-rails and toe-boards. Access to the working platform by ladder may be either inside or outside the structure. Castor whee! NOTE: Proprietary towers in both steel and aluminium are not covered in this chapter. These should be constructed and used in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. 414For stationary towers these ratios may be increased to 4 to 1 and 8.5 to 1 respectively ‘These ratios apply only to towers constructed of steel scaffolding materials. — Aluminium towers are lighter and different criteria apply Towers should be braced on all sides and in plan at every alternate lift, beginning at the base and also under deck level. Anchors and Guys In order to increase the stability of stationary towers, guy ropes may be fixed to the tower and attached to anchors founded in the ground. Guidance is given in BS 5973 on the types and uses of anchors for supporting free standing towers. There are four common types: + Cross tubes attached to the foot lift © Driven tube anchors attached to guys * — Screwed in flight anchors * Plate and pin anchors Guys for temporary scaffolding structures should be of 10 mm or 12 mm diameter wire rope, which should be attached to the scaffold structure and to the ground tube or anchored by a single round tum and three bulldog clips. Detailed descriptions and methods of use for anchors and guys are not covered in this book. Casiors Suitable castors or wheels should be selected to suit the size and loading of the towe. The safe working load is usually marked on the wheels. These must be fixed at the ‘extreme corners of the tower in such a manner that they cannot fall out if the tower is moved, or a wheel is out of contact with the ground. They must be fitted with effective wheel brakes which cannot be accidentally released When dead weight such as sand bags, concrete blocks, etc. is used to stabilise a tower, the capacity of the castors to take the extra load should be checked. Ladder Access Ladders should be fixed by lashing the stiles of the ladder to horizontal tubes and should be located on the nartower face. Unless it is not practicable, ladders must be positioned inside the base area, When the means of access is outside the structure, consideration should be given to the effect on the stability of the tower. Where the ladder is on the inside, access must be provided through the platform, (see also page 38), and a hinged or replaceable cover provided for the opening. If the ladder is on the outside a hinged handrail section must be provided to ensure safe access, however, the use of external ladders should be discouraged. 113Safety Checklist it innit Foundations * Ensure that.ground surface is firm and level * For stationary towers check that standards are fitted with base plates and that base plates are securely fixed to prevent lateral movement. «If temporary foundations or pathways have been provided for a mobile tower, see that they are properly prepared «Ensure that suspended fioors are not overloaded * Check for additional loads which may be imposed when guys or ballast weights are used Standards © Must be vertical and stable * Joints should be made with sleeve couplers and staggered Ledgers and Transoms * Must be horizontal and complete «Must be fitted to standards with right angle couplers + Lowest ledgers and transoms fixed as near to castors as possible » Spacing of transoms 1.2 m-1.5 mor less Bracing «Towers braced on all sides and in plan at every alternate lift starting at the base lift and also under deck level Ladders © Check that the ladder is lashed top and bottom on each stile. The ladder should be fixed to the narrower side of the tower. + Ensure that the foot of the ladder is about 150 mm clear of the castor so that the tower can be moved about easily. 115Erect standards at each corner and secure to foot tie Add braces on all four sides and fix plan brace 7 Measure off first lift and fix ledgers and transoms, level and secured with right-angle couplers 3a | For mobile towers fit castors, secure and brake___SYSTEM SCAFFOLDS __ introduction System scaffolding may be described as easy-to-use scaffolding which can be assembled by relatively inexperienced labour. There are a great many such systems now available, ranging from light duty aluminium alloy access towers to heavy duty steel support structures. They'all employ different patented locking devices (wedges, locking pins, etc.) and are designed to different specifications, which makes it difficutt and sometimes dangerous to interchange one system with another. However, the majority of systems are made from standard diameter tubes, so that they can be used with standard scaffold fittings. It is vital that specific instruction, training or an erection handbook be provided for the men erecting any system scaffold. Users should pay strict attention to loading and methods of erection published in the manufacturer's instructions, There is no national or common specification for system scaffolds. Consequently, care should be taken not to mix different systems. Common Types of System Scaffold Most systems are composed of standards with preformed connectors welded at intervals along their length to which ledgers are fixed with a proprietary clamping or wedging arrangement, as illustrated below. 119____ Boards, also called stagings of battens, come in a variety of lengths, thicknesses and widths. Decking is seldom interchangeable as each type is designed to sit exactly on the narrow lip of the transom. Boards are often made from steel with a slip resistant surface and pre-drilled drainage holes. These systems allow for the attachment of proprietary toe-boards. ____. Toe-board Transom Ties are generally formed in tube and fittings. As yet no one has designed a successful ‘system tie’ 421Position base plate and/or adjustable base plates/jacks in roughly the correct place. Lay out transoms and ledgers for the first bay so they are ready to fix after the standards are in place. Place a pair of standards on two adjustable base plates and loosely fix bottom transom. 1239. Deck out as necessary before erecting subsequent bays and lifts as required. 10. Complete to working lift, deck out and fix guard-rail and toe-boards, braces and 11. ties as required. Where returns are necessary, careful planning is required to ensure the scaffold ‘fits’. This should be done at first lift stage. 125——GLOSSARY_OF TERMS. Abnormal facade. A facade which does not permit the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties. Adjustable base plate. A metal base plate embodying a screwjack Adjustable forkhead. A forkhead fitted with a threaded spindle and nut to give adjustable height. Anchorage. Component cast or fixed into the building for the purpose of attaching a tie. Anchor = guy. A pin or tube driven into the ground at approximately 45° to the horizontal to provide an anchorage for a rope. Base plate. A metal plate with a spigot for distributing the load from a standard or a raker or other load bearing tube. Bay. The space between two adjacent standards along the face of a scaffold Bay length. The distance between the centres of two adjacent standards, measured horizontally. Board — clip. A clip for fixing a board to a scaffold tube. Board — inside. A board placed between the scaffold and the building on extended transoms, or a hop-up bracket. Board - retaining. See brick guard. Board — scaffold. A softwood board combined with others to form access. working platforms and generally used for protective components such as toe-boards on a scaffold. 127 Bolted tie. An assembly of nuts, bolts, anchors, rings or tubes fixed into the surface of a building. Box tie, An assembly of tubes and couplers forming a tie for the scaffold by enclosing a feature such as a column. Brace. A tube place diagonally with respect to the vertical or horizontal members of a scaffold and fixed to them to afford stability. Brace — facade or face. A brace parallel to the face of a building. Brace — knee. A brace across the comer of an opening in a scafiold to stiffen the angles or to stiffen the end support of a bear. Brace — ledger or cross. A brace at right angles to the building. Brace — longitudinal. A brace in the plane of the longer dimension of the scaffold, particularly in birdcages. Brace - plan. A brace in a horizontal plane. Brace - transverse. A brace in the plane of the shorter dimension of the scaffold, Bracket — hop-up or extension. A bracket to attach (usually to the inside of a scaffold) to enable boards to be placed between the scaffold and the building. Brick guard. (Also retaining boards). A bartier, usually of coarse mesh filing the gap between the guard-rail and toe-board, and sometimes incorporating one or both of these components.Expanding spigot. A device design Guy anchor. A pin or tube driven into to expand and grip the inside of a tube. Used for joining tubes. Facade — abnormal. A facade which does not permit the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties. Facade brace. Face brace. A brace parallel to the face of a building. Facade normal. A facade which pertnits the fixing of through ties or non-movable ties. Fittings. A general term embracing components other than couplers. Forkhead. A U-shaped housing for assembly on the end of a tube to accept bearers. Forkhead ~ rocking or swivel. A forkhead to accept bearers at a range of angles. Gin wheel or block. A single pulley for fibre ropes attached to a scaffold for raising or lowering materials. Going. The horizontal distance between the nosings of two consecutive steps of a stair measured in a horizontal line. Guard-rail. A member incorporated ina structure to prevent the fall of a person from a platform or access way. Guard-rail post. A vertical tube, frequently a puncheon supporting guard-rail. Guard-rail - end. A guard-rail placed across the end of a scaffold or used to isolate unboarded part, The ground at approximately 45° To the horizontal to provide an anchorage for a rope. Height. The height measured from the foundation to the top assembly of ledgers and transoms. Hop-up or extension bracket. A bracket to attach usually to the inside of a scaffold to enable boards to be placed between the scaffold and the building. Independent tied scaffold. A scaffold which has two lines of standards, one line supporting the outside of the deck and one the inside. The transoms are not built into the wall of the building, It is not free- standing, but relies on the building or stability, Inside board. A board placed between the scaffold and the building on extended transoms, of hop-up brackets. Interlock pin. See spigot pin. Jib crane. A small crane specially adapted for pivotal mounting to a scaffold tube. Joint pin. An expanding fitting placed in the bore of a tube to connect one iube to another coaxially (see spigot). Kentledge. Dead weight, built-up or added to a structure to ensure adequate stability. 129Raker. An inclined load-bearing tube. Scaffold - free standing. A scaffold Retaining bar. A strip or device fixed across the top of the decking to hold it down. Ret ing boards. See brick guard. Reveal screw pin. A fitting used for tightening a reveal tube between two opposing surfaces. Reveal tie. The assembly of a reveal tube with wedges or screwed fittings, and pads, if required, fixed between opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with the tie tube. Reveal tube. A tube fixed by means of a threaded fitting or by wedging between two opposing surfaces of a structure, e.g. between two window reveals, to form an anchor to which the scaffoiding may be tied. Right-angle coupler. A coupler used to join tubes at right-angles. Rise. The vertical distance between two steps of a stair, Roofing clip or sheeting clip. A fitting for fixing roof or wall sheeting to tubes in structures without the need for holes in the sheeting, Scaffold. A temporary structure which provides access, or from which persons work, or which is used to support materials, plant or equipment. Scaffold board. A softwood board combined with others for form access, working platforms and generally used for protective components such as toe-boards on a scaffold. Which is Not attached 6 any other structure but is stable in itself or, if necessary, stabilised by rakers and/or anchors. Scatfold — independent tied. A scaffold which has two lines of standards, one line supporting the outside of the deck and one the inside. The transoms are not built into the wall of the building. It is not free- standing, but relies on the building for stability. Scaffold - putlog. A scaffold which has one line of standards to support the outside edge of the deck and utilises the wall being built or the building to support the inside edge. Scaffold — slung. A scaffold hanging on tubes, ropes or chains from a structure overhead, Itis not capable of being moved or lowered. Scatfold — suspended. A scaffold hanging on ropes which is capable of being raised and lowered Sheeting. Horizontal, vertical or inclined sheets of material, such as corrugated metal or plastic sheet, attached to a scaffold in order to provide protection from the effects of weather or alternatively to protect the surrounding area from the effects of works being carried out from the scaffold structure. Sheeting hook. A threaded rod hook with a washer and a nut used for attaching sheeting to tubes. Sheeting rail. A horizontal tube fixed 4o the verticals of a scaffold to support the sheetingTi = prop. An assembly of Transoms ~ butting. A transom, Telescopic props andlor scaffold tube jacked or wedged between the fioors of a storey inside a building and including a tie tube. Tie - push/pull. A tie which acts to prevent the scaffold moving either towards or away from the building, e.g. 2 reveal tie, a box tie, a double lip tie, a bolted tie with a tie tube. Tie — reveal. The assembly of a reveal tube with wedges or screwed fittings and pads, if required, fixed between opposing faces of an opening in a wall together with the tie tube. Tie - through. A tie assembly through a window or other opening in awall. ie - wire or band. An assembly of a ing anchor and wire or steel banding used to tie the scaffold to the building. Toe-board. An upstand normally at the outer edge of a platform intended to prevent materials or operative's feet from slipping off the platform. Toe-board — end. A toe-board at the end of a scaffold or at the end of a boarded portion of it. Toe-board clip. A clip used for attaching toe-boards to tubes. Toe-board — end clip. A similar device to the toe-board clip for use on end toe-boards. Transom. A tube to connect the outer standards to the inner standards or spanning across ledgers to form the support for boards or units forming the working platform. 133 extended inwards fo butt the building to prevent the scaffolding moving towards the building Transom ~ needle. A transom extended from or into a building, Transom ~ sway. A transom extended inwards in contact with a reveal or the side of a column to prevent the scaffold moving sideways. Vertical bridle. A vertical tube performing the same function as a bridle. Width. The width of a scaffold measured at right angles to the ledgers from centre to centre of the upright. Sometimes designated by the number of boards, within the uprights and the number beyond the uprights on extended transoms. Working platform. The deck from which building operations are carried out.INDEX Access — working platform 38 — unauthorised 46 —_ independent scaffold 90 = tower scaffolds 118 Anchors and guys — tower scaffolds 118 Base lift 4 Base plate 4,19 Basic scaffold requirements 5 Birdcage scaffold — construction and use 103 — scaffold requirements 104 = bracing 104 — foundations 104 — tying and butting 104 ~ erection sequence 106 Boards 15 — thicknesses 15 — identification 15 ~ Inspection and maintenance 15 — common faults 16 — storage 16 Board bearers 1 Boarded lifts 35 Braces 9 — independent scaffold 90 — putlog scaffold 96 — birdeage scaffold 104, 105 — tower scaffold 115 Bridie tube 96 BS 6973 — Tables 1, 2,3 12 Checklists — scaffold ties 33 — public hazards 80 - fans 85 — independent scaffold safety 91 ~ putlog scaffold 401 — birdoage scaffold 110 tower scaffold 115 Common scaffolding terms Couplers 3 = fightangle 17 = putlog v7 — swivel 7 — inspection and maintenance 18 Critical ties at Cross brace 2 Decking = of working platforms 35 — of fans 84 Distributed loads 12 Dog-leg brace 10 Erection sequence = independent scaffold 92 — putlog seaffold 99 — birdcage scatfold 106 = tower scaffold 117 —_ system scaffolds 122 Facade brace 2 Fans ~ protective at — types of 81 = design and construction 82 ~ general construction requirements 83 — decking 84 Figure of eight knot 62 First lift 4 Foot tie 4 Forklift trucks 68 Foundations 6,19 — basic rules 24 ~ heavy duty 22 = pavement scaffold 23 ~ sloping ground 24 — birdcage scaffold 104 — tower scaffold 115 — system scaffold 124 Guard-rails and toe-boards 37 Gangways and runs 39 obstructions to 39System scaffolds Working platforms common types To = maximum number : _ = erection methods 122 — width — boarding out ‘Throwing up fittings 72 — access to Ties 9, 25,31 ~ putlog scaffold = general rules 25 = independent scaffold = number and position 26 — birdcage scaffold 105 — for sheeted scaffolds 26 — tower scaffold 114 = types 26 = through 26 Zig-zag brace 2.9 ~ box 27 - lip 28 — screw or anchor 28 - reveal 29 — critical at = removal/replacement of 82 — checklist 33 Timber hitch 63 Toe-boards: 7 Tower cranes use in scatfolding 68 Tower scaffolds = foundation 112 ~~ stability 112 = anchors and guys 113 = castors (wheels) 113 — ladder access 113 = construction and use 114 = working platform 114 — erection sequence 114,117 Transoms distance apart 1,9 Tubes = specification 13 = repair of 13 L — inspection 14 = common faults 14 ~ storage 14 Width ~ of scaffold 4 — of working platform 7,12 137May 2001 | | | | | | i i \ | | | H aad - Biss Page i K seer SH ‘FOLD PI = 8) BEARER (TRANSOX) ) \ C) LONGITUDINAL (FACADE) BRAK ") ‘t RO) | | 0) TRANSVERSE (SECTIONAL) BRACING. L) SELF-CLOSING DROP BAR J | €) TOPRAIL (INSIDE POSTS) | F) MIDRAL my | &) TOeBARD x) ON) | H) POST STANDARD) °) | Figure 11.9.1 | SCAFFOLD TERMINOLOGY 52 Scaffold Safety Hendbook sanety OFFICER, nyUnDh?GesoeSreetesiseetvt ae Mey 2 7 Figure 1.9.2 SCAFFOLD TERMINOLOGY Scatfold Safety Hafcbook © 53Tay 2004 2 Meters (6° maximum lift height (STANDARDS) (LEDGERS) — (TRANSOMS) Figure 1.9.5 SCAFFOLD LIFTS oe eis oy 86 Scaffold Safety HanctookTANK SHELL ——________- TOPRALY = | (STEEL TUBING OR 46" DIA. WIRE rere) \ : MIORAIL \ TUBING OR 3/8" DIA. HOOKED OVER, io BRACKET BRACKET—_ a | SCER— uanonan. Sure U7 UPRIGH ‘ORT NENTLY WE! SR secuReD 76 BERMANENTLY. 180mm (6°) HIGH SLEEVE ORINTERNAL SPIGOTIPIN i ANGLE STEEL BRACKET Figure 11.9.26 BRACKET SCAFFOLD 10 Scaifold Safety Henabook‘okovtg aan soo UOHESH Scattold Safety Handbook May 2001 78BEARER (TRANSOM) RUNNER 7 (LEDGER) BOARD BEARER ATE TRANSOM} (INTERA BEARER (FRANSOM) Figure 1.9.48 SUPPORT SPACING FOR PLANKS (BOARDS) 38mm (1-1/2") THICK (LEDGER) BOARD BEARER —~ (INTERMEDIATE TRANSOM) IF NEEDED | (TRANSOM) Figure 11.9.49 | SUPPORT SPACING FOR PLANKS (BOARDS) | ; 50mm (2") THICK 88 Scaffold Safety Handbookfa aw a May-2001.— | NOTE: BRACH NOT SHO} ~ X POSTS (STANDARDS) SPACED TO SUPPORT LOADS ADJUSTABLE (SWIVEL) COUPLER v ce > 4UP 4 OUT ~ LADOER SLOPE Figure 1.9.54 EXTERNAL LADDER ACCESS Scaffold Safety Hendbook FALSE UERIGHT / (PUNCHEON) AS SS AHANDHOL Pe \-H RUNNER ~ |] (LEDGER) 93May 2001 — | NODE POINT ~ wyP) ADJUSTABLE (SwiVEL}COUPLER (TYP) Figure 11.9.55 TRANSVERSE (SECTIONAL) "ZIG-ZAG" BRACING UBE AND COUPLER SCAFFOLD 94. Scatfold Sefety Handbook rr EE3 a weak ka “= BEARER (TRANSOM) == NODE POINT ’ fee NODE POINT RUNNER (TYP) (LEDGER) 7 SAR TREL MAX.3 03 ze Neays | Figure 11.9.56 TRANSVERSE (SECTIONAL) "ZIG-ZAG" BRACING TUBE AND COUPLER SCAFFOLD May-200¢— ‘Scatfold Safety Handbook 95TIRES Figure 11.9.57 | TRANSVERSE (SECTIONAL) "X" BRACING ‘TUBE AND COUPLER SCAFFOLD 96 Scaffold Safety Hendbook Fe esMay 2 cot am pt (WOSNVEL) wauvad aM Por (cuvanvis! 180d! Am Mm Mm my Mm mh mm Mm SUSU DST BN HE se Cre ont 6 mS 9 eat # rome 97 Scaffold Safety Handbook Ape es A aa1osdvoS Y3TdNOD ANY SEN ONIOVNS TVNOOVIG (ZaVOV-) TYNIINLISNOT (auvarris) | is0¢ ofa) eH LNiO¢ B00! Sty taxwooe (wosvasn) vaivae (auvanvis) 1806 (aan \aianootiaaims) mewisnray May 2001 Scaffold Safety Handbook 98ye0qpueH Asies proyeos a O7044¥9S Y3IdNOD ANY Sant ONIOVES TVNOOVIG (SaVvov4) TVNIGNLIONOT 9H esr