1.

0 ABSTRACT
Abrasive water jet machining (AWJM) is a relatively new machining technique. Abrasive
Water Jet Machining is extensively used in many industrial applications. AWJM is a non-
conventional machining process where material is removed by impact erosion of high pressure
high velocity of water and entrained high velocity of grit abrasives on a work piece. There are
so many process parameter affect quality of machined surface cut by AWJM. Important process
parameters which mainly affect the quality of cutting are traverse speed, hydraulic pressure,
stand of distance, abrasive flow rate and types of abrasive. Important quality parameters in
AWJM are Material Removal Rate (MRR), Surface Roughness (SR), kerf width, tapering of
kerf. This paper reviews the research work carried out so far in the area AWJM.
2.0 Table of Contents
1.0 ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... 1
3.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... 3
4.0 PREFACE ............................................................................................................................ 4
5.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 5
6.0 DEFINITION AND CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................. 7
6.1 Reservoir: ......................................................................................................................... 7
6.2 Pump: ............................................................................................................................... 7
6.3 Intensifier: ........................................................................................................................ 7
6.4 Focusing tube: .................................................................................................................. 7
6.5 Accumulator:.................................................................................................................... 8
6.6 Control Valve: .................................................................................................................. 8
6.7 Flow regulator: ................................................................................................................. 8
6.8 Nozzle: ............................................................................................................................. 8
6.9 Mixing Tube: ................................................................................................................... 8
6.10 Catchers: ........................................................................................................................ 8
7.0 WORKING OF WATER JET MACHINING ..................................................................... 9
8.0 MECHANISM OF MATERIAL REMOVAL................................................................... 10
9.0 SOME APPLICATIONS OF WATER JET MACHINING .............................................. 12
10.0 SOME ADVANCE APPLICATIONS OF WATER JET MACHINING ....................... 13
10.1 Printed Circuit Boards: ................................................................................................ 13
10.2 Wire Stripping:............................................................................................................. 13
10.3 Food Preparation: ......................................................................................................... 13
10.4 Tool Steel: .................................................................................................................... 13
10.5 Wood Cutting: .............................................................................................................. 13
10.6 Rivet Removal: ............................................................................................................ 14
10.7 Paint Removal: ............................................................................................................. 14
11.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND FUTURE .............................................................. 14
12.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES .................................................................. 15
12.1 ADVANTAGES .......................................................................................................... 15
12.2 DISADVANTAGES .................................................................................................... 15
13.0 CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS ......................................................................... 15
14.0 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 16
3.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided us the possibility
to complete this report. A special gratitude we give to our course instructors, Dr Shahid Khaleel
and Engr Muhammad Umer , who have provided us with basic information regarding water jet
machining and with their contribution in stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped
us to coordinate our project especially in writing this report.
4.0 PREFACE
The purpose of this report is to give the reader a rough overview of Waterjet Cutting. In addition
to precise cutting of various materials as presented, the reader will get the knowledge of the
working principle of water jet machining, construction of water jet machine with a brief
description of its components, its types such as pure water cutting and abrasive jet machining
and the advantages and disadvantages or limitations of water jet machining.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
Water Jet Machining (WJM) and Abrasive Water Jet Machining (AWJM) are two non-
traditional or non-conventional machining processes. They belong to mechanical group of
non-conventional processes like Ultrasonic Machining (USM) and Abrasive Jet
Machining (AJM). In these processes (WJM and AJWM), the mechanical energy of water
and abrasive phases are used to achieve material removal or machining. The general
grouping of some of the typical non-traditional processes are shown below:
Mechanical Processes
USM
AJM
WJM and AWJM
Thermal Processes
EBM
LBM
PAM
EDM and WEDM
Electrical Processes
ECM
EDG
EJD
Chemical Processes
Chemical milling
Photo chemical machining

WJM and AWJM can be achieved using different approaches and methodologies as
enumerated below:
WJM - Pure
WJM - with stabilizer
AWJM entrained three phase abrasive, water and air
AWJM suspended two phase abrasive and water

o Direct pumping o Indirect pumping o Bypass pumping

However in all variants of the processes, the basic methodology remains the same. Water
is pumped at a sufficiently high pressure, 200-400 MPa (20004000 bar) using intensifier
technology. An intensifier works on the simple principle of pressure amplification using
hydraulic cylinders of different crosssections as used in Jute Bell Presses. When water
at such pressure is issued through a suitable orifice (generally of 0.2- 0.4 mm dia), the
potential energy of water is converted into kinetic energy, yielding a high velocity jet
(1000 m/s). Such high velocity water jet can machine thin sheets/foils of aluminium,
leather, textile, frozen food etc.
 In pure WJM, commercially pure water (tap water) is used for machining purpose.
However as the high velocity water jet is discharged from the orifice, the jet tends to
entrain atmospheric air and flares out decreasing its cutting ability.
Hence, quite often stabilisers (long chain polymers) that hinder the fragmentation of water
jet are added to the water.
In AWJM, abrasive particles like sand (SiO2), glass beads are added to the water jet to
enhance its cutting ability by many folds. AWJ are mainly of two types entrained and
suspended type as mentioned earlier. In entrained type AWJM, the abrasive particles are
allowed to entrain in water jet to form abrasive water jet with significant velocity of 800
m/s. Such high velocity abrasive jet can machine almost any material. Fig. 1 shows the
photographic view of a commercial CNC water jet machining system along with close-up
view of the cutting head.

Fig. 1 Commercial CNC water jet machining system and cutting heads (Photograph
Courtesy Omax Corporation, USA)
6.0 DEFINITION AND CONSTRUCTION
Water jet machining is a mechanical energy based non-traditional machining process used to
cut and machine soft and non-metallic materials. It involves the use of high velocity water jet
to smoothly cut a soft work piece. In water jet machining, high velocity water jet is allowed to
strike a given work piece. During this process its kinetic energy is converted to pressure energy.
This induces a stress on the work piece. When this induced stress is high enough, unwanted
particles of the work piece are automatically removed. The apparatus of water jet machining
consists of the following components:
6.1 Reservoir:
It is used for storing water that is to be used in the machining operation.
6.2 Pump:
It pumps the water from the reservoir. High pressure intensifier pumps are used to pressurize
the water as high as 55,000 psi. For the abrasive water jet, the operating pressure ranges from
31,000 to 37,000 psi. At this high pressure the flow rate of the water is reduced greatly.
6.3 Intensifier:
It is connected to the pump. It pressurizes the water acquired from the pump to a desired
level.
6.4 Focusing tube:
Cutting head consists of orifice, mixing chamber and focussing tube or insert where water
jet is formed and mixed with abrasive particles to form abrasive water jet.

Fig. 6 shows a cutting head or jet former both schematically and photographically. Typical
diameter of the flexible stainless steel pipes is of 6 mm. Water carried through the pipes
is brought to the jet former or cutting head.

High-pressure
water
Orifice

Fig. 2 Schematic and photographic view of the cutting head (Photograph Courtesy Omax
Corporation, USA)
6.5 Accumulator:
It is used for temporarily storing the pressurized water. It is connected to the flow regulator
through a control valve.
6.6 Control Valve:
It controls the direction and pressure of pressurized water that is to be supplied to the nozzle.
6.7 Flow regulator:
It is used to regulate the flow of water.
6.8 Nozzle:
It renders the pressurized water as a water jet at high velocity. Once the water is pressurized,
it is forced through a sapphire nozzle which is composed of the natural sapphire stone due to
the strength of the stone. The diameter of the nozzle can be varied depending on the
application for which the water jet is being used. A damaged nozzle leads to poor cohesion
of the stream, thereby reducing the cutting ability greatly. The nozzle typically lasts 100 to
200 hours before it needs to be replaced.
6.9 Mixing Tube:
The stream of water which emerges from the nozzle is then mixed with the abrasive. This
takes place in the mixing tube, which is usually constructed out of tungsten-carbide. Wear of
the mixing tube, due to the abrasive, is a problem and it needs frequent replacement. When
the tube becomes worn, the jet no longer is cohesive and loses power and cutting ability
rapidly.
6.10 Catchers:
Once the abrasive jet has been used for machining, they may have sufficiently high level
of energy depending on the type of application. Such high-energy abrasive water jet needs
to be contained before they can damage any part of the machine or operators. Catcher is
used to absorb the residual energy of the AWJ and dissipate the same. Fig. 9 shows three
different types of catcher water basin type, submerged steel balls and TiB2 plate type.

(a) water basin (b) steel/WC/ceramic balls (c) catcher plates (TiB2)
Fig. 3 Some typical catchers
Moreover the catcher can be of pocket type or line type. In pocket type, the catcher basin
travels along the jet. In line type, the catcher basin only travels along one axis of the CNC
table and its length covers the width of the other axis of the CNC table.

7.0 WORKING OF WATER JET MACHINING

The water jet machining follows the following procedure:
1. Water from the reservoir is pumped to the intensifier using a hydraulic pump.
2. The intensifier increases the pressure of the water to the required level. Usually, the
water is pressurized to 200 to 400 MPa.
3. Pressurized water is then sent to the accumulator. The accumulator temporarily stores
the pressurized water.
4. Pressurized water then enters the nozzle by passing through the control valve and
flow regulator.
5. Control valve controls the direction of water and limits the pressure of water under
permissible limits.
6. Flow regulator regulates and controls the flow rate of water.
7. Pressurized water finally enters the nozzle. Here, it expands with a tremendous
increase in its kinetic energy. High velocity water jet is produced by the nozzle.
8. When this water jet strikes the work piece, stresses are induced. These stresses are
used to remove material from the work piece.
9. The water used in water jet machining may or may not be used with stabilizers.
Stabilizers are substances that improve the quality of water jet by preventing its
fragmentation
8.0 MECHANISM OF MATERIAL REMOVAL
The general domain of parameters in entrained type AWJ machining system is given below:
Orifice Sapphires 0.1 to 0.3 mm
Focusing Tube WC 0.8 to 2.4 mm
Pressure 2500 to 4000 bar
Abrasive garnet and olivine - #125 to #60
Abrasive flow - 0.1 to 1.0 Kg/min
Stand off distance 1 to 2 mm
Machine Impact Angle 60o to 900
Traverse Speed 100 mm/min to 5 m/min
Depth of Cut 1 mm to 250 mm

Mechanism of material removal in machining with water jet and abrasive water jet is rather
complex. In AWJM of ductile materials, material is mainly removed by low angle impact by
abrasive particles leading to ploughing and micro cutting. Such process has been studied in
detail initially by Finnie as available in the edited volume by Engels. Further at higher angle of
impact, the material removal involves plastic failure of the material at the sight of impact,
which was studied initially by Bitter. Hashish unified such models as applicable under AWJM
at a later stage. In case of AWJM of brittle materials, other than the above two models, material
would be removed due to crack initiation and propagation because of brittle failure of the
material. Kim et al have studied this in detail in the context of AWJM.
In water jet machining, the material removal rate may be assumed to be proportional to the
power of the water jet.

The proportionality constant u is the specific energy requirement and would be a property of
the work material.

Fig. 4 Schematic of AWJM kerf

Fig. 5 Photographic view of kerf (cross section)

Striation
marks

Fig. 6 Photographic view of kerf (longitudinal section)

Fig. 7 Photographic view of the kerf (back side)

9.0 SOME APPLICATIONS OF WATER JET MACHINING
In metal cutting, in the construction industry, the abrasive water jet will most likely be used
for cutting steel beams and concrete sections. For steel, the cutting rates are slower with the
water jet than for other tools, such as plasma arcs. However, often the cost is offset by the
time saved by reducing or eliminating finishing steps. This is because there is no heat affected
zone with the water jet. The water jet has also been able to cut through thick slabs of concrete.
This will save in the cost of buying diamond tipped saws and sharpening them. Abrasive
water jets are ideally suited for tough and lucrative applications such as titanium, brass, and
tool steel, with aluminium and steel being the most commonly cut materials. Abrasive water
jets cut material from 1/16" inch to 8" inches thick, in high or low volume. Typical part
tolerances range from between 0.003" and 0.005" of an inch, although tolerances as close as
0.001" of an inch can be achieved as well. Because there is absolutely no mechanical stress,
heat distortion or heat-affected zone (HAZ), secondary processing can be eliminated in many
cases. Material can be stacked to increase productivity. Setup and fix Turing are complete in
just minutes.
With unique ability to cut intricate design, whether you're cutting granite, marble, slate,
limestone, soapstone, travertine,
engineered stone or any other material for floors and counters; porcelain or ceramic tile for
inlays or medallions; or glass and metal for artistic accents and signage, the abrasive water
jet's unique ability to cut very intricate designs at high speed without breakage frees your
imagination and expands your business.
Cutting and piercing delicate glass works is not a problem with Flow water jet technology.
From cutting of intricate stained
glass to piercing holes in glass, users from a variety of industries have discovered the
versatility and cost-effectiveness of cutting with water jets from Flow.

Hurricane Glass is a growing area for water jets as well. New laws are requiring the
installation of hurricane glass for glass
windows and doors for all new construction in specific locations. Because of its composition
of glass clad/polycarbonate structure, a laminate material, hurricane glass is very difficult to
cut by traditional methods such as score and fracturing, or diamond saws. Flow water jets are
the superior method for cutting hurricane glass! And, because Flow water jets are Omni-
directional, cutting complex patterns is easy!

Water jets have changed the way the paper industry does business. Thirty years ago, paper
manufacturers faced the same
concerns many manufacturers have today: reliability, redundancy, 24-hour operation.

In many tissue and towel applications, water jet slitting eliminates rewinding so you save on
capital equipment expense by
slitting on-line. A water jet slitter can be installed directly on the machine, and the edge
meets all requirements for converting operations.
 Manufacturers working with the military are constantly exploring advanced
applications for the latest in lightweight, high strength materials. Cutting these exotic
materials can pose a serious challenge to traditional methods. However, we do it with ease.

Flow water jets effortlessly cut through the toughest materials including Super alloys,
Ceramic matrix composites, Armor, Carbides, Titanium, Kevlar, Ballistic materials and
more.

From automated assembly to material handling and parts feeders to state-of-the-art water jet
cutting machines, Flow Robotics is a leader in developing technology designed to address
manufacturing challenges head on.

10.0 SOME ADVANCE APPLICATIONS OF WATER JET MACHINING

10.1 Printed Circuit Boards:
For circuit boards, waterjet cutting is mostly used to cut out smaller boards from a large piece
of stock. This is a desired method, since it has a very small kerf, or cutting width, and does
not waste a lot of material. Because the stream is so concentrated, it can also cut very close
to the given tolerances for parts mounted on the circuit board without damaging them.
Another benefit is that waterjet cutting does not produce the vibrations and forces on the
board that a saw would, and thus components would be less likely to be damaged.

10.2 Wire Stripping:

Wire stripping is another application that can be used effectively in waterjet cutting. If no
abrasives are used, the stream is powerful enough to remove any insulation from wires,
without damaging the wires themselves. It is also much faster and efficient than using human
power to strip wires.

10.3 Food Preparation:

The cutting of certain foods such as bread can also be easily done with waterjet cutting. Since
the waterjet exerts such a small force on the food, it does not crush it, and with a small kerf
width, very little is wasted.

10.4 Tool Steel:

For abrasive water jet cutting, tool steels are one application, although a limited one. It can
be very useful though because tool steel is generally very difficult to cut with conventional
machining methods, and may cause an unwanted byproduct: heat. Abrasive water jets,
however, do not produce heat that could alter the structure of the material being cut, and thus
the strength of the tool is retained.
10.5 Wood Cutting:
Woodworking is another application that abrasive water jet machining can be used for. Since
wood is a softer material compared to steel, almost all wood can be cut, and the abrasive
particles sand surface, leaving a smooth finish that doesnt require sanding.
10.6 Rivet Removal:
Water jet cutting was found to be a feasible method for removing rivets with thicknesses less
than 2 inches. At greater thickness the quality of the cut became unacceptable, and a tool that
could be inserted into the cut would be needed to perform the job . It was concluded that it is
conceivable to design such a tool that would allow deeper cuts without sacrificing edge
quality

10.7 Paint Removal:

In the United States the removal of lead-based paint from bridges is causing big problems.
Traditionally, sand blasting was carried out in the open with no concern for the surrounding
environment. Today many states require the complete containment of the removed produce as
well as the waste generated from blasting. Water jet technology has been used successfully for
coating removal

11.0 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND FUTURE

Nowadays, every manufacturing process is being re-evaluated in terms of its impact on the
environment. For example, use of conventional coolants in machining and grinding is
being looked upon critically from the point of view of its impact on environment. The
environmental issues relevant to AWJM are,

water recycling
spent water disposal
chip recovery
abrasive recovery and reuse

Environmental issues and concerns have lead the researchers to use such mediums and
abrasives that do not require disposal, recycling or lead to pollution. Work is going on in
the area of high-pressure cryogenic jet machining (Fig. 16) where liquid nitrogen replaces
the water phase and dry ice crystals (solid CO2 crystals) replace the abrasive phase leading
to no need of disposal or waste generation. The removed work material in the form of
microchips can be collected much easily reducing the chances of environmental
degradation.
12.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
12.1 ADVANTAGES
a) Water jet machining is a relatively fast process.
b) It prevents the formation of heat affected zones on the work piece.
c) It automatically cleans the surface of the work piece.
d) WJM has excellent precision. Tolerances of the order of 0.005 can be obtained.
e) It does not produce any hazardous gas.
f) It is eco-friendly.
12.2 DISADVANTAGES
As like the advantages the WJM has following disadvantages which are:
a) Only soft materials can be machined.
b) Very thick materials cannot be easily machined. Initial investment is high

13.0 CONCLUSIONS AND LIMITATIONS

It appeared after studying the advantages and disadvantages of the waterjet, that this is a tool
that the construction industry should find very useful. Unfortunately, this does not seem to
be the case. Many of the regional companies do not seem to have any significant knowledge
of the waterjet, thus remaining unwilling to employ this technology.

The responses that we have received have left us with the inability to comment on the cost
effectiveness of the water jet in the construction industry. The majority of companies that we
contacted do not employ the water jet in their companies, nor do most of them have any
knowledge of the abrasive water jet. These companies seem to be conservative to new
technology and unwilling to take risks. This may also be due to the fact that many companies
are unwilling to invest in a new technology that is not widely used.

The contractors that do employ the abrasive water jet technology did not provide us with the
percentage of cost benefit to their company.
14.0 REFERENCES

[1] P. J. Engels, Impact wear of materials, Chapter 4 by Finnie, Elsevier, 1978

[2] J. G. A. Bitter, A study of erosion phenomena Part I, Wear, Vol.6, 1953, pp.5-21

[3] J. G. A. Bitter, A study of erosion phenomena Part II, Wear, Vol.6, 1953, pp.5169-
190

[4] M. Hashish, A model for abrasive water jet machining, J. Engg. Materials Tech.,
Vol.111, (1989), pp.154-162

[5] J. Zeng and T. J. Kim, An erosion model of polycrystalline ceramic in abrasive water
jet cutting, Wear, Vol.199(2), (1996), pp.275-282