Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

DOI 10.1007/s10443-010-9155-x

Studying the Tensile Behaviour of GLARE Laminates:

A Finite Element Modelling Approach

P. Soltani & M. Keikhosravy & R. H. Oskouei & C. Soutis

Received: 5 June 2010 / Accepted: 23 July 2010 / Published online: 11 August 2010
# Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract Numerical simulations based on finite element modelling are increasingly being
developed to accurately evaluate the tensile properties of GLARE (GLAss fibre REinforced
aluminium laminates). In this study, nonlinear tensile behaviour of GLARE Fibre Metal
Laminates (FML) under in-plane loading conditions has been investigated. An appropriate
finite element modelling approach has been developed to predict the stressstrain response
and deformation behaviour of GLARE laminates using the ANSYS finite element package.
The finite element model supports orthotropic material properties for glass/epoxy layer(s)
and isotropic properties with the elasticplastic behaviour for the aluminium layers. The
adhesion between adjacent layers has been also properly simulated using cohesive zone
modelling. An acceptable agreement was observed between the model predictions and
experimental results available in the literature. The proposed model can be used to analyse
GLARE laminates in structural applications such as mechanically fastened joints under
different mechanical loading conditions.

Keywords GLARE . Fibre Metal Laminates . Finite element modelling . Tensile behaviour

Nomenclature
dn Normal debonding parameter
dt Tangential debonding parameter
dm Mixed mode debonding parameter
E Youngs (elastic) modulus

P. Soltani (*) : M. Keikhosravy

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Semnan Branch, Semnan, Iran
e-mail: payam.soltani@semnaniau.ac.ir

M. Keikhosravy
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Firuzkooh Branch, Firuzkooh, Iran

R. H. Oskouei
Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia

C. Soutis
Department of Mechanical Engineering (Aerospace), The University of Sheffield, Mappin Street,
Sheffield S1 3JD, UK
272 Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

G Shear modulus
Gn Normal fracture energy/Work done by normal traction
Gt Shear fracture energy/Work done by tangential (shear) traction
GI Critical fracture energy in mode I
GII Critical fracture energy in mode II
Kn Normal stiffness
Kt Tangential stiffness
Tcr Critical normal/shear traction
Tn Normal traction
Tt Tangential/Shear traction
f Failure/complete separation
n Normal separation
d cr
n Critical normal separation
d fn Failure normal separation
t Tangential separation
d cr
t Critical tangential separation/slip distance
d ft Failure tangential separation/slip distance
m, l Mixed mode dimensionless parameters
t max Maximum/critical shear stress
max Maximum/critical normal stress

1 Introduction

Design and development of advanced composite materials have always attracted a lot of
interests to improve mechanical properties and their performance in advanced structures
such as aircraft structures [1, 2]. Recent advances using composites in modern aircraft
construction were reviewed and carbon fibre composites were particularly argued in terms
of design, manufacture and applications [3]. It is summarised that because of significant
weight savings, carbon fibre reinforced composites are to be utilised for future aircraft
construction. For secondary structures, weight savings approaching 40% are feasible by
using composites instead of light metal alloys, while for primary structures, such as wings
and fuselages, 20% is more realistic [3].
In recent decades, the development of hybrid composite/metal materials for aerospace
applications has spawned an innovative family of materials known as Fibre Metal
Laminates (FMLs) consisting of alternating thin metal layers and layers of a fibre-
reinforced composite material (see Fig. 1) [46].

Fig. 1 Fibre metal laminates,

alternating layers of prepreg
and metal
Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282 273

Basic idea for the development of fibre metal laminates was to develop a material with a
high crack growth resistance for fatigue prone areas of modern civil aircraft [7, 8]. It is
reported that FMLs originated at Fokker/TU Delft in the Netherlands about 1970s, and
since then have undergone extensive development [9, 10]. Aluminium alloys are most
commonly used in FMLs as metal, and the fibres can be Kevlar or glass [11]. The first
commercial product of FMLs under the trade name ARALL (Aramid Reinforced
Aluminium Laminates), including Kevlar/Aramid as fibres, was launched by ALCOA
(ALCOA, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA) in 1982 for aircraft wing application [12, 13].
In 1987, the second generation of these laminates was filed by AKZO (AkzoNobel,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands) with the name GLARE (GLAss fibre REinforced aluminium
laminates) composed of aluminium alloy sheets and unidirectional or biaxial reinforced
high strength glass fibre/epoxy composite layers. Vlot [4, 7] and Vermeeren [5, 14] have
comprehensively reviewed the development process of this new material.
Combination and interaction between glass/epoxy layer(s) and adjacent aluminium
layers in GLARE laminates provide excellent properties that made GLARE laminates to be
utilised for advanced aerospace structures. Recently, this type of FMLs has been selected
for the upper fuselage skin panel and the leading edge surfaces of the vertical and horizontal
tail plane in the Airbus A380 since 2001.
Nowadays, six standard grades of GLARE are commercially available specified by
different aluminium alloys and fibre orientations, as summarised in Table 1. As can be seen
from the table, each composite layer consists of at least two prepreg layers with various
fibre orientations. Unidirectional prepregs are used for more efficient load transfer in
comparison to other stacking sequences. There is a coding system to name GLARE
laminates. For instance, if a laminate is defined as Glare 4B-3/2-0.4 it means that:
& GLARE: This is a glass based fibre metal laminate.
& 4B: From Table 1, each prepreg layer has lay-up as mentioned at sub-grade 4B i.e.
Orientation of glass fibres are [90/0/90] and Al-alloy 2024-T3 as metal layer.
& 3/2: three number of Aluminium metal layers bonded alternatively with two
intermediate layers of glass/epoxy prepreg.
& 0.4: the thickness of aluminium alloy sheets is 0.4 mm.

Table 1 Standard GLARE grades [5, 9, 11, 12, 15]

GLARE grade Prepreg orientation Aluminium sheet Main beneficial characteristics

in each composite
Main Sub layera Alloy Thickness
[mm]

Glare 1 0/0 7475-T761 0.30.4 fatigue, strength, yield stress

Glare 2 Glare 2A 0/0 2024-T3 0.20.5 fatigue, strength
Glare 2B 90/90 2024-T3 0.20.5 fatigue, strength
Glare 3 0/90 2024-T3 0.20.5 fatigue, impact
Glare 4 Glare 4A 0/90/0 2024-T3 0.20.5 fatigue, strength in 0 direction
Glare 4B 90/0/90 2024-T3 0.20.5 fatigue, strength in 90 direction
Glare 5 0/90/90/0 2024-T3 0.20.5 Impact
Glare 6 Glare 6A +45/45 2024-T3 0.20.5 shear, off-axis properties
Glare 6B 45/+45 2024-T3 0.20.5 shear, off-axis properties
a
Zero angle in composite layers coincides with the rolling direction of the metal sheet
274 Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

Although GLARE were mainly developed for fatigue resistance purpose [15], various
grades of this material offer additional advantages such as damage tolerance, fire resistance,
impact resistance, good residual and blunt notch strength, corrosion resistance, ease of
manufacture and repair, high specific static properties, good damping and insulation
properties, reduction assembly costs and lightweight. Even though these properties have
been the subject of investigations in the literature [611, 1517], many of these areas are
still open for further studies and developments.
The combination of ductile aluminium and glass/epoxy composite in GLARE hybrid
laminates results a complex tensile behaviour and stressstrain properties. Because of the
pronounced plasticity of aluminium as metal constituent of GLARE laminates, it is
expected GLARE shows elasto-plastic behaviour. Therefore, only elastic analyses are not
sufficient to accurately predict the tensile response of GLARE laminates. Chen and Sun
[18] modelled elasticplastic behaviour of an ARALL laminate by classical laminated plate
theory in conjugation with mechanical properties of aluminium and Kevlar. Wu et al. [19]
used metal volume fraction (MVF) approach by rule of mixtures (ROM) and predicted
mechanical properties of FMLs. They validated their approach by experimental results and
showed that MVF might be a useful approach for the prediction of strength properties. Wu
and Yang [20] investigated the nonlinear response of GLARE 4 and 5 variants under in-
plane loading analytically and experimentally. They obtained a good agreement between the
model predictions and experimental results. However, the other grades of GLARE were not
studied in their work.
In this paper, a finite element modelling approach has been developed to investigate the
nonlinear tensile behaviour of GLARE laminates with the aim to predict the stressstrain
response and deformation behaviour of GLARE laminates. The ANSYS finite element
package was used to appropriately model GLARE laminates considering inelastic
behaviour of the aluminium layers. A stressstrain curve of GLARE laminates was
obtained and verified by available experimental results from the literature. Moreover, the
tensile behaviour was compared for different GLARE grades. In addition, a GLARE
laminates stressstrain curve was also compared with that of its constituents.

2 Finite Element Modelling (FEM) Details

There are generally three approaches to finite element modelling of FMLs:

& Micro-level, in which fibres and matrix are studied individually.
& Meso-level, in which individual plies are modelled and analysed.
& Macro-level, in which entire laminate is considered as a homogenised laminate.
Since the behaviour of the layers and interaction between them are studied in the Meso-
level approach, this method was selected for modelling the GLARE laminates in this work.
Orthotropic material properties for prepreg layers and isotropic properties with the
elasticplastic behaviour for the aluminium layers were considered. The elastic properties
of Al 2024-T3 and the glass/epoxy prepregs are given in Table 2. A true stressstrain curve
for 2024-T3, as shown in Fig. 2, was applied to the model using multilinear kinematic
hardening/rate independent plasticity approach [23]. In addition, the adhesive region
between adjacent layers was properly simulated by using cohesive zone modelling with
contact elements in the ANSYS FE software.
According to ASTM D-3039 standard, a GLARE plate model with a 25.5 mm width and
305 mm length was generated for the FE modelling, as shown in Fig. 3. Also, the selected
Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282 275

Table 2 Elastic properties of constituents in GLARE laminates [21, 22]

Material Type E1 E2 E3 12 23 13 G1 G2 G3
(GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa) (GPa)

Al 2024-T3 Isotropic 73.8 73.8 73.8 0.33 0.33 0.33 28.0 28.0 28.0
Glass/Epoxy Transversely 53.98 9.412 9.412 0.33 0.33 0.33 5.548 3.00 5.548
orthotropic

dimensions are the same as those used in the experimental work of reference [20]. One
quarter of the laminate was modelled because of its symmetry with respect to the YZ
(longitudinal direction) and XY (transverse direction) planes. Symmetric boundary
conditions were applied to the planes of symmetry.
SOLID185 was selected among the available elements in ANSYS 12.0 to model
GLARE FMLs. SOLID185 is a 3D eight-node solid element that supports plasticity. This
element is defined by eight nodes having three degrees of freedom at each node. SOLID185
is available in two forms: homogenous structural solid (can be used for metal layers) and
layered structural solid (used for composite layers) [24]. The FE model was meshed with
2000 elements of SOLID185. The final mesh density was determined by refining the
meshing to achieve an appropriate compatibility for the FE results. In the loading step, an
axial tensile stress of 900 MPa was applied to the end of the plate in 30 substeps.

2.1 Cohesive Zone Modelling (CZM)

Cohesive zone modelling (CZM) is a preferred method to analyse fracture problems in

monolithic materials and composites as it avoids the singularity and is easy to implement
with finite element method. Interfacial delamination/debonding can be modelled by directly
introducing fracture mechanism based on cohesive law, by adopting a softening relation-
ships between traction and separation [25, 26]. To do this, several CZMs have been
proposed by different authors which are available in the literature. The main difference in
their approaches is related to the shape of traction-separation and the constants describing

Fig. 2 Stressstrain curve of 500

aluminium alloy 2024-T3 and
data points used [22]
400 Strain Stress
(mm/mm) (MPa)
0.0000 0.0
4.0650e-3 300.0
Stress (MPa)

300
4.2250e-3 320.0
4.5350e-3 340.0
5.2550e-3 355.0
200 8.5550e-3 375.0
0.0144 390.0
0.0254 410.0
0.0385 430.0
100 0.0554 450.0
0.0841 470.0
0.1512 484.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Strain (%)
276 Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

Al 2024-T3
layers

Glass/Epoxy
layers

Fig. 3 FE model of GLARE x(x)-3/2-0.4

that shape. Well-known proposed models are: polynomial and exponential by Needleman
[27], quadratic traction- displacement relation by Tvergaard [28], trapezoidal shape by
Tvergaard and Hutchinson [29], linear type of CZM by Camacho and Oritz [30], and
bilinear traction-separation model by Geubelle and Baylor [31]. The traction-separation
relations are similar for most of the mentioned CZMs. The value of traction (T) increases
with the separation of the interface surfaces up to a critical value Tcr and decreases down to
zero when complete separation occurs at a specific separation value f [3234]. In this
study, a bilinear relation was considered for modelling the cohesive zone between the
aluminium and glass/epoxy layers in GLAREs.

2.2 Bilinear CZM

A typical bilinear CZM is shown in Fig. 4. According to this figure, a debonding process
can be summarised as: starting from point A where there is still a linear elastic response

Fig. 4 Bilinear traction- A B C

separation relation for CZM

cr

f

Tcr

Gc
Traction

Separation

cr f

Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282 277

from the material. As the load increases and reaches to the maximum normal/shear
cohesive traction (T cr), the separation starts at point B, and subsequently, governed by the
cohesive law (linear softening curve). It gradually develops from initiation to complete
failure where the traction is zero at point C (= f ). The area under the curve ABC is the
energy released due to debonding and is called the critical fracture energy (Gc). Therefore,
this cohesive model requires three independent parameters to be fully defined. Convenient
parameters are maximum normal/shear stress, the slope of the first part of the curve, and
the ratio known as debonding parameter for defining the second slope. These parameters
are based on the debonding modes. In general, debonding allows three modes of
separation [35]:
& Mode I, debonding for normal separation.
& Mode II, debonding for tangential separation.
& Mixed mode, debonding for normal and tangential separations.

In mode I (peel), the analytical expression for the cohesive law is given as follows:
8
>
< Kn d n f d n  d cr
n
d d
Tn s max d fndcrn n < dn  d n
d cr 2:1
f
>
: n n
0 dn > d fn

where, Tn is the normal traction, Kn sdmax cr is the normal stiffness, max is the maximum
n
normal stress as traction load, and d cr f
n and d n are the critical and failure normal separation
displacements, respectively.
This equations system can be simplified by defining the normal debonding parameter as
[35]:
  !
d n  d cr d fn
dn n
2:2
dn d fn  d cr
n

Thus, the equation of bilinear CZM in mode I debonding is:

Tn Kn d n 1  dn 2:3
Also, the critical fracture energy in mode I is computed as:

GI 12 s max d fn 2:4

Analytical relationship for CZM in mode II (shear) is:

Tt Kt d t 1  dt 2:5
where,
  !
d t  d cr d ft
dt t
dt d ft  d cr
t

Tt is the tangential/shear traction, Kt is the tangential stiffness Kt tdmax

cr which t max is the
t f
maximum/critical shear, dt is the shear/tangential debonding parameter, and d cr t , d t are the
critical and failure slip distances, respectively.
278 Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

Moreover, the critical fracture energy in mode II is:

GII 12 t max d ft 2:6

In the mixed mode debonding, a coupled cohesive law is used for mixing both of the
peel and shear modes [36]. In this method, a dimensionless debonding parameter dm is
used. This parameter is defined as:
 
m  1
dm l 2:7
m
r
      
2 2
d ft d fn
where m dn
d cr dt
dcr and l d ft d cr
d fn dcr
.
n t t n
Then, the normal and tangential tractions are:
Tn Kn d n 1  dm 2:8

Tt Kt d t 1  dm 2:9
In the mixed mode debonding, both normal and tangential stresses contribute to the total
fracture energy and debonding is completed before the critical fracture energy values reach
to the components value. Therefore, a power law on the basis of a linear interaction damage
evolution criterion is used to define the completion of debonding in the mixed mode:
 a  b
Gn Gt
1; a b 1 2:10
GI GII
where Gn and Gt are the work done by the traction and its conjugate relative displacement
in the normal and shear directions while GI and GII are the critical fracture energies required
to cause failure in its corresponding direction [37].
In the ANSYS FE software, there are two sets of elements to implement CZM:
& Interface elements
& Contact elements
Interface elements use interfacial separation by displacement jump as displacement
difference of the adjacent interface surface. In these elements, an exponential CZM is used.
In Contact elements, the interfacial separation is defined in terms of contact gap/penetration
and tangential slip distance. Also, maximum normal and tangential tractions are defined by
normal and tangential contact stresses. In this method, a bilinear CZM approach is used.
In this study, for modelling the cohesion between the aluminium and glass/epoxy layers
in GLARE laminates, the contact elements method (based on the bilinear CZM approach)
was used to describe debonding between the layers.
It should be mentioned that other damage modes in the glass/epoxy layers may also
contribute to energy absorption such as matrix cracking, splitting at the fibre/matrix
interface; delamination between the fibre composite layers; however, these modes are not
explicitly modelled in this work.
In this work, a flexible macro-based program was written for the finite element
modelling process using the ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL) in order to
extend the capability of the built material model. This allows to generate a wide variety of
GLARE models with different constituent materials and number of layers as well as
Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282 279

Fig. 5 FEM prediction of stress 700

strain curve for GLARE 5-2/
1-0.4 compared to experimental 600
results from Ref. [20]
500

Stress (MPa)
400

300

200

100
FEM Prediction
Experimental Result [ 20]
0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain (%)

different geometries and configurations. Such models are of significant advantage if a series
of analyses in different applications are to be performed.

3 Results and Discussion

In order to verify the FE modelling approach used, FE stress and strain results of GLARE
5-2/1-0.4 were validated with the experimental results available in the literature. Figure 5
illustrates the stressstrain relation for GLARE 5-2/1-0.4 obtained from both the finite
element analysis and experiments up to the final fracture (at about 4% strain). An
acceptable agreement was observed between the FEM and experimental results. Also, the
bilinear form of the stressstrain curve and obtained elastic modulus of approximately
60 GPa validated the finite element modelling results.
FE results show that the elastic modulus of GLARE is lower than that of the aluminium
layers, as can be seen in Fig. 6. This is because glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) has a
low modulus of elasticity contributing to the elastic modulus of GLARE laminates.
However, presence of glass/epoxy in GLARE laminates introduces a strong capacity to

Fig. 6 Stressstrain curves, 700

GLARE 2A-3/2-0.4 compared to
its constitutive materials 600

500
Stress (MPa)

400

300

200
Glare 2A-3/2-0.4
100 Aluminium 2024-T3
Glass/Epoxy
0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain (%)
280 Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282

Table 3 Comparison of strength between GLARE 2A-3/2-0.4 and Al 2024-T3 under an increasing tensile load

Strain Stress in GLARE (MPa) Stress in aluminium 2024-T3 (MPa)

0.0000 0.00 0.00

0.0050 317.53 349.58
0.0100 424.573 378.70
0.0150 512.993 391.09
0.0200 599.30 400.18
0.0250 685.26 409.27
0.0300 770.59 417.02
0.0350 855.50 424.66
0.0400 940.40 431.78

undergo longitudinal loads on glass fibres. Therefore, under longitudinal loading, the tensile
strength of GLARE laminates is higher than that of the monolithic aluminium alloy.
Obtained numerical results of the longitudinal normal stress and strain for both GLARE
2A-3/2-0.4 and Al 2024-T3 are given in Table 3 where the GLARE laminate shows a
940 MPa tensile strength when the strain is 4%; however, this is only 432 MPa for
aluminium 2024-T3. This is, of course, one of the main reasons to utilise GLARE laminates
in advanced aircraft structures as they present high strength to weight ratios.
To evaluate the tensile properties of different grades of GLARE having 3/2 layup with
aluminium alloy 2024-T3 as metal layers, five finite element models were correspondingly
generated and subjected to the same axial tensile load. Resultant stressstrain curves are
illustrated in Fig. 7.
As can be seen from the diagram, each individual stressstrain curve of GLARE grades
has two linear regions confirming that GLARE laminates show a bilinear tensile stress
strain behaviour. Considering Fig. 6, when the aluminium constituent in a GLARE laminate
yields due to a sufficient tensile load, for each strain increment, the stress increment in the
glass/epoxy layers is much larger than that in the aluminium layers. Therefore, the role of
the composite layers to increase the tensile strength of GLAREs in the second part of the

Fig. 7 Stressstrain curves of 700

GLARE grades
600

500
Stress (MPa)

400

300

Glare2A-3/2-0.4
200 Glare3-3/2-0.4
Glare4A-3/2-0.4
100 Glare5-3/2-0.4
Glare6A-3/2-0.4

0
0 1 2 3 4
Strain (%)
Appl Compos Mater (2011) 18:271282 281

stressstrain curve is very significant. Also, the linear stressstrain relationship in GLARE
grades is because of the linear elastic response of glass/epoxy layers.
Moreover, it is shown that fibres in prepreg layers directly affect the strength of GLARE
laminates in the direction which they are aligned. For instance, among the GLARE grades,
GLARE 2A-3/2-0.4, which has [0/0] layup in prepreg layer, has the highest tensile strength
under longitudinal (0 direction) loading. This shows that when the volume fraction of the
fibres aligned in the load direction is reduced, the tensile strength decreases, as would be
expected. Therefore, it is expected that cross ply GLARE laminates such as GLARE 3, 4, 5
have additional tensile strength in both the longitudinal and transverse directions and could
perform well under biaxial loading conditions.

4 Conclusions

A finite element model of GLARE laminates was developed and validated against available
experimental results. The established macro-based material model can be easily used to
analyse different grades of GLARE laminates in structural applications such as notched
members and mechanical joints. Concluding remarks are summarised as follows:
& Although the glass/epoxy composite layers in GLARE laminates exhibit a linear elastic
behaviour under tensile loading, GLAREs show an inelastic response to the increasing
tensile load due to the plasticity of the aluminium layers.
& There is a bilinear stressstrain relationship for GLARE materials because of the
interaction between the aluminium and prepreg layers.
& Elastic moduli of GLARE laminates are somewhat lower than that of the aluminium
constituent due to the presence of the glass/epoxy layers with a low elastic modulus.
& High capacity of the fibres to carry the tensile loads in composite layers causes GLARE
laminates to demonstrate a higher tensile strength than the monolithic aluminium alloy
layers.
& In GLARE grades, because of different orientations of the fibres in prepreg layers, there
are considerable differences in the slope of the stressstrain curves in the second part of
the bilinear curves.
& Because of the main role of the fibres to carry the load in the longitudinal direction, it is
recommended that GLARE grades with fibres aligned with the loading direction to be
used in a structure under uniaxial tensile loading, Fig.6. Besides, GLARE grades with
cross ply (0/90) prepreg layers could cope better in biaxial tensile loading conditions.

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