Anatomy Unit 2

1. Skin.
Two primary layers: epidermis and dermis, joined by dermoepidermal junction.
Thin skin covers most of the body, 1-3 mm thick, has hair and smooth
surface
Thick skin soles and palms, 4-5 mm thick, ridged surface, no hair

2. Cell types in Epidermis.

Keratinocytes - fully keratinized. 90% of all cells present.
Melanocytes - contribute to skin color, filter ultraviolet light.
Epidermal dendritic cells (Langerhans cells) antigen-presenting cells, play
role in immune response.
Tactile epithelial cells (Merkel cells) attach to sensory nerve endings to
form light touch receptors.

3. Cell layers in Epidermis.

a) Stratum basale ( base layer)
b) Stratum spinosum (spiny layer)
c) Stratum granulosum ( granular layer)
d) Stratum lucidium ( clear layer)
e) Stratum corneum ( horny layer)

4. Dermis. Serves as reservoir storage area for water and electrolytes. Contains
erector pili muscles and hair follicles, sensory receptors, sweat and sebaceous
glands, blood vessels. Plays critical role in temperature regulation.
Layers of dermis :
a) Papillary layer
b) Reticular layer
5. Hypodermis. Located deep to the dermis, forms connection between skin and other
structures.
6. Melanin. Types:
a) Eumelanin ( dark)
b) Pheomelanin (reddish, orange)

Melanin formed from tyrosine by melanocytes.

7. Function of the skin.
Protection
- Physical barrier to microorganisms
- Barrier to chemical hazards
- Reduces mechanical trauma
- Protects against UV exposure
Sensation
Flexibility
Excretion ( water, urea, ammonia, uric acid)
Hormone (vitamin D) production
Homeostasis of body temperature
- Heat production
- Heat loss
Immunity
8. Types of bones.
a) Long bones (humerus, radius, ulna, tibia, fibula, metacarpal bones, metatarsal
bones, phalanges)
b) Short bones (carpal bone, tarsal bone)
c) Flat bones (sternum, scapulae)
d) Irregular bones (vertebra)
e) Sesamoid bones (patella, sesamoid of thumb)
9. Mechanism of calcium homeostasis.
Parathyroid hormone
- stimulates osteoclasts to initiate breakdown of bone matrix and increase
blood calcium levels;
- increases renal absorption of calcium from urine;
- stimulates vitamin D synthesis
Calcitonin
- protein hormone produced in the thyroid gland
- produced in response to high blood calcium levels
- stimulates bone deposition by osteoblasts
- inhibits osteoclast activity

High blood Ca level calcitonin secretions increases Ca level decreases

Low blood Ca level parathyroid secretion increases Ca level rises

10. Difference between male and female pelvis.

Male pelvis Female pelvis

Larger, heavier, more narrow
Has a smaller inlet and outlet
Pubic arch angle 60-90
Rounder, flared iliac crest, wider pelvic
opening
More moveable pubic symphysis
Pubic arch 90-120
Has more flexible coccyx

11. Joints. Structural classification:

Fibrous ( bones held together by dense collagen fibers)
Cartilaginous ( by cartilage)
Synovial (by ligaments)

Functional subcategories:

Synarthrosis (immovable joint of the skull)

Amphiarthrosis ( slightly moveable cartilaginous pubic symphysis)
Diarthrosis (freely moveable synovial joints of the shoulder, hip)

12. Joint Movement.

Flexion decrease in the angle
Extension increase in the angle
Abduction away from the midline
Adduction towards the midline
Circumduction movement in a circle
Rotation bone revolving around its own longitudinal axis
Inversion movement of the foot medially
Eversion foot lateraly
Dorsiflexion foot at the ankle in an upward direction
Plantarflexion foot at the ankle in a downward direction
Supination palm turned upward
Pronation palm turned downward
Opposition movement of magnificent opposable thumb across the palm to
touch the tips of the fingers on the same hand.
13. Muscle. Function.
Create motion
Stabilize body position and maintain posture
Store substances within body using sphincters
Move substances by peristaltic contractions
Generate heat through thermogenesis

14. Muscle consists of muscle fibers (myofibers) wrapped in a connective tissue called
the endomysium. A number of fibers are wrapped together in perimysium to form a
fascicle, while fascicles are bundled together to form muscle, which is wrapped in
epimysium or fascia. The three connective tissue layers come together to form a
tendon.

15. Muscle proteins.

Contractile proteins (myosin, actin)
Regulatory proteins ( troponin, tropomyosin)

16. The sliding filament mechanism

Step 1. ATP hydrolysis. Myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and become reoriented and
energized
Step 2. Attachment. Myosin heads bind to actin, forming crossbridges
Step 3. Power stroke. Myosin crossbridges rotate toward center of the sarcomere
Step 4. Detachment. As myosin heads bind ATP, the crossbridges detach from
actin
17. Major skeletal muscles.

Masseter Closes the mouth

sternocleidomastoid Flex and rotate head
Pectoralis major Adducts and medially rotates the arm at
the shoulder joint
Deltoid muscle Abducts, flexes, and medially rotates
the upper arm at the shoulder joint
trapezius Supports the arm and moves scapula up,
down, in, and out
Latissimus dorsi Drives arm inferiorly and posteriorly
Rectus abdominis Flexes vertebral column and compresses
abdomen
Triceps Straighten (extend) the arm
Gluteus maximus Extends and laterally rotates thigh at
hip joint
Hamstring group (biceps femoris, Extend the hip (thigh), flexes the knee
semitendinosus, semimembranosus)
Quadricep group (rectus femoris, vastus Flexes thigh at high joint and extends
lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus leg at knee joint
madialis)
Tibialis anterior Dorsiflexes and inverts the foot
Gastrocnemius and soleus plantarflexion

18. Motor unit. Composed of a motor neuron plus all of the muscle cells it innervates.
High precision (fewer muscle fibers per neuron)
Low precision ( many muscle fibers per neuron)