Public International Law Essentials

PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW
POLITICAL LAW
G EN ERAL P RI NCI PLES
PublicInternationalLaw
This deals with the conduct of States and international A.OBLIGATIONSERGAOMNES
organizations,theirrelationswitheachotherand,incertain Itliterallymeanstowardsall;thosewhichseektoprotect
circumstances, their relations with persons, natural or and promote basic values and common interests of all
juridical.(AmericanThirdRestatement). states.
PrivateInternationalLaw(ConflictofLaws)Thebodyof They refer to those obligations of a State towards the

rulesofthedomesticlawofaStatethatisapplicablewhen internationalcommunityasawholewhicharetheconcern
alegalissuecontainsaforeignelement,andithastobe ofallStatesandforwhoseprotectionallStateshavea
decidedwhetheradomesticruleshouldapplyforeignlaw legalinterest(BarcelonaTractionCase(BelgiumvSpain)
or relinquish jurisdiction to a foreign court. (Aust, ICJRep19703[Feb5]).
HandbookonInternationalLaw,2010,p.1).
Effect of a breach of an obligation under a multilateral
ThreemainschoolsofInternationalLaw treaty:
1. NaturalLawSchoolbasedonrulesofconduct AnobligationunderamultilateraltreatythataStateParty
discoverablebyeveryindividualinhisownconscience tothetreatyowesinanygivencasetoalltheotherStates
and through application of right reasons. (Lynch, Partiestothesametreaty,inviewoftheircommonvalues
Human Rights, Environment and Economic and concern for compliance, so that a breach of that
Development: Existing and Emerging Standards in obligation enables all these States to take action
InternationalLawandGlobalSociety). (ObligationsandRightsErgaOmnesinInternationalLaw,
2. Positivist School holdsthatnormsarevalid Resolution of the Institute de Droit International, Fifth
onlyinsofarastheyhavebeencreatedaccordingtoa Commission,KrakowSession,August27,2005,Art.1).
definiteanddiscerniblerule.(Id.)
3. Eclectic or Groatian School acompromise Remediesincaseofbreach:
between the first two schools and submits that 1. Cessationoftheinternationallywrongfulact;
internationallawisbindingpartlybecauseitisgood 2. Performanceoftheobligationofreparationinthe
and right and partly because states agreed to be interest of the state, entity or individual which is
boundbyit.(Id.) speciallyaffectedbythebreach;
3. Restitution must be effected unless materially
CONCEPTSININTERNATIONALLAW impossible(Id.,Art.2)
EXECUTIVECOMMITTEE SUBJECTCOMMITTEE MEMBERS

IAN MICHEL GEONANGA overall ERIKA MARIE GALLEGO subject chair, VEDA Mark Joshua Angel, Richelle Joy
chairperson, JOSE ANGELO DAVID MARIE VEDAN assistant subject chair, IAN Belgira, Joy Samantha Carugay,
chairperson for academics, RUTH DANIEL GALANG edp, KENNETH REGAON Dominic Paul Genson, Jasmine
ABIGAILACEROchairpersonforhotel constitutionallaw1, LUCILLEGAYEMORENO Rose Maquiling, Janelle Mupas,
operations, JR RECALDE vice constitutional law 2, JACK BRYAN HUFANO CesarRupertoOng,RolenPaulino
chairperson for operations, MARIA administrative law and law on public officers, Jr., Gelacio Rivera IV, Florian
CARMELA HAUTEA vicechairperson ANGELO ABELLA law on public corporations, Salcedo, Charisse Toledo, Felix
for secretariat, MARK ABILO vice KRISTINE GRACE MENESES election law, MichaelVilla
chairperson for finance, RYAN YVETEMARIESOLApublicinternationallaw
LIGGAYU vicechairperson for
electronic data processing, JOMARC
PHILIP DIMAPILIS vicechairperson
forlogistics
San Beda Collegeof Law
2010 Centra l i z e d Bar Opera t i ons
B.JUSCOGENS constituent instrument

A norm accepted and recognized by the international evidences the intention of
communityofstatesasarulefromwhichnoderogationis memberstatestoactinsuch
permittedandcanbemodifiedonlybyasubsequentnorm manner while exercising its
having the same character e.g. unlawful use of force, functions, but if a relevant
genocide, slave trading and piracy (Article 53,Vienna norm is peremptory, states
ConventionontheLawofTreaties). cannotderogatefromit
Astothechangesoftherules
Threegroupsofjuscogensnorms:
can be modified only
a. Maxims of International Law which protect the capable of being modified by
byasubsequentnorm
foundations of law, peace and humanity in the contrary, consensual, legal
having the same
international order and which at present are agreementssuchasbytreaty
character
consideredbynationsastheminimumstandardfor
theirmutualrelations;
Note: Ifanewperemptorynormofgeneralinternational
b. Rules of peaceful cooperation in the sphere of
lawemerges,anyexistingtreatywhichisinconflictwith
InternationalLawwhichprotectsfundamentalcommon
thatnormbecomesvoidandterminates.(Article64,Vienna
interests;
ConventionontheLawofTreaties)
c. Protection of humanity, especially of the most
essentialhumanrights.
C.EXAEQUOETBONO
(Sarmiento,PublicInternationalLawBarReviewer,p.14)
This literallymeans"accordingtotherightandgood"or
"fromequityandconscience."
Juscogensv.jusdispositivum
Juscogens Jusdispositivum
Article38(2) oftheStatuteofthe International Courtof
Astobindingpower JusticeprovidesthatthelistofsourcesinArticle38(1)shall
known as peremptory lawsubjecttothedispensation notprejudicethepowerofthecourttodecidecases ex
norm/compellinglaw oftheparties aequobono,butonlyetwherethepartiesagreethereto.
Astonature
duties which every norms of Customary Note: As illustrated in the North Sea Continental Shelf
state owes to the International Law founded on Cases(ICJReports,1969),theICJresortedtoprinciples
international selfinterest of participating concerningtheformulationsofjustandequitableprinciples
community states concerning the dispute over a certain continental shelf,
Whethersubjecttowaiver whenthecourtopinednotreatyorcustomboundthestate
rules are absolutely waivable; binds only those partiestothedispute.
bindingonallstatesin states consenting to be
theworldatalltimes governedbyit D.HARDLAW
Astoeffectofnoncompliance Thisreferstobindinginternationallegal normsorthose
whichhavecoercivecharacter, e.g. provisionsoftheUN
inter se agreements nothing,inprinciple,precludes
Charter, Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations,
derogating from statesfromactingindisregard
Geneva Conventions of 1949. (Sarmiento, Public
peremptorynormsare of ordinary norms of
InternationalLawBarReviewer,p.4)
prohibitedandarenull internationallaw,providedand
andvoid to the extent that the
2
E.SOFTLAW customs and general to a lesser extent

Thisareguidelinesof conduct whichareneither strictly principlesoflaw executive orders and
binding norms of law, nor completely irrelevant political judicialpronouncements
maxims, and operate in a grey zone between law and Astoremedy
politics,e.g. declarations of international organizations. Resolvedthroughstateto Redressed through local
(Malanczuk,AkekurtsModernIntroductiontoInternational statetransactions administrative and judicial
Law1997,p.54). processes
Astoentityheldresponsible
Itisnotlawbutitsimportancewithinthegeneralframework Collective responsibility Breach of which entails
ofinternationallegaldevelopmentissuchthatparticular because it attaches individualresponsibility
attentionrequirestobepaidtoit,e.g.resolutionsoftheUN directlytothestateandnot
GeneralAssemblyanddraftarticlesofInternationalLaw toitsnationals
Commission.(Shaw,InternationalLaw2008,p117)
Two theoretical approaches to the relationship
G.INTERNATIONALCOMITY betweeninternationallawandnationallaw (Nachura,
Thisreferstorulesofpoliteness,convenienceandgoodwill OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.646):
observed by States in their mutual intercourse without DIFFERENCE
being legally bound by them. Neighborliness, mutual Monism Dualism
respect andfriendlywaiveroftechnicalitiesareinvolved There is no substantial International law and
and the practice is exemplified by the exemption of distinction between national law are
diplomatic envoys from custom duties. (Brownlie, international law and independentofeachother
PrinciplesofPublicInternationalLaw1998,p.29) municipal law. It supposes and both systems are
that international law and regarded as mutually
I NT ERNATI O NAL AN D N A TI O NAL L AW nationallawaresimplytwo exclusive and
components of a single independent. They exist
bodycalledlaw. side by side within
differentspheresofaction
Internationallawv.municipallaw the international plane
InternationalLaw MunicipalLaw andthedomesticplane.
Astonature
Law of coordination Law of subordination Twotheoriesastomannerofadoptinginternational
(consent) (issued by political lawaspartofthelawofthelocalstate:
superior) 1. Doctrine of Incorporation international
Astoapplicability lawsareadoptedaspartofastatesmunicipallaw,by
Regulates relation of Regulates relations of ageneralprovisionorclauseusuallyinitsConstitution.
states and other individuals among (Sec.2,Art.II,1987Constitution).
internationalpersons themselves or with their
ownstates Military Commission created by EO No. 68 has
Astocomposition jurisdictiontotryamemberoftheJapaneseImperial
Derived principally from Consists mainly of Army for violations of the Hague and Geneva
treaties, international statutory enactments, and Conventions on the Laws of War even though the
3
Philippines is not a signatory to these conventions.

The legality and constitutionality of the acts of the CriteriatoresolveconflictbetweenInternationalLaw
MilitaryCommissionisbasedonArt.2,Sec.3ofthe andMunicipalLaw
ConstitutionwhichstatesthatthePhilippinesadopts BasicRule:Attempttoreconcileapparentcontradictionand
thegenerallyacceptedprinciplesofinternationallaw thereby give effect if possible to both systems of law.
aspartofthelawofthenation.(Kurodav.Jalandoni, Presume that municipal law is always enacted by each
G.R.No.L2662,March26,1949) state with due regard for and never in defiance of the
generallyacceptedprinciplesofinternationallaw.
2. DoctrineofTransformation requiresthe
enactmentbythelegislativebodyofsuchinternational Iftheconflictcannotberesolved,thefollowingrulesshall
lawprinciplesasaresoughttobepartofmunicipal apply:
law. (Coquia and Defensor, International Law and 1. On the domestic sphere, with a local court
WorldOrganizations,2005,pp.1314) deciding:
a. InternationalLawv.Constitutionupholdthe
TypesofTransformationDoctrines: Constitution.TheSChasthepowertodeclarea
a. Hard Transformation it holds that only treaty or executive agreement unconstitutional
legislation can transform International Law into (Sec.5(2)(a),Art.VIII,PhilippineConstitution).
domesticlaw.CourtsmayapplyInternationalLaw
onlywhereauthorizedbylegislation b. Constitutionv.Treaty
Generally:Thetreatyisrejectedinthelocalforum
b. SoftTransformationholdseitherajudicialor but is upheld by international tribunals as a
legislative act of a State can transform demandable obligation of the signatories under
InternationalLawintodomesticlaw. (Sarmiento, themaximpactasuntservanda.
Public International Law Bar, Reviewer, 2009,
p.36) The treaty is always subject to qualification or
amendmentbyasubsequentlaw,andthesame
Note:ThePhilippinesappliesboththeories.Followingthe may never curtail or restrict the scope of the
doctrineofincorporationembodiedunderSec.2,Art.IIof policepoweroftheState.(Ichongv.Hernandez,
the1987Constitution,thePhilippinesadoptsthegenerally G.R.No.L7995,May31,1957).
acceptedprinciplesofinternationallawaspartofthelawof
theland.However,allotherformsofinternationallawi.e. c. International Law v. Local Statute The
treaties, executive agreements, etc. require some other doctrine of incorporation decrees that rules of
positiveactformthegovernment. international law aregivenequal standingwith,
but are not superior to, national legislative
The transformations theory is applied in the Philippines enactments. (Philip Morris, Inc v. Court of
throughthetreatymakingpowerofthePresident.Through Appeals,224SCRA576,593[1993])
thispower, rulesandprinciplesembodiedinatreatyin
forcewouldbetransformedintoPhilippinelawandshall Principle of lex posterior derogate priori that
becomevalidandeffectiveupontheconcurrenceof2/3of whichcomeslastintimewillusuallybeupheldby
allmembersoftheSenate(Sarmiento,PublicInternational themunicipaltribunal. (Aust,ModernTreatyLaw
LawBarReviewer,2009,p.36). and Practice 2nd Edition, pp. 248249)
4
2. On the international sphere, with an strengtheningweakpoints,)e.g.pactasuntservanda,

internationaltribunaldeciding: Internationallawis resjudicata,dueprocess,estoppel,prescription.(Aust,
superior tomunicipallaw,becauseinternational law HandbookonInternationalLaw,2010,p.8
provides the standard by which to determine the
legalityofaStatesconduct(Paras,InternationalLaw 4. Judicial decisions and the teachings of the
andWorldPolitics,p.23). most highly qualified publicists of the various
nations,assubsidiarymeansforthedeterminationof
rulesoflaw.
The sources of international law are provided, by
implicationunderArt.38StatuteoftheInternationalCourt Highlyqualified publicists are writers whose main
ofJusticewhichprovidesthat: valuedependsontheextenttowhichthebooksand
articlescitedareworksofscholarship,thatistosay,
TheCourt,whosefunctionistodecideinaccordancewith basedonthoroughresearchintowhatthelawissaid
internationallawsuchdisputesasaresubmittedtoit,shall tobe (lexlata) rather thancomparing theviewsof
apply international conventions, international custom, otherwritersastowhattheythinkthelawoughttobe
general principles of law, judicial decisions and the (lexferenda). (Aust,HandbookonInternationalLaw,
teachingsofhighlyqualifiedpublicists. 2010) e.g. HugoGrotius, VaughanLowe, Lawrence
Oppenheim, Hersch Lauterpact, Hans Kelsen, Ian
S O URCES
Brownlie,MalcolmN.Shaw
1. International conventions,whethergeneral or Note:Referencetotheteachingsofthemosthighly

particular,establishingrulesexpresslyrecognizedby qualifiedpublicistsisnotlimitedtoindividualpublicists
thecontestingstates; or writers, but also includes entities such as the
a. Lawmakingtreaty(traiteloi)
C US TOM ARY I NT ERNATI O NAL L AWS
b. Contract treaty (traitecontract) e.g.
ViennaConventionontheLawofTreaties,Hague
International Law Commission (ILC) which was
Convention
establishedbytheUNtoencouragetheprogressive
2. Internationalcustom,asevidenceofageneral developmentofinternationallawanditscodification.
practiceacceptedaslaw; (UNCharter,Art12(1)(a))
Elements: NonapplicabilityofStareDecisis
a. StatePractice, ICJisnotboundbythedoctrineofstaredecisis.The
b. OpinioJuris decisions of the Court have no binding force except
(S.S.Lotus[France.v.Turkey],1927P.C.I.J.(ser.A) between the parties and in respect of that particular
No.10,Sept.7,1927) case.(ICJStature,Article59)
3. General principles of law recognized by Nonetheless,theCourtdoeslooktopriorholdingsas

civilizednations; beinghighlypersuasive.(Sarmiento,PublicInternational
Conceptsfromdomesticlawiftheycanbeappliedto LawBarReviewer,p.32)
relations between States, and by this means, have CustomaryInternationalLaw
developed international law by filling gaps and
5
This consistsofrulesoflawderivedfromtheconsistent Evidenceofobjectionmustbeclearandthereisprobably

conduct of States acting out of the belief that the law apresumptionofacceptance[ofthestatusofthepractice
required them to act that way (Aust, Handbook of ascustomwhichistoberebutted.Whateverthetheoretical
nd
InternationalLaw,2 ed.,2010,p.6). underpinnings of the principle, it is well recognized by
internationaltribunals,andinthepracticeofstates(North
ICJ has been constant in stating that a customary rule SeaContinentalShelfCases1969ICJRep3).
requires the presence of the two elements the two (2)
elements: (S.S.Lotus[France. v.Turkey],1927P.C.I.J. Notes:
(ser.A)No.10,Sept.7,1927) Themainevidenceofcustomarylawisfoundintheactual
practiceofstates,andaroughideaofastatespractice
1. State Practice (Objective) there must first be can begathered frompublished material (news reports,
evidence of substantial uniformity of practice by a governmentstatements,pressandconferences),andfrom
substantial number of States (Aust, Handbook on the states laws and judicial decisions. (Malanczuk,
InternationalLaw2010,p.6). AkehurstsModernIntroductiontoInternationalLaw.1997
S UB JECTS OF I N TERNAT I O NAL L AW

2. Opinion juris sive necessitates this is the
psychologicalfactor,thebeliefbyastatethatbehaved
inacertainwaythatitwasunderalegalobligationto p.39)
actthatway;stateswillbehaveacertainwaybecause
theyareconvinceditisbindinguponthemtodoso Theclassical formulationininternational lawseesthose
(Shaw,InternationalLaw2008,p.84). customary rules accepted as binding result from the
combinationoftwoelements:theestablished,widespread,
Note: Noparticulardurationisrequired.However,a and consistent practice on the part of States; and a
passageoftimewillbepartofevidenceofgenerality psychological element known as the opinion juris sive
and consistency of the practice. (e.g. prohibition necessitates(opinionastolawornecessity).Implicitinthe
against genocide, torture, slavery, crimes against latterelementisabeliefthatthepracticeinquestionis
humanity) rendered obligatory by the existence of a rule of law
(CaseConcerningtheContinentalShelf;LibyanArab requiringit(Razonv.Tagitis,G.R.No.182498,December
JamahiriyavMalta)(Judgment)[1985]ICJReports13 3,2009).
at29)
Entity that has rights and responsibilities under
InstantCustom(DirittoSpontaneo) internationallawandhavingthecapacitytomaintainits
Abindingruleestablishedbythespontaneousactivityofa rightsbybringinginternationalclaimsincludes:
greatnumberofstatesandneednotbeobservedfora
considerable period. (Malanczuk, Akehursts Modern 1. States;
IntroductiontoInternationalLaw.1997p.45) 2. Coloniesanddependencies;
3. Mandatesandtrustterritories;
PersistentObjectorRule 4. Belligerentcommunities;
AState,whichhaspersistentlyobjectedtothestatusas 5. Internationaladministrativebodies;and
customofaparticularpracticeintheprocessofevolving 6. TheUnitedNations;
into a custom, is not bound by that customary rule. 7. TheVaticanandtheHolySee;and
6
8. Individuals,toacertainextent 1. Independent has

(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed., freedom to direct and control foreign relations
p.646). withoutrestraintfromotherstates.
a. Simple
Subjectv.Object b. Composite
Subject Object i. Rea
Existenceofrightsandobligationsunder l Union two or more states merged
internationallaw under a unified authority so that they
Person/thing in respect form a single international person
Entity that has rights
ofwhichrightsareheld throughwhichtheyactasoneentity
and responsibilities
and obligations ii. Fed
underthatlaw
assumedbythesubject eralUnioncombinationoftwoormore
Applicabilityofinternationallaw statesresultinginthecreationofanew
Has international statewithfullinternationalpersonality
Notdirectlygovernedby
personality that it can
therulesofinternational 2. Dependent an
directlyassertrightsand
law entitywhich,althoughtheoreticallyastate, does
canbeheldresponsible
underthelawofnations nothavefullfreedominthedirectionofitsexternal
affairs.
Participationininternationaltransactions
a. Protectorate
Itcanbeaproperparty
Its rights are received established at the request of the weaker
intransactionsinvolving
and its responsibilities statefortheprotectionbyastrongpower
the application of the
imposed indirectly b. Suzerainty
law of nations among
through the theresultofaconcessionfromastatetoa
members of
instrumentality of an former colony that is allowed to be
international
intermediateagency independent subject to the retention by the
communities
foreignsovereignofcertainpowersoverthe
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.
externalaffairsofthelatter.
646)
A. STATEItisanentitythathasadefinedterritory 3. Neutralized
andpermanentpopulation,underthecontrolofitsown independenceandintegrityareguaranteedinan
government,andengagesin,orhasthecapacityto internationaltreatyontheconditionthatsuchstate
engage in, formal relations withothersuch entities. obligatesitselfnevertotakeuparmsagainstany
(Art.1,MontevideoConvention) other state, or to enter into an international
Elements: obligationaswouldindirectlyinvolveitinwar
1. PermanentPopulation
2. DefinedTerritory PrincipleofStateContinuity
3. Government The principles states that a States identity as an
4. CapacitytoenterintorelationswithotherStates international legal person persists notwithstanding
(Art.1,MontevideoConvention). unconstitutional or even violent changes in its
government.Asaresult,astategenerallycontinuesto
Classifications:
7
owe and accrue international legal obligations whichall itsexternal relationsare transactedwithother
notwithstanding such changes (Currie, Public states.
InternationalLaw,2nded).
SuccessionofStates It has no legal standing in the family of nations.
Thistakesplacewhenonestateassumestherights Nevertheless,suchentitieshavebeenallowedonoccasion
andsomeoftheobligationsofanotherstatebecause toparticipateintheirownrightininternationalundertakings
ofcertainchangesintheconditionofthelatter. andgrantedpracticallythestatusofasovereignstate.Itis
1. Universal Succession astateisannexedto whenactinginthiscapacitythatcolonyanddependencies
anotherstate,oristotallydismemberedormerges areconsideredinternationalpersons.
with another state to form a new state.
International personality of the former state is Colony
completelyabsorbedbythesuccessor.(Nachura, It is a dependent political community consisting of a
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. numberofcitizensofthesamecountrywhohavemigrated
649) therefromtoinhabitinanothercountry,butremainsubject
tothemotherstate(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical
2. PartialSuccessiontakesplacewhenaportion Law,2009ed.,p.651).
oftheterritoryofastatesecedesoriscededto
another,orwhenanindependentstatebecomesa Dependency
protectorateorsuzerainty,orwhenadependent It is a territory distinct from the country in which the
stateacquiresfullsovereignty.(Id.) supremesovereignpowerresidesbutbelongsrightfullyto
it, and subject to the laws and regulations which the
ConsequencesofStateSuccession sovereign may prescribe (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
Theconsequencesare:politicallawsareabrogatedwhile PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.651).
municipallawsremaininforce;treatiesarediscontinued, C.MANDATESANDTRUSTTERRITORIES
exceptthosedealingwithlocalrightsandduties,suchas Thesearenonselfgoverningterritorieswhichhavebeen
thoseestablishingeasementsandservitudes;allrightsof placed under international supervision to insure their
the predecessor state are inherited (Nachura, Outline political,economic,socialandeducationaladvancement.
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.649).
KindsofTrustTerritories
SuccessionofGovernments 1. Those held
Whereonegovernmentreplacesanothereitherpeacefully underthemandateoftheLeagueofNations
or by violent means, the integrity of the state is not 2. Territories
affected; the state continues as the same international detached from the defeated states after World
personexceptonlythatitslawfulrepresentativeischanged WarII
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. 3. Those
649). voluntarilyplacedunderthesystembythestates
. responsiblefortheiradministration
B.COLONIESANDDEPENDENCIES
From the viewpoint of international law, they are D.BELLIGERENTCOMMUNITY
consideredaspartandparceloftheparentstate,through Agroupofrebelsunderanorganizedcivilgovernment
who have taken up arms against the legitimate
8
government. Whenrecognized, it isconsidered asa Although not a state or a superstate but a mere
separatestateforpurposesofconflictandentitledtoall organizationof states, itisregarded asaninternational
therightsandsubjectedtoalltheobligationsofafull personforcertainpurposes.
pledgedbelligerentunderthelawsofwar.
H.THEVATICANANDTHEHOLYSEE
Belligerentoccupationeffectsnochangeinsovereignty, InasmuchasthePopepreferstoconductforeignrelations
but the exercise of the powers of sovereignty is andenterintotransactionsastheHolySeeandnotinthe
suspended.Politicallaws,exceptthelawontreason,are nameoftheVaticanCity,onecanconcludethatinthe
suspended; municipal laws remain inforce (Laurel v. Pope'sownview,itistheHolySeethatistheinternational
Misa,77Phil856). person.(HolySeev.Rosario,G.R.No.101949,December
1,1994)
E.INTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONS
Refer to public or intergovernmental organizations, in TheRepublicofthePhilippineshasaccordedtheHolySee
contrasttoprivateornongovernmentalorganizationssuch thestatusofaforeignsovereign.TheHolySee,throughits
as Amnesty International or the Red Cross (Sarmiento, Ambassador, the Papal Nuncio, has had diplomatic
PublicInternationalLawBarReviewer,2009,p.152). representationswiththePhilippinegovernmentsince1957.
Thisappearstobetheuniversalpracticeininternational
Theyaretypically: relations.(Id.)
1. Institutionsestablishedbyatreaty
2. Composed of members that are states or I.INDIVIDUALS
internationalorganizations TraditionalDoctrine
3. RegulatedbyInternationalLaw;and OnlyStates,notindividualsaresubjectsofinternational
4. Endowed with a legal personality and thus law.Accordingtothisdoctrine,thenormsofinternational
generallycanengageincontracts,andcansueand lawimposeobligationsandresponsibilitiesuponStatesnot
be sued in national courts subject to certain individuals.Thislimitationofthepersonalsphereofvalidity
immunities constitutes, according to the doctrine, an essential
characteristic of international law. Individuals are
F.INTERNATIONALADMINISTRATIVEBODIES consideredmerelyasobjects,notsubjectsofinternational
International Administrative Bodies are certain law (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, 2009,
administrativebodiescreatedbyagreementamongstates p.656).
whichmaybevestedwithinternationalpersonalitywhen
twoconditionsconcur:First,theirpurposesaremainlynon OpposingView
political,andsecond,theyareautonomousandnotsubject ThestatementthataStatesaresubjectsofinternational
to the control of any state e.g. International Labor lawmeansthatindividualhumanbeingsareindirectlyand
Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization collectively, in their capacity as organs of the State,
(FAO), World Health Organization (WHO) (Southeast subjectsoftheobligations,responsibilitiesandrightsofthe
AsianFisheriesDevelopmentCenterv.AcostaG.R.Nos. State(Coquia,InternationalLaw,p.80).
9746870September2,1993).
G.UNITEDNATIONS
R E CO G NI TIO N
Itisanactbywhichastateacknowledgestheexistenceof
another state, government or belligerent communityand
9
indicates its willingness to deal with the entity as such Astoeffectofrecognitioninrelationtoother

under the rules of international law (Nachura, Outline states
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.647). Brings about full Limitedtocertainjuridical
diplomaticrelations relations
TheoriesonRecognition (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.
1. Declaratory (majority view) merely affirms an 648).
existingfactlikethepossessionbythestateofthe
Requisitesforrecognitionofgovernment:
essentialelements.Discretionaryandpolitical;
1. Governmentisstableandeffective;
2. Constitutive (minority view) it is the act of
2. Nosubstantialresistancetoitsauthority;
recognition that constitutes the entity into an
3. Thegovernmentmustshowwillingnessandabilityto
internationalperson. Compulsoryandlegal;maybe
dischargeitsinternationalobligations;and
compelled once the elements of a state are
4. The government must enjoy popular consent or
established (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political
approvalofthepeople.(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
Law,2009ed.,p.647).
PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.648)
BasicrulesinrecognitionofStates
ObjectsofRecognition
1. Itisapoliticalactandmainlyamatterofpolicyon
1. State generally held to be irrevocable and
thepartofeachstate;
importstherecognitionofitsgovernment.
2. Itisdiscretionaryonthepartoftherecognizing
authority;and
2. Government maybewithdrawnanddoesnot
3. It is exercised by the political (executive)
necessarily signify the existence of a state, as the
departmentofthestate(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
governmentmaybethatofamerecolony.
PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.647).
ConditionsforRecognitionofnewgovernment:
Kindsofrecognition
a. Government must be effective and stable
Recognitionmayeitherbeexpressorimplied.Itmayalso
(objectivetest)
be de facto or de jure (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
b. Governmentmustshowwillingnessandabilityto
PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.648).
dischargeinternationalobligations(subjectivetest)
Recognitiondejurev.Recognitiondefacto
EffectsofRecognitionofaStateorGovernment:
Recognition Recognition
a. FullDiplomaticrelations;
DeJure DeFacto
b. Right to sue in
Astodurationofrecognition courtsofrecognizingstate;
Relativelypermanent Provisional c. Righttopossession
(duration of armed ofpropertiesofpredecessorontherecognizing
struggle) state;
Astoeffectofrecognitiononownershipof d. All acts of the
properties recognized state or government are validated
Does NOT vest title to retroactively, preventing the recognizing state
Veststitletoproperties
propertiesofgovernment frompassingupontheirlegalityinitsowncourts
ofgovernmentabroad
abroad (ActofStateDoctrine).
10
(Ecuadorian Foreign Minister Tobar and US Pres.

Recognition of State versus Recognition of WoodrowWilson).
Government
a. RecognitionoftheStatecarrieswithitrecognition KelsenDoctrine
ofgovernment AstateviolatesInternationalLawandthusinfringesupon
b. RecognitionofStateisirrevocable the rights of other states if it recognizes as a state a
community which does not fulfill the requirements of
3. Belligerent community rebels are accorded InternationalLaw.
international personality only in connection with the
hostilitiestheyarewaging. BetancourtDoctrine
ThiscameasareflectionofVenezuelanPresidentRomulo
ConditionsforRecognitionofBelligerency:(OSCW) Betancourts antipathy for nondemocratic rule, which
a. Organizedcivilgovernment; denieddiplomaticrecognitiontoanyregime,rightorleft,
b. Rebelsoccupyasubstantialportionofterritory; whichcametopowerbymilitaryforce.
c. Conflictisseriousandoutcomeisuncertain;
d. Rebelsarewillingtoobservethelawsofwar. LauterpachtDoctrine
Absence of one element means state of Itistherecognitionofanentitywhichisnotlegallyastate
insurgency. iswrongbecauseitconstitutesanabuseofthepowerof
recognition.Itacknowledgesacommunitywhichisnot,in
EffectsofRecognitionofBelligerency: law,independentandwhichdoesnotthereforefulfillthe
a. Responsibility for essentialconditionsofstatehoodasanindependentstate.
actsofrebelsresultingtoinjurytonationalsof It is, accordingly, a recognition which an international
recognizing state shall be shifted to rebel tribunalwoulddeclarenotonlytoconstituteawrongbut
government; probablyalsotobeinitselfinvalid.
b. The legitimate
governmentrecognizingtherebelsasbelligerents StimsonDoctrine
shall observe laws or customs of war in Thisprecludesrecognitionofanygovernmentestablished
conductinghostilities; asaresultofexternalaggression(USSecofStateHenry
c. Third states LewisStimson).
recognizing belligerency should maintain
neutrality; EstradaDoctrine
Recognitionisonlyprovisionalandonlyfor Thisreferstodealingornotdealingwiththegovernment
purposesofhostilities. establishedthroughapoliticalupheavalisnotajudgment
onthelegitimacyofthesaidgovernment(MexicanMinister
Landmarkcasedoctrinesinrecognitionofstates GenaroEstrada).
Wilson/TobarDoctrine
F U NDAM ENTAL R I G HTS O F T HE
Thisprecludesrecognitionofgovernmentestablishedby
S T ATES
revolution,civilwar, coupdetat orotherformsofinternal
violence until the freely elected representatives of the
people have organized a constitutional government A.RIGHTTOEXISTENCEANDSELFDEFENSE
11
Thisisthemostcomprehensiveasallotherrightsof
stateflowfromit.AStatemaytakemeasuresincluding The ICJ rejected the justification of collective self
theuseofforceasmaybenecessarytocounteractany defensemaintainedbytheUnitedStatesinconnection
dangertoitsexistence.(Art.51,UNCharter) with the military and paramilitary activities in and
againstNicaragua.Selfdefense,whetherindividualor
Aggression collective,canonlybeexercised in responsetoan
The use of armed force by a state against the armedattack.Thereisnorulepermittingtheexercise
sovereignty, territorial integrity or political ofcollectiveselfdefenseintheabsenceofrequestby
independenceofanotherstate,orinanyothermanner the State which is a victim of an alleged attack
inconsistentwiththeCharteroftheUnitedNations,as (Nicaraguav.UnitedStates1986ICJRep).
setoutinthisdefinition(Art.1,UNGeneralAssembly
Resolution3314). Preventive/Anticipatoryselfdefense
Theuseofforceinanticipationofanattackislegalif
Actsofaggression made in good faithdepends on circumstances of
1. Invasionorattackofastate imminentdanger.
2. Bombardmentofstate
3. Blockadeofportsorcoasts A threatened State, according to long established
4. Use of armed forces within a state in internationallaw,cantakemilitaryactionaslongas
contraventiontoanyagreement the threatened attack is imminent, no other means
5. Actionofstateinallowingtheuseofitsterritory woulddeflectitandtheactionisproportionate. (UN
foranactofaggressionagainstathirdstate HighlevelPanelonThreats,ChallengesandChange
6. Sendingofarmedgroupsormercenarieswhich byHanspeterNeuhold2003atpara.188).
carryanactofarmedforceagainstanotherstate
(Art.3,UNGeneralAssemblyResolution3314). Abatementdoctrine/(ResponsibilitytoProtectR2P)
State sovereignty implies responsibility, and the
Requisites for proper exercise of right of self primary responsibility fortheprotectionofitspeople
defense:(ASA)(Art.51,UNCharter) lies with the state itself; (2) Where a population is
1. Armedattack; suffering serious harm, as a result of internal war,
2. Selfdefensiveactiontakenbytheattackedstate insurgency,repressionorstatefailure,andthestatein
must be reported immediately to the Security questionisunwillingorunabletohaltoravertit,the
Council;and principleofnoninterventionyieldstotheinternational
3. Suchactionshallnotinanywayaffecttherightof responsibilitytoprotect.(InternationalCommissionon
theSecurityCounciltotakeatanytimeactionas Intervention and State Sovereignty (2001) Sections
it deems necessary to maintain or restore 4.184.21)
internationalpeaceandsecurity.
B. RIGHT OF SOVEREIGNTY
Collectiveselfdefense ANDINDEPENDENCE
Therightofstatestocometothedefenseofastate Sovereignty
whose situation meets the condition of legitimate The totality of the powers, legal competence, and
individualselfdefenseundertheUNCharter(Art.51, privilegesarisingfromcustomaryinternationallaw,and
UNCharter). not dependent on the consent of another state
12
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed., (Art. 1 1907 Hague Convention II/ DragoPorter

p.658). Convention)
.
Independence C. RIGHTOFEQUALITY
This meansfreedom from control byother state or Every state is entitled to the same protection and
groupofstatesandnotfreedomfromtherestrictions respectasareavailabletootherstatesundertherules
that are binding on all states forming the family of of international law (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
nations; carries with it by necessary implication the PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.659).
correlativedutyofnonintervention Nachura,Outline
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.658). ActofStateDoctrine
Astateshouldnotinquireintothelegalvalidityofthe
Intervention publicactsofanotherstatedonewithintheterritoryof
Itisanactbywhichastateinterfereswiththe the latter. For this purpose, considerations such as
domesticorforeignaffairsofanotherstatethroughthe motive are immaterial (Underhill v. Hernandez, 168
employmentofforceorthreatofforcewhichmaybe U.S.250).
physical, political or economic (Nachura, Outline
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.658). DoctrineofStateImmunity
As a consequence of the independence, territorial
Nothingcontainedinthepresentchartershallauthorizethe supremacyandequality,astateenjoysimmunityfrom
UnitedNationstointerveneinmatterswhichareessentially the exercise of jurisdiction (legislative, executive or
withinthedomesticjurisdictionofanystateorshallrequire judicial)byanotherstateEXCEPT:
thememberstosubmitsuchmatterstosettlementunder 1. Ithasgivenconsent
thepresentcharter;butthisprincipleshallnotprejudicethe 2. Waiveditsimmunityor
applicationofenforcementmeasuresunderchapter7(Art. 3. Voluntarily submitted to the jurisdiction of the
2par.7oftheUNCharter). court concerned (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
. PoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.660).
Wheninterventionissanctioned:(ADAR)
1. Asanactofselfdefense; Restrictiveapplicationofthedoctrine
2. When decreed by the Security Council as a This immunity, however, is recognized only with
preventiveorenforcementactionforthemaintenanceof respecttosovereignorpublicactsofthestateand
internationalpeaceandsecurity;and cannot be invoked with respect to private or
3. Whensuchactionisagreeduponinatreaty;or proprietary acts (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
4. When requestedfromfellowstatesorfromthe Political Law, 2009 ed., p. 660). Neither may this
UnitedNationsby thepartiestoadispute orastate immunitybeinvokedwhentheforeignstatesuesin
besetbyrebellion.Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical thecourtsofanotherstate,forthenitisdeemedto
Law,2009ed.,p.659). have submitted itself to the ordinary incidents of
procedureandthus,acounterclaimmaybevalidlyset
DragoDoctrine upagainstit (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical
Interventionisnot allowedforthepurpose ofmakinga Law,2009ed.,p.660).
statepayitspublicdebts.
TheStateisdeemedtohavewaiveditsimmunity:
13
1. Whenitgivesconsentatthetimetheproceeding Thefurtherprocessandseparateprocedureofmarkinga
isinstituted; lineofdelimitationwithphysicalobjectssuchasconcrete
2. Whenittakesstepsrelatingtothemeritsofthe posts,stonecairns,etc (Aust,HandbookonInternational
casebeforeinvokingimmunity; Law2010,p34.).
3. Whenbytreatyorcontractithadpreviouslygiven
consent; IntertemporalRule
4. Whenbylaworregulationinforceatthetime Indecidingterritorialdisputes,onemustassessthefactsin
complaintaroseithasindicatedthatitwillconsent lightoftheinternationallawattherelevanttime,notthe
to the institution of the proceedings (Nachura, lawatthetimetheissuefallstobedecided (Islandsof
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p. PalmasCase,USv.Netherlands,1928).
661).
CriticalDateRule
D. RIGHT TO TERRITORIAL Itisthedatebywhichtherightsofthepartiestoaterritorial
INTEGRITYANDJURISDICTION disputehavesocrystallizedthatwhattheydoafterwards
ComponentsoftheterritoryofaState: does not affect the legal position (Aust, Handbook on
1. Terrestrial land mass on which the InternationalLaw,p.35).
inhabitantslive;
2. Martimeandfluvial MODESOFACQUISITIONOFTERRITORY
3. Aerial and space (Nachura, Outline 1. Discoveryandoccupation
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,pp.662667). Thisistheoriginalmodebywhichterritorynotbelongingto
anystateorterranulliusisplacedunderthesovereigntyof
the discovering state (Aust, Handbook on International
T E RRI TO RY Law,p.36).
As a requirement under the Montevideo Convention, a

The landneednotbeuninhabitedprovidedthatitcanbe
statemusthavereasonablystablepoliticalcommunityand
establishedthatthenativesarenotsufficientlycivilizedand
thismustbeincontrolofacertainarea.Theexistenceof
canbeconsideredpossessingnotrightsofsovereigntybut
fullydefinedfrontiersisnotrequiredandthatwhatmatters
onlyrightsofhabitation
is the effective establishment of a political community
Requisites:
(Brownlie,2008).
a. Possession;and
b. administration.
IMPORTANTCONCEPTSRELATINGTOTERRITORY:
Inchoatetitleofdiscovery
Delimitation
Titleisacquiredbytheclaimantstatependingcompliance
The process of determining the land or maritime
with the second requirement which is administration. It
boundaries of a State, including that of any continental
performsthefunctionofbarringotherstatesfromentering
shelforexclusiveeconomiczone,andisgenerallydoneby
theterritoryuntilthelapseofareasonableperiodwithin
means of geographical coordinates of latitude and
which the discovering state may establish a settlement
longitude (Aust,HandbookonInternationalLaw,2010,p.
thereonandcommencetoadministerit.
288).
2. Prescription
Demarcation
14
Thecontinuousanduninterruptedpossessionoveralong 1. Discovery and 1. Dereliction

periodoftime,justlikeincivillaw.Ininternational law, occupation 2. Cession
however,thereisnoruleofthumbastothelengthoftime 2. Cession 3. Erosion, or
needed for acquisition of territory through prescription 3. Prescription other natural
(Aust,HandbookonInternationalLaw,p.37). 4. Conquest and causes
subjugation 4. Prescription
GrotiusDoctrineofImmemorialPrescription
Uninterruptedpossessiongoingbeyondmemory. An international organization created at San Francisco
ConferenceheldintheUSfromApril25toJune26,1945.
3. Cession(bytreaty) UNsucceededtheLeagueofNationsandisgovernedbya
Territory is transferred from one state to another by charterthatcameintoforceonOctober24,1945.
agreementbetweenthem(sale,donation,barter/exchange
andtestamentarydisposition)(Id.). PrincipalpurposesofUN:(Art.1,UNCharter)
1. Maintaininternationalpeaceandsecurity;
4. Subjugation 2. Developfriendlyrelationsamongnations;
Having been previously conquered or occupied in the 3. Achieveinternationalcooperation:and
courseofwaroftheenemy,isformallyannexedtoitatthe 4. Center for harmonizing actions of nations for
end of the war. Conquest alone gives rise only to an attainmentofthesecommongoals.
inchoaterightsinceitistheformalactofannexationthat
completesacquisition(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.500). FundamentalprinciplesofUN(Art.2,UNCharter)
1. The organization is based on the sovereign
Note: Thismode of acquisitionisnolongerrecognized equalityofallitsmembers.
inasmuchastheUNCharterprohibitsresorttothreator 2. Allmembers,inordertoinsuretoallofthemthe
use of force against the territorial integrity or political rightsandbenefitsresultingfrommembership,shall
independenceofanyState(Article5(3)oftheConsensus fulfillingoodfaiththeobligationsassumedbythemin
Definition of Aggression adopted in 1974 by the UN accordancewiththeCharter.
GeneralAssembly). 3. All members shall settle their international
disputes by peaceful means in such manner that
5. Accretion international peace, security and justice, are not
Basedon accessiocedatprincipali accomplishedthrough endangered.
bothnaturalorartificialprocessesasbythegradualand 4. All members shall refrain in their international
imperceptibledepositofsoilonthecoastsofthecountry relationsfromthethreatoruseofforceagainstthe
throughtheactionofthewaterorbyreclamationprojects territorial integrity or political independence of any
(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.498). state,orinanymannerinconsistentwiththepurposes
oftheUN.
5. Occasionswhenuseofarmedforcesisallowed
byUNCharter:
a. Maintain or restore international peace and
security through demonstrations, blockade and other
ModesofAcquiring ModesofLosing operationsbyair,seaorlandforcesbyUNmembers
Territory Territory
15
b. Inherent right to collective self defense if an

armedattackoccursagainstamemberstateuntilSecurity AmendmentoftheUNCharter:
Council has taken measures necessary to maintain It is done by 2/3 vote of the members of the General
internationalpeaceandsecurity. Assemblyandratifiedinaccordancewiththeirrespective
6. AllmembersshallgivetheUNeveryassistancein constitutional processes by 2/3 members of the United
anyactionittakesinaccordancewiththeCharter,and Nations,includingallpermanentmembersoftheSecurity
shall refrain from giving assistance to any state Council(Art.108,UNCharter).
against which the UN is taking preventive or
enforcementaction. AgeneralconferencecalledbyamajorityvoteofGeneral
7. Theorganizationshallinsurethatstateswhichare AssemblyandanyninemembersofSecurityCouncilmay
notmembersoftheUNshallactinaccordancewith propose amendmentsfollowingthefirstprocedure. (Art.
theseprinciplessofarasmaybenecessaryforthe 109,UNCharter)
maintenanceofinternationalpeaceandsecurity.
8. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall QualificationsofmemberStates(SPAC):(Art.4[1],UN
authorizetheUNto interveneinmatterswhichare Charter)
essentiallywithinthedomesticjurisdictionofanystate 1. Mustbeastate;
orshallrequirethememberstosubmitsuchmattersto 2. Mustbepeaceloving;
settlementundertheCharter;butthisprincipleshall 3. Must accept obligations of memberstates
not prejudice the application of enforcement containedintheCharter;and
4. Must be able and willing to carry out such
U NI TED N A TI O NS
obligation.
measures.
Admissionandsuspensionofmembers
DomesticJurisdictionClause Admission:Twothirds(2/3)ofthosepresentandvotingin
Aslongasthematterremainsinternal,thesamecannotbe GAuponfavorablerecommendationofatleast9members
thesubjectofinterventionbytheUN.Thedisputemustbe ofSecurityCouncilincludingpermanentmembers.
internationalincharacter,notdomestic.RebellionisNOT
undertheOrganizationsjurisdiction. Toeffectanadmission,arecommendationoftheSecurity
Council and a decision of the General Assembly, is
Exceptions: required. Recommendation is the foundation of the
1. Whereinternalconflictaggravatesintoathreatto decisiontoadmit.(Art.4[2],UNCharter)
or an actual breach of international peace and
security; Suspension:
2. Parties voluntarily invoke and submit to the Samevoteasrequiredinadmission;maybeliftedaloneby
jurisdiction of the UN for the settlement of their SecurityCouncilalsobyqualifiedmajorityvote.
dispute.
Effectsofsuspension:
TheUNCharter 1. Preventedfromparticipatinginmeetingsof
Technicallyatreatywhichpartiesmustrespectunderthe theGA
doctrineofpactasuntservanda.Itconsistsof111articles
besidesthePreambleandconcludingprovisions.
16
2. Preventedfrombeingelectedtoorcontinuing b. Budgetary controlsthefinancesoftheUnited

toserveintheSC,EconomicandSocialCouncil Nations.
orTrusteeshipCouncil c. Constituent participatesintheamendmentof
3. Nationals of suspended member may theUNCharter.
continueservingthesecretariatandICJasthey d. Deliberative discusses principles regarding
are regarded as international officials or civil maintenanceofinternationalpeaceandsecurity.
servantsactingfortheOrganizationitself e. Electiveelectsnonpermanentmembersofthe
Security Council, some members of the Trusteeship
ExpulsionofMembers Council and all members of the Economic and Social
Members may be expelled if they persistently violated Council.
principlesbythevoteoftwothirds(2/3)ofthosepresent
andvotingintheGAuponrecommendationoftheSecurity VotingProcedure(Art.1822,UNCharter)
Council by a qualified majority vote, to provide for a 1. EachmemberoftheGeneralAssembly
strongerpenaltythanmeresuspensionagainstamember. shallhaveonevote.
2. However,amemberwhichisinarrears
WithdrawalofMembers inthepaymentofitsfinancialcontributionstothe
Noprovisiononwithdrawalfrommembershipwasincluded Organizationsshallhavenovoteiftheamountof
intheCharter.However,amembermightwithdrawfrom itsarrearsequalsorexceedstheamountofthe
theUnitedNationsif: contributionsduefromitfortheprecedingtwofull
1. TheUNwasrevealedtobeunabletomaintain years.
peaceorcoulddosoonlyattheexpenseoflawand 3. But, the General Assembly may,
justice. nevertheless,permitsuchmembertovoteifitis
2. Members rights and obligations as such were satisfiedthatfailuretopayisduetoconditions
changedbyacharteramendmentinwhichithadnot beyondthecontrolofthemember.
concurredorwhichitfindsitselfunabletoaccept. 4. Decisionsonimportantquestionsshall
3. Amendment duly accepted by the necessary bemadebyatwothirdsmajorityofthemembers
majorityeitherintheGAorinageneralconferenceis present and voting, while decisions on other
notratified. questions shall be made by a majority of the
memberspresentandvoting.
PRINCIPALORGANSOFTHEUNITEDNATIONS
(Art.7[1],UNCharter) Important questions that require twothirds
1. General Assembly central organ where all majorityvoteofthemembers:
membersarerepresented. TheGeneralAssemblyis a. Recommendations with respect to the
notalegislativebody;itcanonlyrecommend.(Art.9, maintenanceofinternationalpeaceandsecurity;
UN,Charter) b. Election of nonpermanent members of the
SecurityCouncil;
FunctionsoftheGeneralAssembly:(SBCDE) c. ElectionofmembersoftheEconomicandSocial
(Art.1017,UNCharter) Council;
a. Supervisory receives and considers reports d. ElectionofmembersoftheTrusteeshipCouncil;
fromotherorgansoftheUnitedNations. e. AdmissionofnewmemberstotheUnitedNations;
17
f. Suspension of the rights and privileges of in GA, characterization of a question is considered

membership; nonproceduralinSC)
g. Expulsionofmembers;
h. Questions relating to the operation of the Nomember,permanentornot,isallowedtovoteon
trusteeshipsystem;and questions concerning the pacific settlement of a
i. Budgetaryquestions. disputetowhichitisaparty.
2. Security Council organ responsible for the Formulatoensureunityofpermanentmembersinthe

maintenance of peace and security; undertakes measures to be taken in the pursuit of its primary
preventive and enforcement actions. (Art. 23, UN function of maintaining international peace and
Charter) security
Membership Theaboverulesenableapermanentmembertocast
a. PermanentMembers(CUFRU) a veto and thereby prevent agreement on a non
China, United Kingdom, France, Russia, and proceduralquestionevenifitissupportedbyallother
UnitedStatesofAmerica membersoftheSecurityCouncil.
b. NonpermanentMembers
5fromAfricanandAsianStates Itcanalsoexerciseadoublevetobymeansofwhich
2fromLatinAmericanStates itcandisapproveanyproposaltoconsideraquestion
2fromWesternEuropeanandotherstates merely procedural and thereafter vote against the
1fromEasternEuropeanStates questionitselfonthemerits.
Significantly, the abstention or absence of any
VotingProcedure(Art.2832,UNCharter) permanentmemberinconnectionwithavotingona
nonproceduralquestionisnotconsideredaveto,and
YaltaFormulaeachmembershallhave1votebut theproposal isdeemed adopted ifapprovedby at
distinctionismadebetweentheBig5andthenon leastninemembersoftheSecurityCouncil,including
permanentmembersintheresolutionofsubstantive therestofthepermanentmembers
questions.
Procedural matters are to be decided by the 3. EconomicandSocialCouncilservesasthe
affirmativevoteofany9ormoremembers(questions central forum for discussing international economic
regarding organization and meetings of SC, and social issues, and for formulating policy
establishmentofsubsidiaryorgansandparticipationof recommendationsaddressedtoMemberStatesand
statespartiestoadisputeinthediscussionsofthe theUnitedNationssystem.(Art.61,UNCharter)
organ).
It exerts efforts towards higher standards of living,
Decision on nonprocedural matters requires the solutionsofinternationaleconomic,social,healthand
concurrenceofalsoatleast9membersbutincluding relatedproblems,facilitatinginternationalculturaland
allpermanentmembers(mattersrequiringSCunder educational cooperation, universal respect for and
its responsibility of maintaining or restoring world observance of human rights and fundamental
peace,toinvokemeasuresofenforcementandunlike freedoms.(Id,)
18
4. TrusteeshipCouncil organchargedwiththe Onceelected,aMemberoftheCourtisadelegate

administrationoftheInternationalTrusteeshipSystem neitherofthegovernmentofhisowncountrynorthat
(idlecouncil);(Art.86,UNCharter) ofanyotherstate.
No judge can be removed unless, in a unanimous
5. International Court of Justice principal opinionoftheothermembers,hehasceasedtofulfill
judicial organ of UN; World Court governed by the therequiredconditions.(Art.18,ICJStatute)
StatutewhichisannexedtoandmadepartoftheUN
Charter;(Art.92,UNCharter) A Member of the Court, when engaged on the
business of the Court, enjoys privileges and
The Courts role is to settle, in accordance with immunitiescomparablewiththoseoftheheadofa
internationallaw,disputesoflegalnature,submittedto diplomaticmission.(Art.19,ICJStatute)
itbyStatesandtogiveadvisory opinionson legal
questionsreferredtoitbyauthorizedUnitedNations TheCourtshallelectitsPresidentandVicePresident,
organsandspecializedagencies.(Id.) whoshallserveforthreeyearsandmaybereelected.
All questionsaredecidedbymajorityofthejudges
Itisassistedbya Registry,itsadministrativeorgan, present,thequorumbeingninewhenthefullCourtis
andusesEnglishandFrenchasitsofficiallanguages. sitting.
MembershipoftheICJ: Jurisdiction(Art.36,ICjStatute)
15 members, who are electedby absolute majority a. Interpretationoftreaty;
voteinboththeGeneralAssemblyandtheSecurity b. Questionofinternationallaw;
Council. These organs vote simultaneously but c. Existenceoffactconstitutingabreachof
separately.(Art.34,ICJStatute) internationalobligation;
d. Natureorextentofthereparationtobe
Notwoofthemmaybenationalsofthesamestate, madeforthebreachofaninternationalobligation;
andintheeventthatmorethanonenationalofthe and
same state obtain the required majority, only the e. Torenderadvisoryopinions
eldest shall be considered elected. (Art. 3, ICJ
Statute) ContentiousCasesONLYStates(Membersofthe
UNandotherStateswhichhavebecomepartiestothe
Judgesmustbeofhighmoralcharacter,andpossess Statute of the Court or which have accepted his
thequalificationsrequiredintheirrespectivecountries jurisdictionundercertainconditions)maybepartiesto
forappointmenttotheirhighestjudicialoffices,orare suchcases.
jurisconsults of recognized competence in
internationallaw. TheCourtiscompetenttoentertainadisputeonlyif
theStatesconcernedhaveacceptedorrecognizedits
MembersoftheCourthaveatermofnine(9)years, jurisdictioninoneormoreofthefollowingways:
andmaybereelected.(Art.9,ICJStatute) 1. By entering
Shouldajudgedieorresignduringhisorhertermof intoaspecialagreementtosubmitthedisputeto
office,aspecialelectionisheldassoonaspossibleto theCourt
chooseajudgetofilltheunexpiredpartoftheterm.
19
2. Byvirtueofa b. Consent of thepartiesneeded for thecourt to

jurisdictionalclause, whentheyarepartiestoa acquirejurisdictionoveracase
treaty concerning a provision whereby in the
eventofadisputeofagiventypeordisagreement 5. Secretariat chief administrative organ of the
overtheinterpretationofthetreaty,oneofthem UN.ThemainofficersoftheSecretariatare:
mayreferthedisputetotheCourt (Art.97101,UNCharter)
3. Through a. TheSecretaryGeneralischosenbytheGeneral
reciprocal effect of declarations made by them AssemblyuponrecommendationoftheSecurityCouncil.
undertheStatutewherebyeachhasacceptedthe b. Histermisfixedatfiveyears,andhemaybere
jurisdiction of the Court as compulsory in the elected.
event of a dispute with another State having c. HeshallbethehighestrepresentativeoftheUN,
madeasimilardeclaration. andisauthorizedtoactinitsbehalf.
a. No State can therefore be a party to d. Whenactinginhiscapacity,heisentitledtofull
proceedingsbeforetheCourtunlessithasin diplomatic immunities and privileges, which only the
somemannerorotherconsentedthereto. SecurityCouncilmaywaive.
e. TheSecretaryGeneralalsoactsasSECRETARY
AdvisoryProceedings areopensolelytothefive inallmeetingsoftheGeneralAssembly,SecurityCouncil,
organs of the United Nations, and to the 16 EconomicandSocialCouncilandtheTrusteeshipCouncil;
specializedagenciesoftheUnitedNations. (Art.65 andperformsuchotherfunctionsasmaybeassignedto
68,ICJ,Statute) himbytheseorgans.
b. The General Assembly and Security f. TheSecretaryGeneralandmembersofhisstaff
Councilmayrequestadvisoryopinionson any areINTERNATIONALOFFICERSsolelyresponsibletothe
legalquestion.OtherUnitedNationsorgansand Organization, and are PROHIBITED from seeking or
specializedagencieswhichhavebeenauthorized receiving instructions from any government or authority
to seek advisory opinions can only do so with externaltotheUN.
respect to legal questions arising within the g. The Secretary General enjoys the RIGHT OF
scopeoftheiractivities. POLITICALINITIATIVE andmaybringtotheattentionof
c. Itisoftheessenceofsuchopinionsthat theSecurityCouncilanymatter,whichinhisopinion,may
theyareadvisory, unliketheCourtsjudgments, threateninternationalpeaceandsecurity.
theyhaveNObindingeffect.
d. The requesting organ, agency or D I P LOM ATI C AN D C O NSULA R L AWS
organization remains free to give effect to the
opinion,ornottodoso.
e. However, certain instruments and AGENTSOFDIPLOMATICINTERCOURSE
regulations can provide beforehand that an 1. Headofstate
advisoryopinionbytheCourtshallhaveabinding He is the embodiment of, and represents, the
force. sovereigntyoftheState.Heenjoystherightto
specialprotectionforhisphysicalsafetyandthe
LimitationsonJurisdictionunderitsstatute: preservation of his honor and reputation. His
a. Onlystatesmaybepartiesincasesbeforeit quarters, archives, property and means of
20
transportation are inviolate (Principle of Theprocessintheappointmentofdiplomaticenvoywhere

Exterritoriality) States resort to an informal inquiry (enquiry) as to the
2. Foreignsecretaryorminister; acceptabilityofaparticularenvoy,towhichthereceiving
3. Membersofdiplomaticservice; state responds withan informal conformity (agreement).
4. Specialdiplomaticagentsappointedbyheadofthe (Coquia and Defensor, International Law and World
state Organizations2005,p.291)
5. Envoysceremonial
LetreDeCreance(LetterofCredence)
DiplomaticCorps Thiscontainsthename,rankandgeneralcharacterofhis
Abodyconsistingofalldiplomaticenvoysaccreditedtothe mission, and a request for favorable reception and full
samelocalorreceivingstate credence.
The doyenducorps ortheheadofthisbodyisthe
Papal Nuncio, if there is one, or the oldest Privileges and immunities accorded to diplomatic
ambassador,orintheabsence, the oldestMinister envoy (PCLISTO): (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
Plenipotentiary. (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in PoliticalLaw,p.675)
PoliticalLaw,p.676) 1. Inviolability of
premisesandarchives;
AppointmentofEnvoys Inviolabilityofpremisescannotbeinvokedifthe
InthePhilippines,itisthePresidentwhoappoints (Sec. Ambassadorrequestsforlocalpoliceassistance.
16,Art.VIIPhilippineConstitution),sendsandinstructsthe 2. Right of official
diplomatic and consular representatives, and his communications;
prerogativetodeterminetheassignmentofthecountrys 3. Exemption from
diplomatic representatives cannot be questioned (De localjurisdiction;
PerioSantosv.Macaraig,G.R.No.94070,April10,1992). Exceptions:
a. Realactionrelatingtoprivate
Functionsofdiplomaticmissions(RPNPAR): immovablesfoundinthereceivingstate;
1. Representingsendingstateinreceivingstate; b. Actionsrelatingtosuccessiondiplomat
2. Protectinginreceivingstateinterestsofsendingstate isexecutor,administrator,heir/legatee;and
anditsnationals; c. Actionsrelatingtoprofessionalor
3. Negotiatingwithgovernmentofreceivingstate; commercialactivityinthereceivingstateoutside
4. Promoting friendly relations between sending and ofofficialfunctions.
receiving states and developing their economic, 4. Personal
culturalandscientificrelations; inviolability;
5. Ascertaining by all lawful means conditions and Subjecttotherulesofreciprocityandexceptin
developmentsinreceivingstateandreportingthereon cases of selfdefense and reasonable physical
togovernmentofsendingstate;and restraint, R.A. 75 penalizes a person who
6. Insomecases, representingfriendlygovernmentsat assaults,strikes,wounds,oroffersviolencetothe
theirrequest. personofanAmbassador.
5. Exemption from
Agreation subpoena;
21
6. Exemption from
taxationorcustomduties. Privilegesareavailableevenintransitu,whentraveling
Exceptions: through a third State on the way to or from the
a. Indirecttaxes; receivingstate.
b. Duesortaxesonprivaterealpropertyin
thereceivingstateunlessbeingheldonbehalfof Consuls
sendingstateforthepurposeofthemission; Theyarestateagentsresidingabroadforvariouspurposes
c. Taxes on estate, inheritance, butmainlyintheinterestofcommerceandnavigationand
succession; notinpoliticalmatters
d. Taxes on private income and source
from receiving state and capital taxes on Duties:(PPOIS)
investmentsincommercialventuresinreceiving 1. Protectionoftheinterestsofthesendingstateand
state; itsnationalinthereceivingstate.
e. Chargesleviedforspecificservices;and 2. Promotionofthecommercial,economic,cultural
f. Registration, court or record fees, andscientificrelationsofthesendingandreceiving
mortgage dues, stamp duty with respect to states.
immovables, 3. Observation of conditions and developments in
thereceivingstateandreportthereoftothesending
Waiverofimmunities state.
Diplomaticprivilegescanbewaived,butthewaiver 4. Issuanceofpassportsandothertraveldocuments
cannot be made by the individual concerned since to nationals of the sending state and visas or
suchimmunitiesarenotpersonaltohim. appropriatedocumentstopersonswishingtotravelto
thesendingstate.
Waivermaybemadeonlybythegovernmentofthe 5. Supervisionandinspectionofvesselsandaircraft
sendingstateifitconcernstheimmunitiesofthehead ofthesendingstate.
ofmission.
Appointmentofconsuls
Inothercases,thewaivermaybemadeeitherbythe Two or more documents are necessary before the
governmentorbythechiefofmission. assumptionofconsularfunctions,namely:
1. Letterspatent(letterdeprovision) letterof
Waiverofthisprivilegedoesnotincludewaiverofthe appointmentorcommissionwhichistransmittedbythe
immunityinrespectoftheexecutionofjudgment;a sendingstatetotheSecretaryofForeignAffairsofthe
separatewaiverforthelatterisnecessary. countrywheretheconsulistoserve;and
2. Exequaturtheauthorizationgiventotheconsul
Durationofimmunities bythesovereignofthereceivingstate,allowinghimto
Enjoyedbytheenvoyfromthemomentheentersthe exercisehisfunctionwithintheterritory.
territoryofthereceivingstate,andshallceaseonlythe
momentheleavesthecountry ImmunitiesandPrivileges:(CMJT)
1. Inviolability of their correspondence, archives and
Withrespecttoofficialacts,immunityshallcontinue otherdocuments;
indefinitely. 2. Freedomofmovementandtravel;
22
3. Immunityfromjurisdictionforactsperformedinofficial agreementnordoesitconstituteaunilateraldeclarationon
capacity; the part of the Government of the Republic of the
4. Exemptionfromcertaintaxesandcustomsduties. PhilippinesbecausethecommitmentsintheMOAADwere
Notes: notaddressedtoStatesandnotcomplyingtheretowould
Immunities and privileges are also available to the not be detrimental to the security of international
membersoftheconsularpost,theirfamiliesandtheir intercourse(TheProvinceofNorthCotabatoetal.v.The
privatestaff. Government of the Republic of the Philippines Peace
PanelonAncestralDomain,G.R.No.183591,October14,
Waiverofimmunitiesmaybemadebytheappointing 2008).
state.
Requisites:(PAWLR)
1. Entered into by parties having treaty
T RE ATI ES
makingcapacity;
Aninternationalagreementconcludedbetweenstatesin 2. Through their authorized organs or
written form and governed by international law whether representatives;
embodiedinasingleinstrumentorintwoormorerelated 3. Without attendance of duress, fraud,
instruments (Art. 2, Vienna Convention on the Law of mistakeorothervicesofconsent;
Treaties,1969). 4. Lawfulsubjectmatterandobject;and
5. Ratification in accordance with their
Thedefinitionexcludesagreementsbetweenstateswhich respectiveconstitutionalprocesses.
aregovernedbymunicipallawandagreementsbetween
stateswhicharenotintendedtocreatelegalrelationsatall Effectofunwrittentreaty:(LMR)
(Malanczuk Peter, Akehursts Modern Introduction to 1. Haslegalforce;
InternationalLaw,1997). 2. Conventionrulesonmattersgovernedbyinternational
lawindependentlyofconventionshallapply;and
A U.N. Declaration is, according to one authoritative 3. Conventionrulesapplytothe relationsofstatesas
definition, "a formal and solemn instrument, suitable for between themselves under international agreement
rare occasions when principles of great and lasting withothersubjectsasparties.
importancearebeingenunciated."Accordingly,ithasbeen
observedthatthe UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights StepsintheTreatyMakingProcess:(NSRER)
"nolongerfitsintothedichotomyofbindingtreatyagainst (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,pp.684686)
nonbindingpronouncement,'butisratheranauthoritative 1. Negotiation discussion of the provisions of the
statementoftheinternationalcommunity(Razonv.Tagitis, proposedtreaty,undertakenbytherepresentativesof
G.R.No.182498,December3,2009). thecontractingpartieswhoareprovidedwithasfull
Whereapartytoanagreementisjustanentitywithina powersorpleinspouvoirs.
state, no binding international law obligation is created Full Powers the authority granted unto a
notwithstanding that said agreement includes foreign representativeofthestatetoenterinto,negotiate,
dignitaries as signatories and that its signing was signandsealatreaty.Thisshallbemadebythe
witnessedbyrepresentativesofforeignnations.Thus,the PresidentortheSecretaryofForeignAffairs,when
Memorandum of Agreement on the Ancestral Doman delegated (Sec.4,E.O.No.459,Guidelinesinthe
(MOAAD)betweenthegovernmentoftheRepublicofthe
PhilippinesandtheMILFisnotaninternationallybinding
23
Negotiation of International Agreements and its Bindingeffectsoftreaty

Ratification). General Rule: Only the following contractingparties are
bound:
Persons exempted from producing full powers: 1. Originalsignatories
(Sec.4,EONo.459) 2. Other states allowed,
a. SecretaryofForeignAffairs bytermsofthetreaty,tosignitlater(accession)
b. Heads of Philippine diplomat missions, for the PactaTertiisNecNocentNecProsuntaStateis
purposeofadoptingthenextofatreatyoran notboundtoactinaccordancewithatreatyifitis
agreement between the Philippines and the notapartytoatreaty,exceptifthattreatycodifies
Statetowhichtheyareaccredited; customaryinternationallaw
c. RepresentativeaccreditedbythePhilippinestoan
internationalconferenceortoaninternational Exceptions:(EVEN)
organization or one of its organs, for the 1. Treatyismerelyanexpressionofcustomary
purposeofadoptingthetextofatreatyinthat internationallaw
conference,organizationororgan. 2. Byvirtueofthemostfavorednationclause
2. Signature primarily intended as a means of 3. Treatyexpresslyextendsitsbenefitstonon
authenticatingtheinstrumentandsymbolizingthegood signatories
faithofthecontractingparties. 4. Treatyis necessaryforthemaintenanceof
Practice of Alternat arrangement under which internationalpeace
eachnegotiatorisallowedtosignfirstonthecopyof
the treaty which he will bring home to his own Reservation
country,thepurposebeingtopreservetheformal A unilateral statement, made by a state when signing,
appearanceofequalityamongthecontractingstates ratifying, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty,
and to avoid delicate questions of precedence wherebyitpurportstoexcludeormodifythelegaleffectof
amongthesignatories. certainprovisionsofthetreatyintheirapplicationtothe
state.Thestatemakingthereservationremainsapartyto
Note:SignatureDOESNOTcreateanobligationto atreaty,providedthatthereservationiscompatiblewith
ratify. the object and purpose of the treaty (Page 12, Treaty
3. RatificationActbywhichthestateformallyaccepts HandbookUnitedNationsPublication,2012).
the provisions of a treaty concluded by its
representative. Rulespertainingtoreservations
4. Exchangeofinstrumentsofratification (Art.1923,ViennaConventionontheLawofTreaties)
5. RegistrationwithUN. 1. AStatemaymakeareservationunless:
a. The reservation is prohibited by the
Formoftreaties treaty;
Therearenosubstantiverequirementsastotheformof b. The treaty only provides specified
treaties, and thus, an agreement may be recorded in reservations;
variouswayssuchasexchangeoflettersorminutesofa c. When the reservation is incompatible
conference (Art. 2, Vienna Convention on the Law of withthepurposeandobjectiveofthetreaty;
Treaties) 2. Areservationdoesnotrequireacceptanceunlessitis
otherwiseprovidedbythetreatyitself;
24
DoctrineofUnequalTreaties
3. When it appears from the limited number of the Treaties which have been imposed through coercion or
negotiatingStatesandtheobjectandpurposeofa duressbyaStateofunequalcharacterarevoid.
treatythattheapplicationofthetreatyinitsentirety
betweenallthepartiesisanessentialconditionofthe Accession
consent of each one to be bound by the treaty, a Also knownasadhesion,thisistheprocessbywhicha
reservationrequiresacceptancebyalltheparties.In nonsignatorystatebecomesapartytoatreaty(Art.2(b),
specialcases,acompetentorganororganizationto VCLT).
whichthetreatyisanintegralinstrumentmustgiveits
acceptance. OBSERVANCEOFTREATIES
GeneralRule:
4. Unlessthetreatyotherwiseprovides: PactaSuntServanda everytreatyinforceisbinding
a. acceptancebyanothercontractingState uponthepartiestoitandmustbeperformedbythemin
ofareservationconstitutesthereservingStatea good faith (Art. 26, Vienna Convention on the Law of
partytothetreatyinrelationtothatotherStateif Treaties).
orwhenthetreatyisinforceforthoseStates;
b. anobjectionbyanothercontractingState Note: The GabkovoNagymaros Case clarified other
toareservationdoesnotprecludetheentryinto issues concerning the law of treaties, particularly as
forceofthetreatyasbetweentheobjectingand regardsthepleaoffundamentalchangeofcircumstances
reserving States unless a contrary intention is and the material breach of treaties. Most importantly,
definitelyexpressedbytheobjectingState; however, the ICJ took a firm stance in support of the
c. anactexpressingaStatesconsentto principle of stability of treaty relationships, limiting the
be bound by the treaty and containing a possibility of the unilateral denunciation of treaties to
reservationiseffectiveassoonasatleastone exceptional cases. By rejecting that reciprocal wrongful
other contracting State has accepted the conductbybothpartiestoabilateraltreatycouldleadtoits
reservation. unilateral termination, the ICJ emphasized the strict
observationoftheprincipleofpactasuntservanda.
5. Areservationisconsideredtohavebeenacceptedby
a State if it shall have raised no objection to the Exception:
reservationbytheendofaperiodoftwelvemonths RebusSicStantibusalegalprinciplewhichwouldjustify
afteritwasnotifiedofthereservationorbythedateon nonperformanceoftreatyobligationswhereunforeseenor
which it expressed its consent to be bound by the substantialchangesoccurwhichwouldrenderoneofthe
treaty,whicheverislater. partiestheretounabletoundertaketreatyobligationsas
6. A reservation is only personal and effective to the stipulated therein. This doctrine does not operate
statepartywhomadethereservation.Itdoesnotalter automatically(SantosIIIv.NorthwestOrientAirlines,G.R.
theprovisionsofthetreatywithrespecttotheother No.101538,June23,1992). Thereisanecessityfora
statepartiesinterse. formalactofrejection,usuallybytheHeadofState,with
the statement of the reasons why compliance with the
7. Areservationisdoneinwritingandcommunicatedto
treatyisnolongerrequired.
thestateparties.
PRINCIPLESOFTREATYLAW Purposeofexception:
25
Iftheotherpartywereobdurateinopposinganychange, 5. Desuetudedesistanceofpartiesbyexpressmutual
thefactthatinternationallawrecognizednolegalmeansof consent or exercise of right of renunciation when
terminatingormodifyingthetreatyotherwisethanthrough allowed;
a further agreement between the same parties might 6. Extinctionofoneofparties,iftreatyisbipartite;
imposeaseriousstrainontherelationsbetweentheStates 7. Novation;
concerned;andthedissatisfiedStatemightultimatelybe 8. Occurrenceofvitalchangeofcircumstance;
driventotakeactionoutsidethelaw (InternationalLaw 9. Outbreakofwar;
Commission,1966YBILC258para.6). 10. Voidanceoftreatybecauseof:
a. Defectsinconstitution
Requisites for rebuc sic stantibus to apply: (SUCIDO) b. Violationofitsprovisionbyoneparty
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,p.687) c. Incompatibilitywithinternationallaw
1. The change must be so substantial that the 11. Applicationofthedoctrineofrebussicstantibus
foundation of the treaty must have altogether 12. Thedoctrineofjuscogens(ortheemergenceofanew
disappeared; peremptory norm of general international law which
2. The change must have been unforeseen or rendersvoidanyexistingtreatyconflictingwithsuch
unforeseeable at the time of the perfection of the norm)
treaty;
3. Thechangemustnothavebeen causedbythe Invalidtreaties:(CoCoJUCAFE)
partyinvokingthedoctrine; 1. Those which are contrary to the provisions of a
4. Thedoctrinemustbeinvokedwithinareasonable countrysinternallaw(UnconstitutionalityRule).
time; Art.46oftheVCLT:Astatemaynotinvokethe
5. Thedurationofthetreatymustbeindefinite;and factthatitsconsenttobeboundbyatreatyhas
6. Thedoctrinecannot operateretroactively,i.e.,it beenexpressedinviolationofaprovisionofits
must not adversely affect provisions which have internal law regarding competence to conclude
alreadybeencompliedwithpriortothevitalchangein treaties as invalidating its consent unless that
thesituation. violationwasmanifestandconcernedaruleof
fundamentalimportance.
Amendmentormodificationofatreaty 2. Representativeslackofauthority;
GeneralRule:Theconsentofallthepartiesisrequired. 3. Corruptionofastaterepresentative;
4. Error
Exception: Ifallowedbythetreatyitself,twoStatesmay Art. 48 of the VCLT: Error maybeinvokedif
modify a provision only insofar as they are concerned such relates to a fact or situation which was
(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.930). assumedbythatstatetoexistatthetimewhen
thetreatywasconcludedandformedanessential
Terminationoftreaty(TAILDENVOVRJ): basisofitsconsenttobeboundbythetreaty,
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,p.688) except, ifthestateinquestioncontributedbyits
1. Expirationofterm; ownconducttotheerrororifthecircumstances
2. Accomplishmentofpurpose; were such as to put that State on notice of a
3. Impossibilityofperformance; possibleerror.
4. Lossofsubjectmatter; 5. Fraud;
6. CoercionofStaterepresentatives;
26
7. Coercionofastate conferred,eitherdirectlybythelaworasaresultofanact
8. Violation of a peremptory norm of international law oftheauthorities,isinfactmorecloselyconnectedwiththe
(JusCogens) populationoftheStateconferringnationalitythanwiththat
of any other State (Nottebohm Case, Liechtenstein v.
ValidityoftheVisitingForcesAgreement Guatemala,April6,1955).
Joint RPUS military exercises for the purpose of
developing the capability to resist an armed attack fall Citizenship
squarely under the provisions of the RPUS Mutual Amoreexclusivemeaninginthatitappliesonlytocertain
DefenseTreaty.TheVFA,whichistheinstrumentagreed membersofthestateaccordedmoreprivilegesthanthe
upontoprovideforthejointRPUSmilitaryexercises,is restofthepeoplewhooweitallegiance.Itssignificanceis
simply an implementing agreement to the main RPUS municipal, not international (Coquia and Defensor,
MilitaryDefenseTreaty.Accordingly,asanimplementing InternationalLawandWorldOrganizations,2005,p.264).
agreementoftheRPUSMutualDefenseTreaty,itwasnot
necessarytosubmittheVFAtotheUSSenateforadvice Rulesindeterminationofnationality:
andconsent,butmerelytotheUSCongressunder the The 1930 Hague Convention on Conflict of Nationality
CaseZablockiActwithin60daysofitsratification.Itisfor providesforthefollowingrulesindeterminingapersons
thisreasonthattheUShascertifiedthatitrecognizesthe nationality:
VFA as a binding international agreement (Simbolon v. 1. ItisforeachStatetodetermineunder itsown
RomuloG.R.No.175888,February11,2009). rules who are its nationals. This law shall be
recognizedbyotherStatesinsofarasitisconsistent
Theprovisionof Art.XVIII,Sec.25 oftheConstitution,is with international conventions, international custom,
compliedwithbyvirtueofthefactthatthepresenceofthe and the principles of law generally recognized with
USArmedForcesthroughtheVFAisapresence"allowed regardtonationality(Article1);and
under"theRPUSMutualDefenseTreaty.SincetheRP 2. Anyquestionastowhetherapersonpossesses
US Mutual Defense Treaty itself has been ratified and thenationalityofaparticularStateshallbedetermined
concurredinbyboththePhilippineSenateandtheUS inaccordancewiththelawofthatState(Article2).
Senate,thereisnoviolationoftheConstitutionalprovision
resultingfromsuchpresence.TheVFAbeingavalidand Acquisitionofnationality:
bindingagreement,thepartiesarerequiredasamatterof 1. birth,
international law to abide by its terms and provisions 2. naturalization,
(Simbolon v. Romulo G.R. No. 175888, February 11, 3. repatriation,
2009). 4. subjugation,and
5. cession (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political
N A TI O NALI TY A ND ST ATELESS NESS
Law,2009,pp.689690).
Nationality Lossofnationality:
Alegalbondhavingasitsbasisasocialfactofattachment, 1. release,
a genuine connection of existence, interests and 2. deprivation,
sentiments,togetherwiththeexistenceofreciprocalrights 3. renunciation,and
and duties. It may be said to constitute the juridical 4. substitution (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in
expressionofthefactthattheindividualuponwhomitis PoliticalLaw,2009,pp.690).
27
Multiplenationality RightsofStatelessPersons
It is the possession by an individual of more than one Thestatelesspersonisentitledto,amongothers,theright
nationality.Itisacquiredastheresultoftheconcurrent to religion and religious instruction, access to courts,
applicationtohimoftheconflictingmunicipallawsoftwoor elementary education, public relief and assistance,
more states claiming him as their national (Nachura, rationingofproductsinshortsupplyandtreatmentofno
OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.690). lessfavorablethanthataccordedaliensingeneral.
DoctrineofIndelibleAllegiance TreatmentofStatelessIndividual
An individual may be compelled to retain his original Internationalconventionsprovidethatstatelessindividuals
nationalitynotwithstandingthathehasalreadyrenouncedit aretobetreatedmoreorlesslikethesubjectsofaforeign
underthelawsofanotherstatewhosenationalityhehas state.
acquired(Boczek,InternationalLaw:ADictionary,Chapter
3,Page190). ConsequenceofStatelessness
Anywrongsufferedbyhimthroughtheactoromissionofa
DoctrineofEffectiveNationality(NottebohmPrinciple) statewouldbe damnumabsqueinjuria forintheoryno
Thisis expressedin Art.5oftheHagueConventionof state has been offended and no international delict
1930 on the Conflict of Nationality Laws that a person committed(Simperingham,TheInternationalProtectionof
havingmorethanonenationalityshallbetreatedasifhe Statelessindividuals:ACallforChange,June2003).
hadonlyoneeitherthenationalityofthecountryinwhich
heishabituallyandprincipallyresidentorthenationalityof Measurestobetakentopreventstatelessness
thecountrywithwhichinthecircumstancesheappearsto 1.Acontractingstateshallgrantitsnationalitytoaperson
beinfactmostcloselyconnected(Frivaldov.COMELEC, born in its territory who would otherwise be Stateless
G.R.No.87193,June23,1989,citingNottebohmCase). (Art.1,ConventionontheReductionofStatelessness);and
The doctrineofimpliedelection willapplyonlyifthe 2.Acontractingstateshallgrantitsnationalitytoaperson,
electorhasalreadybecomeaFilipinoatthetimeof notbornintheterritoryofacontractingstate,whowould
reachingtheageofmajoritybytheothermodesof otherwise be stateless, if the nationality of one of his
acquiringcitizenshipandtheonlyissueiswhetheror parentsatthetimeofthepersonsbirthwasthatofthat
nothecanbeconsideredanaturalborncitizen.Ifthe State (Art. 4, Convention on the Reduction of
issueiswhetherornotheisaFilipinobyelection,the Statelessness).
doctrineofimpliedelectionwillnotapply.
S T ATE R ES PO NSI BI LI TY
Statelessness
A conditionorstatusofanindividualwhoisbornwithout ConceptofStateResponsibility
anynationalityorwholoseshisnationalitywithoutretaining Itisafundamentalprincipleofinternationallaw,arisingout
oracquiringanother. of the nature of the international legal system and the
doctrines of state sovereignty and equality of states. It
Thestatusofhavingnonationality,asaconsequenceof provides that whenever one state commits an
being born without any nationality or as a result of internationally unlawful act against another state,
deprivation or loss of nationality (Nachura, Outline internationalresponsibilityisestablishedbetweenthetwo.
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.691). A breach of an international obligation gives rise to a
28
requirementforreparation(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.778; unlawfulactperpetratedtherein,noryetthatitnecessarily
J.Crawford,TheInternationalLawCommissionsArticles knew,orshouldhaveknown,theauthors. Thisfact,by
onStateResponsibility). itselfandapartfromothercircumstances,neitherinvolves
primafacie responsibilitynorshiftstheburdenofproof.
InternationallyWrongfulAct (CorfuChannelCase,ICJReports,1949,p.4,18)
Thereisaninternationallywrongfulactofastatewhen
conductconsistingofanactionoromissionisattributable Attribution
to the state under international law and constitutes a Itisalegalconstructwherebyaninternationallyunlawful
breachofaninternationalobligationofthestate(Yearbook conductofStateorganactinginthatcapacityisregarded
oftheILC,1976,vol.II,pp.75;ChozrowFactoryCase, as the conduct of the State itself, making that State
PCIJ,SeriesA.No.9,p.21). responsibleforitasaninternationallywrongfulact.AState
isinternationallyresponsibleforitsownactsoromissions,
ElementsofanInternationallyWrongfulAct: butasanabstractentityitcanphysicallyactonlythrough
individualsorgroupsofindividualsperformingactsofthe
1. Actthatisattributabletothestateunderinternational Stateonitsbehalf(DifferencesRelatingtoImmunityfrom
law; Legal Processes of a Special Rapporteur of the
2. Mustconstituteabreachofinternationalobligationby CommissionofHumanRights[38ILM873,1999]).
astate(Art.2,ResponsibilityofStatesfor
InternationallyWrongfulActs). ConductsAttributabletotheState:
1. The conduct of any of its organs, whether
ViewsonStateResponsibility: exercisinglegislative,executive,judicialoranyother
1. Objective Responsibility this principle functions(Art.4)
maintainsthattheliabilityofthestateisstrict.Oncean 2. The conduct of a person or entity which is
unlawfulacthastakenplace,whichhascausedinjury empowered by law of that State to exercise
andwhichhasbeencommittedbyanagent ofthe governmentalauthorityprovidedthepersonorentityis
state,thatstatewillberesponsibleininternationallaw actinginthatcapacityinthatparticularinstance(Art.
tothestatesufferingthedamageirrespectiveofgood 5)
orbadfaith(Shaw,InternationalLaw,p.783). 3. Theconductofapersonorgroupofpersonsthat
2. Subjective Responsibility (fault theory) this isinfactactingontheinstructionsof,orunder the
principle emphasizes that an element of intentional directionorcontrolof,thatStateincarryingoutthe
(dolus)ornegligent(culpa)conductonthepartofthe conduct.(Art.8)
personconcernedisnecessarybeforehisstatecanbe 4. Theconductofapersonorgroupofpersonsthat
renderedliableforanyinjurycaused.(Crawford,The is in fact exercising governmental authority in the
International Law Commissions Articles on State absence or default of the official authorities and in
Responsibility,p.12) circumstancessuchastocallfortheexerciseofthat
authority(Art.9)
Note: Inthe CorfuChannel case,theInternationalCourt 5. Theconductofaninsurrectionalmovementwhich
appearedtoleantowardsthefaulttheorybysayingthat:it becomesthenewGovernmentofaState(Art.10[1])
cannot be concluded from the mere fact of the control 6. The conduct of a movement, insurrectional or
exercisedbyastateoveritsterritoryandwatersthatthat other,whichsucceedsinestablishinganewStatein
statenecessarilyknew,oroughttohaveknown,ofany part of the territory of a preexisting State or in a
29
territoryunderitsadministration,shallbeconsidered Note:Art2oftheRPC,thePhilippineshasjurisdiction
anactofthenewState(Art.10[2]) over:(i)offensescommittedonboardaPhilippineship
7. Conduct which the State acknowledges and orairship;(ii)forgery/counterfeitingofPhilippinecoins
adopts as its own (Art. 11) (Chapter 2, of the orcurrencynotes;(iii)introductionintothePhilippines
Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful of such forged or counterfeit coins or notes; (iv)
Acts). functions;and(v)crimesagainstnationalsecurityand
thelawofnations(Id.).
Jurisdiction
Thepower orauthorityexercised byaStateover land, 4. Principle of Universality the State has
persons, property, transactions and events. The basic jurisdiction over offenses considered as universal
question of jurisdiction centers upon which State has crimes regardless of where committed and who
sovereigntyorlegalcontroloverland,persons,shipsat committedthem(Id.).
sea,airshipsinflight,property,transactionsorevents,in
varioussituations(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPolitical 5. Principle of Passive Personality then State
Law,2009,p.667). exercise jurisdiction over crimes against its own
nationalsevenofcommittedoutsideitsterritory.This
BasesofJurisdiction mayberesortedtoiftheothersarenotapplicable
1. Territorial Principle the State may exercise (Id.).
jurisdictiononlywithinitsterritory.Exceptionally,itmay
havejurisdictionoverpersonandactsdoneoutsideits Jurisdictionoverlandterritory
territorydependingonthekindofjurisdictionitinvokes The State exercises jurisdiction over everything found
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p. withinitsterrestrialdomain(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
668). PoliticalLaw,2009,p.671).
A Statehascriminaljurisdictiononlyoveroffenses JurisdictionoverMaritimeTerritory
committed within its territory, except: (i) continuing 1. Overinternalwatersthesamejurisdictionover
offenses;(ii)actsprejudicialtothenationalsecurityor thelandarea,sincetheinternalwatersaredeemed
vitalinterestsoftheStates;(iii)universalcrimes;and assimilatedinthelandmass(Id.).
(iv)offensescoveredbyspecialagreement(Id.) 2. Over archipelagic waters the same rule as
internalwaters,saveforinnocentpassageofmerchant
2. NationalityPrincipletheStatehasjurisdiction vessels through archipelagic sea lanes. Nachura,
overitsnationalsanywhereintheworld,basedonthe OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.672)
theorythatanationalisentitledtotheprotectionofthe 3. OverTerritorialsea criminaljurisdictionover
Statewhereverhemaybe,andthis,isboundtoitby foreignmerchantvesselsshallbedeterminedbythe
duty of obedience and allegiance, unless he is applicationofeithertheEnglishRuleortheFrench
preparedtorenouncehisnationality(Id.). rule.Innocentpassageandinvoluntaryentrance,the
distressonthevesselmustbereal.(Id)
3. ProtectivePrincipletheStatehasjurisdiction 4. OverContiguousZone thecoastalStatemay
over acts committed abroad (by nationals or exercisethecontrolnecessarytopreventinfringement
foreigners)whichareprejudicialtoitsnationalsecurity of its customs, fiscal, immigration and sanitary
orvitalinterest(Id.).
30
regulations and punish the said infringement. a. Deportation expulsionofanalienconsidered

(UNCLOS,Art.2) undesirable by local state, usually but not
5. Over EEZ the coastal State has sovereign necessarilytohisownstate(Id.).
rightsovertheexclusiveeconomiczoneforpurposes
ofexploringandexploiting,conservingandmanaging b. Reconductionforcibleconveyingofaliensback
thenaturalresources,whetherlivingornonliving,of totheirhomestatewithoutanyformalities(Id.).
theseabed,thesubsoilandsuperjacentwaters,as 2. The alien must accept the institutions of local
well as the production of energy from the water, statesashefindsthem(Id.).
currentsandwinds.(UNCLOS,Art.56)
6. Over the continental shelf the coastal State ResponsibilityofStatesincaseofimpropertreatment
enjoystherightofexploitationofoildepositsandother ofaliens
resourcesinthecontinentalshelf. State may be held liable for injuries and damages
sustainedbythealienwhileintheterritoryofthestate
Jurisdiction over other territories (extraterritorial provided:
jurisdiction) 1. Theactoromissionconstitutesaninternational
AStatemay,byvirtueofcustomaryorconventionallaw, delinquency (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political
extenditsjurisdictiontoterritorynotwithinitssovereigntyin Law,2009,p.692;)
thefollowingcases: 2. The act or omission is directly or indirectly
1. Assertionofpersonaljurisdictionoverits imputabletothestate(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
nationalabroad;and PoliticalLaw,2009,p.693);
2. By virtue of its relations with other
States, as when it establishes protectorate, or Direct Imputability where the international
condominium, or administers trust territory, or delinquencywascommittedby superior government
occupiesenemyterritoryinthecourseofwar. officialsororganslikethechiefofstateorthenational
3. As a consequence of a waiver of legislature,liabilitywillattachimmediatelyastheiracts
jurisdictionbythelocalStateoverpersonsand maynotbeeffectivelypreventedorreversedunderthe
thingswithinthelattersterritory,eg.foreignarmy constitutionorlawsofthestate.
stationed in the local State (Nachura, Outline
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.673). IndirectImputabilitywheretheoffenseiscommitted
by inferior government officials or by private
RuleontheTreatmentofAliens individuals, the state will be held liable only if, by
Flowingfromitsrighttoexistenceandasanattributeof reasonofitsindifferenceinpreventingorpunishingit,
sovereignty,noStateisunderobligationtoadmitaliens. itcanbeconsideredtohaveconnivedineffectingits
TheStatecandetermineinwhatcasesandunderwhat commission.
conditionsitmayadmitaliens(Nachura,OutlineReviewer
inPoliticalLaw,2009p.692). 3. Injurytotheclaimantstateindirectlybecauseof
damagetoitsnational(Id.).
1. TheStatehastherighttoexpelaliensfromits
territorythrough: Conditions required for the enforcement of the
DoctrineofStateResponsibility
31
1. The injured subject must first exhaust all local Authority from which a fugitive from justice may be
remedies,except: extradited
a. Noremediestoexhaust (lawsare Afugitivefromjusticemaybeextraditedonlyuponthe
intrinsicallydefective) authorityofanextraditiontreatybetweentherequesting
b. Courtsarecorrupt authorityandtherequestedStates.
c. Noadequatemachinery
d. Involvesactsofstatesnotsubjectto Personssubjecttoextradition
judicialreview Those charged or convicted of offenses that are
CalvoClause provisionfrequentlyinsertedin extraditable under the terms of the extradition treaty
contracts where nationals of another state between the requesting States where the crime was
renounce any claimupon his national statefor committed and the requested State where the person
protection. Butsuchwaivercanbelegallymade requestedtobeextraditedhassoughtrefuge.
onlybyaliensstate(Nachura,OutlineReviewer
inPoliticalLaw,2009,p.694). Offensessubjecttoextradition
Thosewhicharespecificallylistedintheextraditiontreaty
2. Hemustresorttodiplomaticprotection tobeextraditable(listtypeextraditiontreaty)orwhichare
definedandpunishedascrimesunderthelawsofboththe
requesting and requested States (double criminality
T R EATM ENT OF A LI ENS clause).
PrincipleofSpecialty
Afugitivewhoisextraditedmaybetriedonlyforthe
EXTRADITION crime specified in the request for extradition and
TheremovalofanaccusedfromthePhilippineswiththe includedinthelistofoffensesinthetreaty.
objectofplacinghimatthedisposalofforeignauthoritiesto
enabletherequestingstateorgovernmenttoholdhimin NonlistTypeofTreaty
connectionwithanycriminalinvestigationdirectedagainst Offensespunishableunderthelawsofbothstatesby
himortheexecutionofapenaltyimposedonhimunderthe imprisonmentofoneyearormoreareincludedamong
penalorcriminallawoftherequestingstateorgovernment theextraditableoffenses.
(P.D.1069ThePhilippineExtraditionLaw,Sec.2(a)).
Elementsfortheexerciseofextradition:
1. Actsofsovereigntyon
thepartoftwoStates
2. A request by one
State to another State for the delivery to it of an
allegedcriminal;and
3. The delivery of the
personrequestedforthepurposesoftrialorsentence
intheterritoryoftherequestingstate.
Fundamentalprinciplesrelatingtoextradition
32
Procedure for Extradition (Judicial and diplomatic

process of request and surrender) (RDDUHADI):
Entitlementtobail
The time honored principle of pacta sunt servanda
demandsthatthePhilippineshonoritsobligationsunder
the Extradition Treaty entered into with the Hongkong
SpecialAdministrativeRegion.Failuretocomplywiththese
obligationsisasetbackinourforeignrelationsanddefeats
thepurposeofextradition.However,itdoesnotnecessarily
meanthatinkeepingwithitsobligations,thePhilippines
shoulddiminishapotentialextraditeesrightstolife,liberty
and due process. More so, where these rights are
guaranteed, not only by our Constitution, but also by
international conventions, to which the Philippines is a
party.Weshouldnot,therefore,depriveanextraditeeofhis
righttoapplyforbail,providedthatacertainstandardfor
thegrantissatisfactorilymet (GovernmentofHongkong
Special Administrative Region v. Olalia, Jr, G.R. No.
153675,April19,2007).
Anextraditionproceedingbeing suigeneris,thestandard
ofproofrequiredingrantingordenyingbailcanneitherbe
theproofbeyondreasonabledoubtincriminalcasesnor
thestandardofproofofpreponderanceofevidenceincivil
casesthepotentialextraditemustproveby clearand
convincingproofthatheisnotaflightriskandwillabide
withalltheordersandprocessesoftheextraditioncourt.
(GovernmentofHongkongSpecialAdministrativeRegion
v.Olalia,Jr,G.R.No.153675,April19,2007).
Rightsofapersonarrestedanddetainedinanother
State:(RCI)
1. Righttohavehis requestcompliedwithbythe
receivingStatetosoinformtheconsularpostofhis
condition
2. Righttohavehiscommunicationaddressedtothe
(P.D.1069)
consular post forwarded by the receiving State
accordingly
3. Righttobeinformedbythecompetentauthorities
of the receiving State without delay his rights as
33
mentioned above (Article 36 par. 1, Vienna 12. Righttosametreatmentasaccordedtonationals

ConventiononConsularRelations). withrespecttoelementaryeducation(Art.22),and
13. ThedutyofnonrefoulementobligesStatesnotto
The International Court of Justice has determined that return refugees to a place where they risk being
Article36par.1oftheViennaConvention onConsular persecuted for a reason laid down in the Refugee
Relations,createsindividualrightforthedetainedpersonin Convention(Art.33).
addition to the rights accorded the sending States (La
GrandCase[Germanyv.UnitedStates]). PrincipleofNonRefoulement
Thisprohibitsastatetoreturnorexpelarefugeetothe
REFUGEE territorywhereheescapedbecausehislifeorfreedomis
A person who, owing to a wellfounded fear of being threatened.Thestateisunderobligationtogranttemporary
persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, asylum(RefugeeConventionof1951).
membershipofaparticularsocialgrouporpoliticalopinion,
isoutsidethecountryofhisnationality,andisunableor ExceptiontothePrincipleofNonRefoulment
owing to such fear, ,is unwilling to avail himself of the TheonlycircumstancesinwhichtherequestedStatemay
protectionofthatcountry;orwho,nothavinganationality extraditearefugeewithinitsjurisdictiontoacountrywhere
and being outside the county of his former habitual they have a wellfounded fear of persecution are those
residence,isunable,orowingtosuchfear,isunwillingto providedforinArticle33(2)ofthe1951Convention.
returntoit(ConventionRelatingtotheStatusofRefugees,
Art.1.A[2]). In exceptional circumstances, the requested State may
alsobejustifiedinextraditingapersondeterminedtobea
Rightsofrefugees refugeeinanotherState,ifheorshemanifestlycomes
1. Nondiscriminationinrelationtothenationalsof withinthescopeofanexclusionclauseofArticle1Fofthe
theStatewithrespecttopublicreliefandassistance 1951 Convention, particularly commission of a serious
(Art.23RefugeeConvention)orrelatingtoaspectsof crimewhichconstitutesadangertothecommunity.The
labourlegislationandsocialsecurity(Art.24); applicationofArticle 33(2)doesnot,however,entailthe
2. Righttoassociation(Art.15); lossofrefugeestatus (Kapferer,TheInterfaceBetween
3. Righttowageearningemployment(Art.17); ExtraditionandAsylum,UNHCRPublications,2003,Par
4. Righttoselfemployment(Art.18); 233239).
5. Righttoexerciseliberalprofessions(Art.19);
6. Righttohousing(Art.21); Asylum
7. Refugeeshavingtheirhabitualresidenceinthe Itisthepowerofthestatetoallowanalienwhohassought
State possess a nondiscriminatory position refugefromprosecutionorpersecutiontoremainwithinthe
concerningartisticrightsandintellectualproperty(Art. territory and under its protection (Nachura, Outline
14); ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.697).
8. Freedomofreligion(Art.4);
9. Righttobeissuedidentitypapers(Art.27); PrincipleonAsylum
10. Theyshallnotbeexpelledsaveongroundsof 1. TerritorialAsylumItexistsonlywhenstipulated
nationalsecurityorpublicorder(Art.32(1)); inatreatyorjustifiedbyestablishedusage(Id.)
11. Freeaccesstocourts(Art.16); 2. DiplomaticAsylumThisreferstotheideathata
diplomaticmissionofasendingStatehastherightto
34
offerprotectiontorefugeespresentinthepremisesof
the mission (Shah, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Mediation
InternationalLaw,DiplomaticAsylum,2007,par.1).
Itisaprocessofsettlementofadisputeundertakenbya
Note: Generally, diplomatic aylum cannot be granted
thirdState,agroupofStates,anindividual,anagency,or
excepttomembersoftheofficialorpersonalhouseholdof
an international organization (Coquia and Defensor,
diplomatic representatives. On humanitarian grounds,
InternationalLaw,1998,p.560).
however,refugemaybegrantedtofugitiveswhoselives
areinimminentdangerfrommobviolencebutonlyduring
Itisameansofpeacefulsettlementofdisputeswiththe
theperiodwhenactivedangerpersist)(Nachura,Outline
SecurityCouncil,ortheGeneralAssembly,recommending
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed.,p.697).
anymemberoragencyasmediator(Art.10,14,36,UN
Charter).
I N TERNAT I O NAL D I SPUT ES A ND
S ET TLEM ENTS The mediator usually offers concrete proposals for
settlementofsubstantivequestions.Theofferforsolutionis
Dispute
nomorethananadvice,andundernoconditionshallitbe
Adisagreementonpointoflaworfact,aconflictoflegal
considered as binding on the parties (Coquia and
viewsorofinterestorofinterestsbetweentwointernational
Defensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.560).
persons(MavrommatisPalestineConcessionsCase[PCIJ,
SeriesA.No.2,pp.1112(1924)]).
JudicialSettlement
Similar to the nature of proceedings and the binding
Art.33oftheUNCharter providethatthepartiestoany
character of an arbitrationproceeding, and the disputes
dispute shall first seek a solution through pacific or
submitted for adjudication arelegal, rather than political
amicablemethods.
(CoquiaandDefensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.565).
Classesofinternationaldisputes
Negotiation
1. Legal ifitinvolvesjusticiablerightsbasedon
Thediscussionundertakenbythepartiesthemselvesof
lawandfact,and
theirrespectiveclaimsandcounterclaimswithaviewto
2. Political if it cannot be decided by an
theirjustandorderlyadjustments (CoquiaandDefensor,
internationalarbitralorjudicialtribunalundertherules
of international law (Coquia and Defensor,
TheCourtheldinthe NorthSeaContinentalShelf cases
that: the parties are under an obligation to enter into
Amicablemethodsofsettlingdisputes:(MJNTRACE)
negotiationswithaviewtoarrivingatanagreement,and
(Art.33UNCharter)
notmerelytogothroughaformalprocessofnegotiationas
1. Mediation
asortofpriorconditiontheyareunderanobligationsoto
2. JudicialSettlement
conductthemselvesthatthenegotiationsaremeaningful,
3. Negotiation
whichwillnotbethecasewheneitheroftheminsistsupon
4. TenderOfGoodoffices
itsownpositionwithoutcontemplatinganymodificationof
5. ResorttoRegionalOrganizations
it(NorthSeaContinentalShelfcases,ICJReports,1969,
6. Arbitration
p.3).
7. Conciliation
8. Enquiry
35
Art.40oftheUnitedNationsrequirenegotiationbetween Hostilemethodsofsettlingdisputes:(SRR)
thepartiesbeforethejurisdictionoftheSecurityCouncil (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.700)
canbeinvoked. 1. Severanceofdiplomaticrelations
2. Retorsion
TenderofGoodoffices Retaliationwhereactscomplainedofdonotconstitute
Whereathirdparty,eitheraloneorincollaborationwith legalgroundofoffensebutareratherinthenatureof
others,offerstohelpinthesettlementofadispute.When unfriendlyactsdoneinpursuanceofalegitimatestate
theofferisacceptedthereissupposedtobeanexerciseof interestbutindirectlyhurtfultootherstates.
good offices (Coquia and Defensor, International Law, 3. Reprisal
1998,p.561). Unlawful acts taken by one state in retaliation for
reciprocalunlawfulactsofanotherstate.
Arbitration
Thesolutionofadisputebyanimpartialthirdpartyusually Formsofreprisals:
a tribunal created by the parties themselves under a a. Freezingtheassetsofthenationalsoftheother
charter known as a compromis. The proceedings are state
essentially judicial and the award is, by previous b. Embargo the forcible
agreement,bindingonthepartiestothedispute (Coquia detention or sequestration of the vessels and
andDefensor,InternationalLaw,1998,p.562). otherpropertyoftheoffendingstate
c. Pacific blockade the
Conciliation interventionofentrytoorexitfromtheportsofthe
The process of conciliation involves a thirdparty offendingstateofmeansofcommunicationand
investigationofthebasisofthedisputeandthesubmission transportation
of areport embodying suggestions for asettlement. As d. Nonintercourse
suchitinvolveselementsofbothinquiryandmediation, suspensionofall intercourse withtheoffending
and in fact the process of conciliation emerged from state, particularly in matters of trade and
treaties providing for permanent inquiry commissions. commerce
Conciliationreportsareonlyproposalsandassuchdonot e. Boycott concerted
constitute binding decisions. Conciliation commissions suspension of commercial relations with the
have similar functions of investigating the dispute and offending state, with particular reference to a
suggesting terms of a possible settlement (International refusaltopurchasegoods
DisputeSettlement,p.66)
RoleoftheUnitedNationsincaseofreprisals
Enquiry Intheeventthatnoneofthemethodssucceedsinsettling
The ascertainment of pertinent facts and issues in a the dispute, or even if they are not employed, the
dispute. However, the findings of the party making the Organization may be asked or may decide on its own
enquiryarenotconclusiveuponthedisputingstatesbut authority to take a hand in the settlement it being
theyneverthelessmayexertastrongmoralinfluenceinthe principallyaddressedtotheSecurityCouncil,butmaybe
settlement of the conflict. (Coquia and Defensor, taken over by the General Assembly under conditions
InternationalLaw,1998,p.562). (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.700
701).
36
Steps in settling disputes under the jurisdiction of Effectsofoutbreakofwar

SecurityCouncil Thelawsofpeaceceasetoregulatetherelationsofthe
1. SecurityCouncilshallcallonthepartiestosettle belligerentsandaresupersededbythelawsofwar;
disputesbypeacefulmeans 1. Diplomatic and consular relations between the
2. If they are unable to settle their differences, belligerents are terminated, and their respective
Security Council may recommend appropriate representatives are allowed to return to their own
measures considering amicable measures already countries;
adoptedbytheparties 2. Treaties of political nature, such as treaties of
3. If the former fails, the Security Council may alliance,areautomaticallycancelled,butthosewhich
recommendsuchactualtermsofsettlement.Thisisin arepreciselyintendedtooperateduringwar,suchas
thenatureofcompulsorysettlement. oneregulatingtheconductofhostilities,areactivated.
4. Whenthetermsarestillrejectedbytheparties, 3. Enemy public property found in the territory of
theSecurityCouncilisempoweredtotake: otherbelligerentattheoutbreakofthehostilitiesis,
a. Preventiveactiondoesnotinvolvethe withcertainexceptions,subjecttoconfiscation.Enemy
use of armed force; e.g. complete or partial privatepropertymaybesequestered,subjecttoreturn
interruptionofeconomicrelations orreimbursementafterthewarinaccordancewiththe
b. Enforcementactionactionbyair,sea treatyofpeace.
or land forces such as demonstrations and 4. Individualsareimpressedwithenemycharacter
blockades (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.
(Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, 702703).
2009,p.701).
ParticipantsinWar
WAR 1. Combatantsthose
whoengagedirectlyinthehostilities
Armed contention betweentwo ormore States, through a. NonPrivilegedlikespies,who,under
theirarmedforcesforthepurposeofoverpoweringeach falsepretensestrytoobtainvitalinformationfrom
other and imposing such conditions of peace as the enemy ranks, and who, when caught, are not
pleases(IIOppenheimLauterpacht,p.202). consideredasprisonersofwar(Nachura,Outline
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.703).
ThepolicyofthePhilippinesasregardswar: b. Privilegedwhencaptured,enjoysthe
ThePhilippinerenounceswarasaninstrumentofnational privilegeofaprisonerofwar(Id.).
policy(Art.2,par.2ofthe1987Constitution). 2. NonCombatants
thosewhoarenot,suchaswomenandchildren
Commencementofwar
1. Withthedeclarationofwar; BASICPRINCIPLESOFWAR
2. Withtherejectionofanultimatum; DoctrineofMilitaryNecessity
3. Withthecommissionofanactofforceregarded Belligerentsmayemployanyamountandkindofforceto
byatleastoneofthepartiesasanactofwar compel thecomplete submissionoftheenemywiththe
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p. least possiblelossoflives,timeandmoney; (Nachura,
702). OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.704).
37
LimitationsonTargetsofAttack The belligenrent may employ any amount of force to

Onlymilitaryobjectivesaresubjecttoattackbythearmed compel thecomplete submissionoftheenemywiththe
forcesofabelligerentasabasicruleofwarfare.Likewise, least possible loss of lives, time and money (Nachura,
certain places and objectives are not subject to attack, OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.704).
suchas:
1. Neutralizedareasorzonesthesearezonesin PrincipleofHumanity
thetheaterofoperationsestablishedbyspecial Prohibitstheuseofweaponswhichcauseindiscriminate
agreementbetweenthebelligerentsfortreatment destructionorinjuryorinflictunnecessarypainorsuffering
ofthewoundedandcivilians (Article15,Fourth (Id.).
GenevaConvention).
2. Nondefendedlocalitiesinhabitedplacesnear PrincipleofChivalry
orinazonewherearmedforcesareincontact This principle requires the belligerents to give proper
andwhichareopenforoccupationbytheadverse warningbeforelaunchingabombardmentorprohibitthe
partytoavoidhostilitiesanddestruction(Articles useofperfidyintheconductofhostilities. Thisprinciple
59and85(3)ofAdditionalProtocolI). doesnotprohibitespionage(Nachura,OutlineReviewerin
3. Culturalpropertyandplacesofworship(Article53 PoliticalLaw,2009,p.705.)
of Additional Protocol I for IAC, Article 16 of
Additional Protocol II for NIAC and ICRC Belligerentoccupation
CustomaryRule38). It is the temporary military occupation of the enemys
4. Civildefenseincludespersonnel,buildingsand territoryduringthewar.Theoccupantneednothaveits
assets,clearlyindicatedbyabluetriangleonan feetplantedoneverysquarefootofterritory,providedit
orangebackgrounddistinctivesign. maintainseffectivecontrolandmilitarysuperioritytherein,
5. Dangerousinstallationsdams,dikes,ornuclear beingabletosend,incaseofattack,sufficientforcesto
electricplants(Articled56ofAdditionalProtocolI assertitsauthoritywithinreasonabletime(TanSeChiong
andArticle15ofAdditionalProtocolII). v.DirectorofPrisons,L5920,June25,1955).
6. Civiliansandpersonshorsdecombatspersons
horsdecombatarethosewhoareeitherwounded Effectofbelligerentoccupation
or,forotherreasons,havepermanentlyjoinedthe Nochangeinsovereignty,buttheexerciseofthepowersof
civilianpopulation. sovereignissuspended.Politicallaw,exceptthelawon
7. Parachutiststhosewhobailoutfromaircraftsin treason, are suspended; municipal law remain in force
distress.MustonlybetreatedasPOW. (Laurelv.Misa,G.R.No.L409August30,1947).
8. Hospitals, hospital shipsandmedical units a
clearmarkingoraRedCrosstoshowtheirstatus. Rightsanddutiesofbelligerentoccupant:
9. Objects indispensable to the survival of the 1.
CivilianPopulationareasfortheproductionof Reestablish or continue the processes of orderly
foodstuffs, crops, raising of livestock, drinking administration,includingenactmentoflaws
water installations and supplies and irrigation 2.
woksareprotectedagainstattacks(Article54.2of Adoptmeasurestoprotectinhabitants
Additional Protocol I for IAC and Article 14 of 3.
AdditionalProtocolIIforNIAC. Requisition of goods and services in nonmilitary
projects
PrincipleofMilitaryNecessity
38
4. 1. Simplecessationofhostilities;
Demand taxes and contributions to finance military 2. Conclusionofanegotiatedtreatyofpeace;and
andlocaladministrativeneeds 3. Defeat of one of the belligerents, followed by a
5. dictatedtreatyofpeaceorannexationofconquered
Issuelegalcurrency territory (Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,
6. 2009,p.706707).
Use enemy property, whether public or private, but
privatepropertyissubjecttoindemnificationorreturn Postliminium
attheendofthewar Therevivalorreversiontotheoldlawsandsovereigntyof
(Republic v. Lara, G.R. No. L5080, November 29, territorywhichhasbeenunderbelligerentoccupationonce
1954). controlofthebelligerentoccupantislostovertheterritory
affected(CoKimChanv.ValdezTanKeh,G.R.No.L5,
RightofAngary September17,1945).
The right of a belligerent state, in cases of extreme Warcriminal
necessity,todestroyoruseneutralpropertyonitsownor Heisanyperson,whetheracivilianoramemberofthe
onenemyterritory,oronthehighsea (Nachura,Outline armedforcesofthestate,whocommitsanactthatviolates
ReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.705.) aruleofinternationallawgoverning,armedconflicts(Id.).
NONHOSTILEINTERCOURSE ThePhilippineshadtheauthoritytotrywarcriminalsafter
1. FlagofTrucewhite WorldWarII(Kurodav.Jalandoni,No.L2662,March26,
incolor,indicatesthedesiretocommunicatewiththe 1949).
enemy; the agent, called parlementaire, enjoys
inviolability and is entrusted with the duty of ItistheconditionofaStatethatdoesnottakepart,directly
negotiatingwiththeenemy. orindirectly,inwarbetweenotherstates.
2. Cartelsagreements
toregulatetheintercourseduringthewar,usuallythe N E UTRALI TY
exchangeofprisonersofwar.
Neutralityv.Neutralization
3. Passport written
Neutrality Neutralization
permissiongivenbythebelligerentgovernmenttothe
Underwhatcircumstanceswillitexist
subjectsoftheenemytotravelgenerallyinbelligerent
Dependent on
territory. Result of treaty wherein
attitude of neutral
4. SafeConduct duration and other
state,whichisfreeto
permissiongiventoanenemysubjectortoanenemy conditions are agreed
join either of
vesselallowingpassagebetweendefinedpoints. upon by neutralized state
belligerents any time
5. License to Trade andotherstates
itseesfit
permissiongivenbycompetentauthoritytoindividuals
carry on trade through there is a state of war Whatlawswillgovern
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p. Governedbylawsof Governedbyneutralization
706). nationsagreements agreement
Whenapplicable
Terminationofwar Obtains only during Intended to operate in
war timesofpeaceandwar
39
(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.707) undertaken by a merchant vessel of a neutral

stateintheaidofanyofthebelligerents(Id.).
Dutiesofneutralstates 2. Topreventitsterritoryfrombeingused
1. To abstain from taking part in the by the belligerents in the conduct of hostilities
hostilities and from giving assistance to either (Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law,
belligerent; 2009,p.709);and
a. Contraband 3. Toacquiesceincertainrestrictionsand
refers to goods which, although neutral limitationsthatthebelligerentsmayfindnecessaryto
property,maybeseizedbyabelligerentbecause impose, especially in connection with international
theyareusefulforwarandareboundforahostile commerce(Id.).
destination.
i. Abs Dutiesofbelligerents
olute useful for war under all 1. Torespectthestatusoftheneutralstate;
circumstances(guns,ammunition) 2. To avoid any act that will directly or indirectly
ii. Con involveitintheirconflictandsubmittingtoanylawful
ditional have both civilian and military measure it may take to maintain or protect its
utility(clothing,food) neutrality.
iii. Fre
e list exempted from the law on Blockade
contraband for humanitarian purposes Itisahostileoperationbywhichthevesselsandaircraftof
(medicine) onebelligerentpreventallothervessels,includingthoseof
(Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, neutralstates,fromenteringorleavingtheportsorcoasts
2009,p.708) oftheotherbelligerent,thepurposebeingtoshutoffthe
b. Doctrine of placefrominternationalcommerceandcommunicationwith
Ultimate Consumption goods intended for other states (Coquia and Defensor, International Law,
civilianusewhichmayultimatelyfindtheirwayto 1998,p.597).
andbeconsumedbybelligerentforces,maybe
seizedontheway(Id.). Tobevalid,theblockademustbe:(BEELI)
c. Doctrine of 1. Bindinganddulycommunicatedtoneutralstates;
Infection innocent goods shipped with 2. Effectiveandmaintainedbyadequateforces;
contrabandmayalsobeseized(Id.). 3. Established by a competent authority of the
d. Doctrine of belligerentgovernment;
ContinuousVoyage/ContinuousTransport 4. Limitedonlytotheterritoryoftheenemy;and
goods immediately reloaded at an intermediate 5. Impartiallyappliedtoallstates
portonthesamevessel,orreloadedonanother
vesselorotherformsoftransportationmayalso
I NT ERNATI O NAL H UM AN R I G HTS L AW
beseizedonthebasisof doctrineofultimate
consumption(Id.).
e. Unneutral
Service actsofamorehostilecharacterthan TheInternationalBillofRightsiscomposedofthe:
carriage of contraband or breach blockade, A. UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights
40
B. International Convention on Civil and Political b. Freedom from slavery or servitude

Rights(ICCPR) (Article4)
C. InternationalConventiononEconomic,Socialand c. Freedom from torture or to cruel,
CulturalRights(ICESCR) inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment
(Article5)
A. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS d. Right to recognition everywhere as a
(UDHR) personbeforethelaw(Article6)
TheUDHRwasadoptedbytheUnitedNationsGeneral e. Right to equal protection of the law
Assembly on December 10, 1948 at Palais deChaillot, (Article7)
Paris. It is not a legally binding treaty but a mere f. Right to an effective remedy by the
declarationorstatementofgenerallyacceptedprinciplesof competentnationaltribunals(Article8)
human rights (Humphrey, The Universal Declaration of g. Freedomfromarbitraryarrest,detention
HumanRights:ItsHistory,ImpactandJuridicalCharacter, orexile(Article9)
1979). h. Righttoafairandpublichearingbyan
independentandimpartialtribunal(Article10)
Itisproclaimedasacommonstandardofachievementfor i. Right to be presumed innocent until
allpeoplesandallnations,totheendthateveryindividual provedguilty(Article11)
and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration j. Freedomfromarbitraryinterferencewith
constantlyinmind,shallstrivebyteachingandeducationto hisprivacy,family,homeorcorrespondence(Article
promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by 12)
progressivemeasures,nationalandinternational,tosecure k. Freedom of movement and residence
theiruniversalandeffectiverecognitionandobservance, withinthebordersofeachstate,andtherightto
bothamongthepeoplesofMemberStatesthemselvesand leaveanycountry,includinghisown,andtoreturn
among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction tohiscountry(Article13)
(Preamble,UDHR). l. Right to seek and to enjoy in other
countriesasylumfrompersecution(Article14)
Allhumanbeingsarebornfreeandequalindignityand m. Righttoanationality(Article15)
rights.Theyareendowedwithreasonandconscienceand n. Right to marry and to found a family
shouldacttowardsoneanotherinaspiritofbrotherhood (Article16)
(Article1,UDHR). o. Righttoownpropertyaloneaswellasin
associationwithothers(Article17)
Everyoneisentitledtoalltherightsandfreedomssetforth p. Freedom of thought, conscience and
inthisDeclaration,withoutdistinctionofanykind,suchas religion(Article18)
race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other q. Freedom of opinion and expression
opinion,nationalorsocialorigin,property, birthorother (Article19)
status(Article2,UDHR). r. Freedom of peaceful assembly and
association(Article20)
FundamentalRightsandFreedoms s. Righttotakepartinthegovernmentof
1.FirstGenerationRights(CivilandPoliticalRights) his country, directly or through freely chosen
a. Everyonehastherighttolife,libertyand representatives; right of equal access to public
securityofperson(Article3) serviceinhiscountry(Article21)
41
2. Second Generation Rights (Economic, Social and SelfdeterminationofPeoples

CulturalRights) Allpeopleshavetherightofselfdetermination.Byvirtueof
that right they freelydeterminetheir political status and
Everyone,asamemberofsociety,hastherighttosocial freely pursue their economic, social and cultural
securityandisentitledtorealization,throughnationaleffort development(Article1(1),ICCPR).
andinternationalcooperationandinaccordancewiththe
organizationandresourcesofeachState,oftheeconomic, Two important rights covered by the right of self
socialandculturalrightsindispensableforhisdignityand determination:
thefreedevelopmentofhispersonality(Article22,UDHR).
1. Righttheyfreely determinetheir political status

a. Righttowork,tofreechoiceofemployment,to
andfreelypursuetheireconomic,socialandcultural
just and favorable conditions of work, to protection
development(Article1(1))and
againstunemployment,toequalpayforequalwork,to
2. Right,fortheirownends,freelydisposeoftheir
justandfavorableremuneration,andtherighttoform
naturalwealthandresourceswithoutprejudicetoany
andjointradeunionsfortheprotectionofhisinterests
obligations arisingout of international economic co
(Article23)
operation,basedupontheprincipleofmutualbenefit,
b. Righttorestandleisure(Article24)
andinternational law.In nocasemayapeople be
c. Right to a standard of living adequate for the
deprivedofitsownmeansofsubsistence(Article1(2)).
health and wellbeing of himself and of his family
(Article25)
Substantiverightstreatedinthecovenantarefound
d. Righttoeducation(Article26)
inArticle1andArticles6to27;theseinclude,among
e. Rightfreelytoparticipateintheculturallifeofthe
others:
community,toenjoytheartsandtoshareinscientific
a. RightofSelfdetermination
advancementanditsbenefits(Article27)
b. Righttolife,libertyandproperty
LimitationsintheexerciseofrightsundertheUDHR
c. Righttoequality
Intheexerciseofhisrightsandfreedoms,everyoneshall
d. Freedomfromtortureandilltreatment
besubjectonlytosuchlimitationsasaredeterminedbylaw
e. Righttoadequateprisonconditions
solely for the purpose of securing due recognition and
f. Freedomofmovement
respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of
g. Recognition and protection of legal personality,
meetingthejustrequirementsofmorality,publicorderand
andprivacy
thegeneralwelfareinademocraticsociety(Article29[2]).
h. Freedom of thought, conscience, religion and
Theserightsandfreedomsmayinnocasebeexercised
expression
contrary to the purposes and principles of the United
i. Freedomofassociation
Nations(Article29[3]).
j. Protectionofminorities
B. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL AND

LimitationontheexerciseofrightsundertheICCPR
POLITICALRIGHTS(ICCPR)
Intimeofpublicemergencywhichthreatensthelifeofthe
The ICCPR was adopted and opened for signature,
nationandtheexistenceofwhichisofficiallyproclaimed,
ratification and accession by the UN General Assembly
the States Parties to the present Covenant may take
Resolution2200(XXI)ofDecember16,1966.Itentered
measures derogating from their obligations under the
intoforceonMarch23,1976.
present Covenant to the extent strictly required by the
42
exigenciesofthesituation,providedthatsuchmeasures e. Righttoadequatestandardsofliving
are not inconsistent with their other obligations under f. Righttohigheststandardofphysicalandmental
internationallawanddonotinvolvediscriminationsolelyon health
thegroundofrace,color,sex,language,religionorsocial g. Righttoeducation
origin(Article4(1),ICCPR). h. Right to enjoyment of cultural and scientific
benefits
RightswhichmayNOTbederogated:
a. Article6:Righttolife LimitationintheexerciseofrightsunderICESCR
b. Article 7: Freedom from torture and other inhuman TheStatemaysubjectsuchrightsonlytosuchlimitations
punishment asaredeterminedbylawonlyinsofarasthismaybe
c. Article8(par.Iand2):freedomfromenslavementor compatiblewiththenatureoftheserightsandsolelyforthe
servitude purposeofpromotingthegeneralwelfareinademocratic
d. Article11:Protectionfromimprisonmentforinabilityto society(Article4,ICESCR).
fulfillcontractualobligations
e. Article15:Protectionfromexpostfactolaws
I N TERNAT I O NAL H UM ANI TAR I AN L AW
f. Article16:Righttorecognitioneverywhereasaperson
beforethelaw INTERNATIONALHUMANITARIANLAW(IHL)
g. Article 18: Freedom of thought, conscience and Thebodyofinternationalrules,establishedbytreatiesor
religion custom, which are specifically intended to solve
humanitarianproblemsdirectlyarisingfrominternationalor
OptionalProtocolstoICCPR noninternational armed conflicts and which, for
1. FirstOptionalProtocol enablestheeighteen humanitarianreasons,limittherightofpartiestoaconflict
memberHumanRightsCommitteesetupunderthe tousethemethodsandmeansofwarfareoftheirchoiceor
ICCPR to receive and consider complaints from protectpersonsandpropertythatare,ormaybe,affected
individualsclaimingtobevictimsofviolationsofany by conflict (ICRC, Advisory Service on International
rightssetforthintheICCPR. HumanitarianLaw).
2. Second Optional Protocol aimed at the
abolitionofthedeathpenalty. Itdoesnotapplytoincidentsoractsofterrorismunless
they fall within the characterization of an international
C. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON ECONOMIC, armedconflictunder Art.2CommontotheFourGeneva
SOCIALANDCULTURALRIGHTS(ICESCR) Conventions; or of noninternational or internal armed
The ICESCR was adopted and opened for signature, conflictundercommon Art.3oftheGenevaConvention
ratificationandaccessionbytheU.N.GeneralAssembly andunderArt.1ofAdditionalProtocolII.
Resolution2200(XXI)ofDecember16,1966.Itentered
intoforceonJanuary3,1976. InternationalHumanRightsLawv.International
Substantiverightstreatedinthecovenantarefound HumanitarianLaw
inArticle6to15;theseinclude,amongothers: InternationalHuman International
a. Righttoworkandfavorableconditionsofwork RightsLaw HumanitarianLaw
b. Righttoformfreetradeunion Towhomapplicable
c. Righttosocialsecurityandinsurance Governs the relations Governs armed conflict,
d. Righttospecialassistanceforfamilies betweentheStateandthe regulatingthe meansand
43
methods of warfare and 1. InternationalArmedConflicts(IAC)

providing protection to Allcasesofdeclaredwarorofanyotherarmedconflict
individual.
victims of the armed whichmayarisebetweentwoormoreStateswhichare
conflict. partiestotheConventions,eveniftheStateofwarisnot
Whenapplicable recognizedbyoneofthemandallcasesofpartialortotal
Appliesatalltimes(peace Appliesonlyintimesand occupationoftheterritoryofaStateParty,evenifthesaid
andwar)andinallplaces placesofarmedconflict occupationmeetswithnoarmedresistance.
Purpose
Aims to protect civilians InternationalarmedconflictsaregovernedbytheGeneva
Beingtailoredprimarilyfor
and thosewhodo not or ConventionsandAdditionalProtocolI.(CommonArticle2
peacetime, applies to all
arenolongertakingpartin oftheGenevaConvention,1949)
persons.
thehostilities
2. InternalorNonInternationalArmedConflict
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDER Theseareconflictswhicharerestrictedtotheterritoryofa
INTERNATIONALHUMANITARIANLAW singleState,involvingeitherregulararmedforcesfighting
1. Parties to armed conflict are prohibited from groupsofarmeddissidents,orarmedgroupsfightingeach
employingweaponsormeansofwarfarethatcause other.TheyaregovernedbytheCommonArticle3tothe
unnecessarydamageorexcessivesuffering. fourGenevaConventionsandbytheAdditionalProtocolII
2. Partiestoarmedconflictshalldistinguishbetween (Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.266).
civilian populace from combatants and spare the
formerfrommilitaryattacks. Testfordeterminingtheexistenceofaninternal armed
3. Persons horsdecombat andthosewhodonot conflict:Whetherthereisaresorttoarmedforcebetween
takepartinhostilitiesshallbeprotectedandtreated statesorprotractedarmedviolencebetweengovernmental
humanelywithoutanyadversedistinction. authoritiesandorganizedarmedgroupsorbetweensuch
4. It is prohibited to kill or injure an enemy who groupswithinaState(TadicJurisdictionDecision,ICTYIT
surrendersorwhoisahorsdecombat. AR72,October2,1995).
5. Thewoundedandthesickshallbeprotectedand
caredforbythepartywhoisincustodyofthem. 3. InternationalizedArmedConflict
6. Parties who captured civilians and combatants Incaseofaninternalarmedconflictbreakingoutonthe
shallrespecttheirrighttolife,dignity,convictionand territoryofaState,itmaybecomeinternationalif:
otherpersonalrights. a. Anotherstateintervenesinthatconflictthroughits
troops;and
CATEGORIESOFARMEDCONFLICTS b. Someparticipantsofsuchinternalarmed
Armedconflict conflictactonbehalfoftheotherstate(Prosecutor
An armed conflict exists whenever there is a resort to vs.Tadic,ICTY1995).
armedforcebetweenStatesorprotractedarmedviolence 4. WarofNationalLiberation
between governmental authorities and organized armed Itisaconflictinwhichpeoplesarefightingagainstcolonial
groups or between such groups within a state (ICTY, dominationandalienoccupationandagainstracistregimes
Prosecutor v. Tadic, Case No. IT941AR72, AC, 2 in the exercise of their right of selfdetermination, as
October1995). enshrined in the U.N. Charter and the Declaration of
PrinciplesofInternationalLawconcerningfriendlyrelations
44
and cooperation among States in accordance with the rules, which are additional to other applicable rules of
U.N.Charter(Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.267). InternationalLaw,shallbeobservedinallcircumstances:
a. The civilian population as such as well as
MartensClause individualciviliansshallnotbetheobjectofattack.
A clause which states in cases not covered by this Actsorthreatsofviolencetheprimarypurposeof
Protocolorbyanyotherinternationalagreements,civilians which is to spread terror among the civilian
andcombatantsremainundertheprotectionandauthority populationareprohibited;
of the principles of international law derived from b. Attacksagainstthecivilianpopulationor
establishedcustom,fromtheprinciplesofhumanityand civiliansbywayofreprisalsareprohibited(Protocol
from the dictates of public conscience (Art. 1, par. 2, I,Article51).
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 PrisonersofWar
August1949). Prisoners of war are entitled to the following basic
protections:
Apersonishorsdecombatif:(PIE) a. They may only be transferred by the
1. Heisinthe powerofanadverseparty[tothe DetainingPowertoaPowerwhichisalsoapartyto
conflict] theGenevaConventionIII.(GenevaConventionIII,
2. Incapable of defending himself provided he Article12);
abstainsfromanyhostileactanddoesnotattemptto b. They must at all times be humanely
escape. treated. No prisoner of war may be subjected to
3. Heclearlyexpressesanintentiontosurrender physical mutilation or to medical or scientific
experimentsofanykindwhicharenotjustifiedby
TREATMENTOFCIVILIANS the medical, dental or hospital treatment of the
prisonerconcernedandcarriedbutinhisinterest.
Civilian They must at all times be protected, particularly
Acivilianisanypersonwhodoesnotbelongtoarmed againstactsofviolenceorintimidationorinsultsand
forceandwhoisnotacombatant.Incaseofdoubton public curiosity. Measures of reprisals against
whether a person is a civilian, that person shall be prisonersofwarareprohibited.(Article13);
consideredtobeacivilian(Art.4ThirdGenevaConvention, c.Theyshallbefreeofchargefortheirmaintenance
1949andArticle43,ProtocolI,1977). andformedicalattentionrequiredbytheirStateof
health(Article15);
Civilianpopulation d. They shall be treated alike by the
The civilian population comprises all persons who are Detaining Power, without any adverse distinction
civilians. The presence within the civilian population of based on race, nationality, religious belief, or
individualswhodonotcomewithinthedefinitionofcivilians politicalopinions,oranyotherdistinctionfoundedon
do not deprive the population of its civilian character similarcriteria(Article16);
(ProtocolI,Article50). e. Womenshallbetreatedwithallregard
duetotheirsexandshall inall casesbenefitby
Thecivilianpopulationandindividualciviliansshallenjoy treatmentasfavorableasgrantedtomen. (Article
general protection against dangers arising from military 14);and
operations.Togiveeffecttothisprotection,thefollowing f. Womenshallbeheldinquartersseparatedfrom
mens quarters. They shall be under immediate
45
supervisionofwomen.Nevertheless,incaseswhere
families are detained or interned, they shall, 4. PrincipleofIndividualCriminalLiabilityan
wheneverpossible,beheldinthesameplaceand individualwhocommitsacrimeunderinternationallaw
accommodatedasfamily units (Protocol I, Article individually liable for punishment, without any
75[5]). distinctionbasedonofficialcapacity.
RightsofaPrisonerofWar: 5. Principle of Superior Responsibility

1. Tobetreatedhumanely; (Respondeat Superior) a superior is held
2. Notsubjecttotorture; criminallyliableforfailuretopreventsubordinatesfrom
3. Allowedtocommunicatewithhisfamily; committingunlawfulacts,inviewofhiscommandand
4. Receive food, clothing, religious articles, controloverthemandliableaswellfortheircrimes.
medicine; (ProsecutorvCelebeci)
5. Bareminimumofinformation;
6. Keeppersonalbelongings; 6. PrincipleofMensReathematerialelements
7. Properburial; of a crime must be committed with intent and
8. Groupaccordingtonationality; knowledge (ProsecutorvTadic(1999)CaseNo.IT
9. Establishmentofaninformationbureau; 941A(ICTYAppealsChamber).
10. Repatriation for the sick and wounded (1949
GenevaConvention). Apersonhasintentwhere:
1. In relation to conduct, that person means to
Internationalcrime engageintheconduct
It issuchactuniversallyrecognizedascriminal,whichis 2. Inrelationtoaconsequence,thatpersonmeans
consideredagravematterofinternationalconcernandfor tocausethatconsequenceorisawarethatitwilloccur
some valid reason cannot be left within the exclusive intheordinarycourseofevent.
jurisdiction of the State that would have control over it Knowledgemeansawarenessthatacircumstanceexistsor
under ordinary circumstances (US Military Tribunal at aconsequencewilloccurintheordinarycourseofevents.
Nuremberg,February19,1948).
INTERNATIONALCRIMINALCOURT(ICC)
GENERALPRINCIPLESOFICL Itisthefirstpermanenttreatybased,internationalcriminal
1. PrincipleofLegality anindividualmayonly courtestablishedtopromotetheruleoflawandensurethat
becriminallyliableandpunishedofanactwhichis thegravestinternationalcrimesdonotgounpunished(Art.
declaredbyinternationallawascriminaloffense. 1,RomeStatute).
2. Principle of NonRetroactivity no person RomeStatute

shall be criminally responsible under a law which It established the International Criminal Court. The
defines as a crime an act committed prior to its PhilippinesisnotyetapartytotheStatutes.Whilethen
enactment. PhilippineMissiontotheUnitedNations,throughCharge
dAffairs Enrique Manalo, signed the Rome Statute on
3. Principleofnebisinidem(nottwiceforthe December28,2000,thesamewashowevernotsignedby
same) nosameindividualshallbepunishedand thePresidentandsubmittedtotheSenateforratification.
triedmorethanonceforthesameoffense. Withoutratification,thePhilippinescannotbeapartytothe
46
Statute.InfactArt.125(2)oftheStatuteprovidesthatitis a. Killingmembersofthegroup;
subjecttoratification,acceptanceorapprovalbysignatory b. Causingseriousbodilyormentalharmtomembers
states(Pimentelv.OfficeoftheExecutiveSecretary,G.R. ofthegroup;
No.158088,July6,2005). c. Deliberatelyinflictingonthegroupconditionsoflife
calculatedtobringaboutitsphysicaldestructionin
JurisdictionoftheICC wholeorinpart;
1. Thecrimesofgenocide d. Imposingmeasuresintendedtopreventbirthswithin
2. Crimesagainsthumanity thegroup;
3. Warcrimes e. Forciblytransferringchildrenofthegrouptoanother
4. Thecrimesofaggression group.
Notes:
MAINJURISDICTIONALRULESGOVERNINGICC Killingscommittedbyasingleperpetratorareenoughto
The Rome Statute provides for the following rules on establishthematerialelementofthecrimeofgenocideand
jurisdiction: itispossibletoconceivethattheaccusedharboredthe
1. Jurisdiction rationematerial ICCjurisdictionis plan to exterminate an entire group without this intent
onlylimitedtothosecrimesunderitsjurisdiction havingbeensupportedbyanyorganizationinwhichother
2. Jurisdiction ratione temporis ICC has individualsparticipated(Prosecutorvs.Jelisic,ICTY1999).
jurisdictiononlywithcrimescommittedaftertheentry
intoforceofitsStatute(July1,2002). CRIMESAGAINSTHUMANITY
3. Jurisdiction ratione loci ICC has jurisdiction A crime against humanity involves the commission of
overcrimescommittedintheterritoryofStatesParties, certain inhumane acts, such as murder, torture, rape,
withoutrespecttothenationalityoftheoffender. sexualslavery,persecution,andotheracts,underacertain
4. Jurisdiction ratione personae ICC has context: theymustbepartofawidespreadorsystematic
jurisdictionoverthenationalsofastatepartyasto attackdirectedagainstacivilianpopulation (Cryer,etal.
crimeswithintheICCsjurisdiction. An Introduction to International Criminal Law and
Procedure.2010).
Note:TrialinabsentiaisnotallowedundertheICCrules
(Art.63,RomeStatute). Crimesagainsthumanityv.Warcrimes
CrimesAgainst
R E CO G NI ZED C R I M ES U ND ER WarCrimes
Humanity
I N TERNAT I O NAL L AW Whenitmaybecommitted
GENOCIDE May occur even in the
Mayonlyoccurduringan
Adenialoftherightofexistenceofentirehumangroups, absence of an armed
armedconflict.
ashomicideisthedenialoftherighttoliveofindividual conflict.
human beings (UN General Assembly Resolution No. Additionalrequisite
96(1)). Requires a context of
Does not require such
widespread or systematic
context.
Elementsofgenocide: commission.
1. Intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, Coverage
ethnical,racial,orreligiousgroup; Focusedontheprotection Focuses on protecting
2. Commissionofthefollowingacts: of victims regardless of enemy nationals or
47
their nationality or personsaffiliatedwiththe onlyagainstmilitaryobjectives(Article48,51and52

affiliation. otherpartytotheconflict. ofAdditionalProtocolI,ICRCCustomaryRule1).
Nature
Concernsactionsdirected Regulates conduct even Militaryobjectives
primarily against civilian on the battlefield and Theseincludecombatants,whetheronoroffduty,as
populations. againstmilitaryobjectives. well as objects, which by their nature, make an
effectivecontributiontomilitaryactionandwhosetotal
Elementsofcrimesagainsthumanity: orpartialdestruction,capture,orneutralization,inthe
1. Widespreadorsystematicattacksuchas: circumstancesrulingthetime,offersadefinitemilitary
a. Murder; advantage.
b. Enslavement
c. Extermination 3. Inflictingexcessiveciviliandamage
d. Forcibletransfer
e. Imprisonment ProportionalityPrinciple
f. Torture Evenwheretheattackisdirectedagainstamilitary
g. Rapeandotherformsofsexualviolence objective, the anticipated incidental civilian damage
h. persecution mustnotbedisproportionatetotheanticipatedmilitary
2. Committedagainstanycivilianpopulation; advantage(Article51,5ofAdditionalProtocolI,ICRC
3. Perpetrator intentionally directs such attacks on the CustomaryRule14,Prosecutorvs.Kupreskic,ICTY
civilianpopulation. 2000).
WARCRIMES 4. Destruction, appropriation, seizure, and pillage of

Awarcrimeisaseriousviolationofthelawsandcustoms property;and
applicableinarmedconflictwhichgivesrisetoindividual
criminalresponsibility. 5. Useofprohibitedweaponsandmethodsofwarfare.
Thelawonwarcrimesisprimarilyhingedonthecustomary R.A.9851
lawsof justwar andthegoverningGenevaConventions [Philippine Act on Crimes against International
whichproviderulesandparametersforwagingawar. Humanitarian Law, Genocide and Other Crimes
AgainstHumanity(December11,2009)]
Generalactspunishableaswarcrimes The State adopts the generally accepted principles of
1. Violence and mistreatment of noncombatants internationallaw,includingtheHagueConventionsof1907,
(includingprisonersofwar,civilians,thewounded,and theGenevaConventionsontheprotectionofvictimsofwar
thesick); andinternationalhumanitarianlaw,aspartofthelawofour
2. Attacksonprohibitedtargets; nation.
PrincipleofDistinction Jurisdictionoverwarcrimes
AcustomaryruleinIHLthatrequiresbelligerentsto TheStateshallexercisejurisdictionoverpersons,whether
distinguish between military objectives and the militaryorcivilian,suspectedoraccusedofacrimedefined
populationandobjects,andtodirecttheiroperations andpenalizedinthisAct,regardlessofwherethecrimeis
48
committed,provided,anyoneofthefollowingconditionsis a. Rivers which may be national, boundary or

met: international
1. The accused is a Filipino
citizen ThalwegDoctrine for boundaryrivers,inthe
2. Theaccused,regardlessof absence of an agreement between the riparian
citizenship or residence, is present in the states,theboundarylineislaidonthemiddleof
Philippines themainnavigablechannel.
3. The accused has
committedthesaidcrimeagainstaFilipinocitizen MiddleoftheBridgeDoctrinewherethereisa
bridgeoveraboundaryriver,theboundarylineis
I NT ERNATI O NAL L AW ON T E RRO RI SM themiddleorcenterofthebridge.
b. Bays and gulfs a bay is a wellmarked

Terrorism
indentationinthecoasttheareaofwhichatleast
Itisanyactofviolenceorthreatthereofnotwithstandingits
isaslargeorlargerthan,thatofthesemicircle
motivesorintentionsperpetratedtocarryoutanindividual
whosediameterisalinedrawnacrossitsmouth.
orcollectivecriminalplanwiththeaimofterrorizingpeople
orthreateningtoharmthemorimperilingtheirlives,honor,
c. Strait Narrow passageways connecting two
freedoms,securityorrightsorexposingtheenvironmentor
bodiesofwater.Ifthedistancebetweenthetwo
any facility or public or private property to hazards or
oppositecoastsisnotmorethansixmiles,they
occupying or seizing them, or international facilities, or
areconsideredinternal.
threateningthestability,territorialintegrity,politicalunityor
sovereigntyofindependentStates(Article1,Conventionof
d. Canals the mostfamousaretheSuezCanal,
Organization of Islamic Conference on Combating
which is neutralized and the Panama Canal,
InternationalTerrorismatOuagadougou[July1,1999]).
which is open to everyone in times of war or
peace.
The international community has not yet achieved an
agreement as to the generally accepted definition of
2. ARCHIPELAGIC WATERS the waters
terrorism for the purpose of formulating it as an
enclosedbythearchipelagicbaselines,regardlessof
international crime under an international convention
their depth or distance from the coast (Art. 49(1),
(Magallona,p.351).
drawninaccordancewithArt.47,UNCLOS).
Terroristactscanbeprosecutedinaninternationalcourtat
Sovereignty of the archipelagic state extends to
presentonlyiftheyamounttowarcrimesorcrimesagainst
archipelagic waters, but is subject to the right of
humanity.
innocent passage for the ships of all states. Its
L AW O N T HE SE A sovereigntyalsoextendstothesuperjacentairspace
of the archipelagic waters, subjacent seabed and
subsoilandtheresourcescontainedtherein(Art.49,
1. INTERNALORNATIONALWATERSbodies UNCLOS).
of water within the land mass, among them are:
(Nachura, Outline Reviewer in Political Law, 2009,
p.664)
49
UNCLOSIIIandRA9522notincompatible withthe coasts of Alaska and Canada (Ocean States:

Constitutionsdelineationofinternalwaters ArchipelagicRegimesintheLawoftheSe1995,
p.15).
WhetherreferredtoasPhilippineinternalwatersunder .
Article I of the Constitution or as archipelagic waters b. Outlying (Midocean) situated in the
underUNCLOSIII(Article49[1]),thePhilippinesexercises oceanatsuchdistancefromthecoastsoffirm
sovereigntyoverthebodyofwaterlyinglandwardofthe landastobeconsideredasanindependentwhole
baselines,includingtheairspaceoveritandthesubmarine ratherthanformingpartoforoutercoastlineofthe
areasunderneath. mainland,e.g. Faeroes,FijiIslands,Galapagos,
HawaiianIslands,Indonesia,Japan,Philippines,
Thefactofsovereignty,however,doesnotprecludethe Solomon Islands, the Svalbard archipelago
operation of municipal and international law norms (OceanStates:ArchipelagicRegimesintheLaw
subjecting the territorial sea or archipelagic waters to oftheSe1995,p.22).
necessary, if not marginal, burdens in the interest of
maintaining unimpeded, expeditious international ArchipelagicState
navigation,consistentwiththeinternationallawprincipleof Astatemadeupwhollyofoneormorearchipelagos.
freedomofnavigation. Itmayincludeotherislands(Art.46(a),UNCLOS).
Thus,domestically,thepoliticalbranchesofthePhilippine RegimeofIslandsDoctrine
government, in the competent discharge of their An island is a naturally formed area of land,
constitutional powers, may pass legislation designating surrounded bywater,whichisabove water at high
routeswithinthearchipelagicwaterstoregulateinnocent tide. But under this doctrine, rocks which cannot
andsealanespassage(Prof.MerlinM.Magallona,etal. sustainhumanhabitationoreconomiclifeoftheirown
vs.EduardoErmita,etal.,G.R.No.187167,August16, shallhavenoexclusiveeconomiczoneorcontinental
2011). shelf(Art121,UNCLOS).
StraightArchipelagicBaselines
Archipelago Archipelagic states may draw straight baselines by
A group of islands, including parts of islands, inter joiningtheoutermostpointsoftheoutermostislands
connectingwaters,andothernaturalfeatureswhichare and drying reefs of the archipelago, provided that
closely interrelated in such islands, waters and other withinsuchbaselinesareincludedthemainislands
natural features which form an intrinsic geographical, andanareainwhichtheratiooftheareaofthewater
economic and political entity or which historically have totheareaoftheland,includingatollsisbetween11
beenregardedassuch(Art.46(b),UNCLOS). and91(Art.47(1),UNCLOS).
Twokindsofarchipelago:
a. Coastal situated so close to a Archipelagicsealanes
mainland that they may be considered a part ItmeanstheexerciseinaccordancewiththeLawof
thereof formingmoreorlessanoutercoastline theSea Convention of the rights of navigation and
fromwhichitisnaturaltomeasurethemarginal overflightinthenormalmodesolelyforthepurposeof
seas, e.g. Norwegian "Skjaergard," coasts of continuous, expeditious and unobstructed transit
Finland, Sweden, and certain stretches on the betweenonepart ofthehighseasor anexclusive
50
economiczoneandanotherpartofthehighseasor theexclusiveeconomic zoneismeasured inorder to

exclusiveeconomiczone(UNCLOS,Article53(3)). determinethemaritimeboundaryofthecoastalstate.
AnarchipelagicStatemaydesignatesealanesandair TypesofBaseline:
routes there above, suitable for continuous and a. NormalBaselinemethod the territorialseais
expeditious passage of foreign ships and aircraft simplydrawnfromthelowwatermarkofthecoast,to
throughoroveritsarchipelagicwatersandadjacentto the breadth claimed, following its sinuousness and
itsterritorialsea.Allshipsandaircraftenjoytherightof curvatures but excluding the internal waters in the
archipelagicsealanespassageinsuchsealanesand baysandgulfs(Art5,UNCLOS).
airroutes(UNCLOS,Article53(1,2)).
b. StraightBaselinemethod where the
Limitationsandrulesindrawingarchipelagic
coastline is deeply indented and cut into, or if
baselines:
thereisafringeofislandsalongthecoastinits
a. Ratiooftheareaofthewatertotheareaofthe
immediate vicinity, the method of straight
land,includingatolls,isbetween11and91;
baselines joining appropriate points may be
b. Lengthofsuchbaselinesshall not exceed100
employedindrawingthebaselinefromwhichthe
nauticalmiles,exceptthatupto3%ofthetotal
breadthoftheterritorialseaismeasured(Art.7,
number of baselines enclosing any archipelago
UNCLOS).
mayexceedthatlength,uptoamaximumlength
of125nauticalmiles;
Limitations on the Use of Straight Baselines:
c. Thedrawingofsuchbaselinesshallnotdepartto
(UNCLOS1982,asChurchhill&Lowe,TheLawofthe
any appreciable extent from the general
Sea,1988p.30)
configurationofthearchipelago;
d. Thesystemofsuchbaselinesshallnotbeapplied
i. Must not depart to any appreciable extent
byanarchipelagicstateinsuchamannerasto
fromthegeneraldirectionofthecoast;The
cut off from the high seas or the EEZ of the
seaareaslyingwithinthestraightbaselines
territorialseaofanotherState(Art.47,UNCLOS).
mustbesufficientlyclosetothelanddomain

tobesubjecttotheregimeofinternalwaters
3. TERRITORIALSEAthebeltofthesealocated (Art7[3];
betweenthecoastandinternalwatersofthecoastal
stateontheonehandandthehighseasontheother, ii. Straightbaselinesshallnotbedrawntoand
extendingupto12nauticalmilesfromthelowwater fromlowtide elevations,unlesslighthouses
mark,orinthecaseofarchipelagicstates,fromthe orsimilarinstallationswhicharepermanently
baselines. abovesealevelhavebeenbuiltonthem,and
unless the baselines to and from lowtide
Baseline elevations have received general
Thelowwatermarkalongthecoastfromwhichthebelt international recognition (Art. 7(4),
oftheterritorialseaismeasured(Art.3,UNConvention UNCLOS);
on the Laws of the Sea; Fisheries Case [U.K. v.
Norway],ICJ,December18,1951).Itisalinefromwhich iii. Where the method of straight baselines is
thebreadthoftheterritorialsea,thecontiguouszoneand usedincaseoflocalitieswherethecoastline
51
isindentedandcutinto,orifthereisafringe i. traversing that sea without entering internal

ofislandsalongthecoastinitsimmediate watersorcallingataroadsteadorportfacility
vicinity(Art.7(1),UNCLOS),accountmaybe outsideinternalwaters;or
taken,indeterminingparticularbaselines,of ii. proceedingtoorfrominternalwatersor
economic interests peculiar to the region a call at such roadstead or port facility (Art.
concerned,therealityandtheimportanceof 18(1),UNCLOS;Paras,InternationalLawand
whichareclearlyevidencedbylongusage WorldPolitics,p.304).
(Art.7(5),UNCLOS);
Delayedorcontinuouspassage:
iv. Maynotbeappliedbystateinsuchamanner Asarule,passagemustbecontinuousandexpeditious,
astocutofftheterritorialseaofanotherstate althoughashipisallowedtostopandanchorif:
fromthehighseasoranexclusiveeconomic a. itisincidentaltoordinarynavigation,
zone((Art.7(6),UNCLOS);and b. it is rendered necessary by force majeure or
distress,and
v. Statemustclearlyindicatethelinesoncharts c. Itisrequiredinordertoassistpersons,shipsor
orlistsofgeographicalcoordinatestowhich aircraft in danger or distress (Art. 18(2),
due publicity must be given and shall UNCLOS).
depositacopyofeachsuchchartorlistwith
theSecretaryGeneraloftheUnitedNations Right of innocent passage through archipelagic
(Art.16,UNCLOS). waters
ShipsofallStatesenjoytherightofinnocentpassage
Note:AsappliedintheFisheriesCase(U.K.v. througharchipelagicwaters,inaccordancewithPartII,
Norway, December 18, 1951) culmination of a section3(Art.52(1),UNCLOS).However,thisrightisnot
dispute,originatingin1933, overhowlargean availableinsidetheclosinglineswithinthearchipelagic
areaofwatersurroundingNorwaywasNorwegian waters which had been drawn for the delimitation of
waters (that Norway thus had exclusive fishing internalwaters.
rights to) and how much was 'high seas' (that
theUKcould thus fish). The ICJ decided that Prohibited acts or activities during innocent
Norway's claims to the waters were not passage
inconsistentwithinternationallawsconcerningthe Passage of a foreign ship shall be considered to be
ownershipoflocalseaspace. prejudicialtothepeace,goodorderorsecurityofthe
coastalStateifintheterritorialseaitengagesinanyof
RightofInnocentPassage thefollowingactivities:
Thisallowsaforeignmerchantorpublicvesseltopassthru a. any threat or use of force against the
themaritimezoneofthelittoralstateprovided: sovereignty, territorial integrity or political
a. Thatthepassageisreallyinnocent(i.e.there independenceofthecoastalState,orinanyother
mustbenoulteriormotiveforthepassage,itisnot manner in violation of the principles of
prejudicialtothepeace,goodorderorsecurityof internationallawembodiedintheCharterofthe
the coastal state and all the regulations of state UnitedNations;
concernedarecompliedwith); b. anyexerciseorpracticewithweaponsof
b. Thatthereinonlyapassage anykind;
52
c. anyactaimedatcollectinginformationto Coverage
the prejudice of the defence or security of the Pertains only to Includes right of over
coastalState; navigationofships flight
d. anyactofpropagandaaimedataffecting Applicability
thedefenceorsecurityofthecoastalState; Requires submarine and
e. thelaunching,landingortakingonboard otherunderwatervehicles Norequirementspecially
ofanyaircraft; to navigate on the applicable to
f. thelaunching,landingortakingonboard surfaceandtoshowtheir submarines
ofanymilitarydevice; flag
g. the loading or unloading of any Subjecttosuspension
commodity, currency or person contrary to the Canbesuspended Cannotbesuspended
customs,fiscal,immigrationorsanitarylawsand Recommendationsfordesignationofsealanes
regulationsofthecoastalState;
Designation of sea
h. any act of wilful and serious pollution In designation of sea
lanes and traffic
contrarytothisConvention; lanes and traffic
separation schemes is
i. anyfishingactivities; separation schemes, the
subject to adoption by
j. the carrying out of research or survey coastal state shall only
competentinternational
activities; take account of the
organization upon
k. any act aimed at interfering with any recommendations of the
proposal and
systemsofcommunicationoranyotherfacilities competent international
agreement of states
orinstallationsofthecoastalState; organization
borderingthestraits.
l. any other activity not having a direct
bearingonpassage(PartII,Section3,Art.19(2),
Note:ThecoastalStatemay,withoutdiscriminationinform
UNCLOS).
or in fact among foreign ships, suspend temporarily in
specifiedareasofitsterritorialseatheinnocentpassageof
RightofTransitPassage
foreign ships if such suspension is essential for the
Itistherighttoexercisefreedomofnavigationandover
protection of its security, including weapons exercises.
flightsolelyforthepurposeofcontinuousandexpeditious
Suchsuspensionshalltakeeffectonlyafterhavingbeen
transitthroughthestraitsusedforinternationalnavigation,
dulypublished(Art.25(3),UNCLOS).
i.e.,betweentwoareasofthehighseasorbetweentwo
exclusiveeconomiczones(Art.38(2),UNCLOS).
Suspension oftheright ofinnocent passage of
foreignshipsinarchipelagicwaters
All ships and aircraft enjoy the right of transit passage
Requisites:
exceptthat,ifthestraitisformedbyanislandofaState
a. The suspension is made without
borderingthestraitanditsmainland,transitpassageshall
discrimination in form or in fact among foreign
not apply ifthereexistsseawardoftheisland aroute
ships;
throughthehighseasorthroughanexclusiveeconomic
b. Thesuspensionisonlytemporary;
zoneofsimilarconveniencewithrespecttonavigational
c. It must specify the areas of its
andhydrographicalcharacteristics (Art.38(1),UNCLOS).
archipelagicwaterswhereinnocentpassageshall
notbeallowed;
Innocentpassagev.transitpassage
InnocentPassage TransitPassage
53
d. Such suspension is essential for the theproductionofenergyfromthewaters,currents

protectionofitssecurity;and andwinds;
e. Suchsuspensionshalltakeeffectonly b. Jurisdictionwithregardtotheestablishmentand
after having been duly published (Art.52[2], use of artificial islands, installations and
UNCLOS). structures; marine scientific research; the
protection and preservation of marine
4. CONTIGUOUS ZONE extends up to 12 environment;
nautical miles from the territorial sea. The coastal c. Otherrightsanddutiesprovidedforin (Art.56
statemaynotextenditbeyond24nauticalmilesfrom [1]oftheUNConventionontheLawoftheSea).
thebaseline. Itisamaritimezoneadjacenttothe
territorialseawhere,althoughtechnically,notpartof LandlockedstatesStateswhichdonotborder
the territory of the State, the coastal State may theseas(Art.124(1)(a),UNCLOSandthereforedo
exerciselimitedjurisdictionoverthecontiguouszone nothaveEEZ.
to (a) prevent infringement of customs, fiscal
immigrationorsanitarylawsandregulationswithinits Basisfortheresolution ofconflicts regarding
territoryorterritorialseaand(b)punishinfringementof theattributionofrightsandjurisdictioninthe
theabovelawsandregulationscommittedwithinits exclusiveeconomiczone:
territory(Art.33,UNCLOS). Conflictshouldberesolved onthebasisofequity
andinthelightofall therelevantcircumstances,
5. EXCLUSIVEECONOMICZONE(EEZ)itisan takingintoaccounttherespectiveimportanceofthe
areabeyondandadjacent totheterritorialsea,not interestsinvolvedtothepartiesaswellastothe
extending beyond 200 nautical miles from the international community as a whole (Art. 59,
baselines fromwhichtheterritorialseaismeasured, UNCLOS).
notpartofthenationalterritorybutexclusiveeconomic
benefit is reserved for the country. In case of TheCoastalstatehastherighttoenforcealllaws
archipelagicstates,itsbreadthshallbemeasuredfrom andregulationsenactedtoconserveandmanage
thearchipelagicbaseline(Arts.55,57,48,UNCLOS). thelivingresourcesintheEEZ.Itmayboardand
inspect a ship, arrest a ship and its crew and
PD No. 1599 (June 11, 1978) established the institutejudicialproceedingsagainstthem.Arrested
exclusiveeconomiczoneofthePhilippineswhichshall vessels and their crewsmaybe required to post
extendtoadistanceofbeyondandfromthebaselines reasonable bond or any other form of security.
fromwhichtheterritorialseaismeasured. However, they must be promptly released upon
postingofbond(Art.1and2,UNCLOS).
Rightsofthecoastalstateintheexclusive
economiczone Intheabsenceofagreementtothecontrarybythe
a. Sovereignrightsforthepurposeofexploringand states concerned, the UNCLOS does not allow
exploiting,conservingandmanagingthenatural imprisonment or any other form of corporal
resources, whether living or nonliving, of the punishment. However, in cases of arrest and
waterssuperjacenttotheseabedandsubsoil,and detention,offoreignvessels,itshallpromptlynotify
with regard toother activities for the economic the flag state of the action taken (Art. 73(3),
exploitationandexplorationofthezone,suchas UNCLOS).
54
Coastalstatehastheexclusiverighttoconstruct, b. Therightsareexclusiveinthesensethat
authorizeand regulate theconstruction, operation if the coastal State does not explore the
and use of structures and artificial islands. continentalshelforexploititsnaturalresources,
However, they may not be established where noonemayundertaketheseactivitieswithoutthe
interferencemaybecausedtotheuseofrecognized expressconsentofthecoastalState.
sealanesessentialtointernationalnavigation (Art.
60(1),UNCLOS). c. TherightsofthecoastalStateoverthe
continental shelf do not depend on occupation,
Coastal state may establish safety zones around effective or notional, or on any express
suchartificialislandsprovideditshallnotexceed proclamation.
500 meters around the artificial islands and
installations, unless otherwise authorized by d. Thenaturalresourcesreferredtointhis
generally accepted international standards or Partconsistofthemineral andothernonliving
recommended by the competent international resourcesoftheseabedandsubsoiltogetherwith
organization(Art.60(5),UNCLOS). livingorganismsbelongingtosedentaryspecies,
thatistosay,organismswhich,attheharvestable
6. CONTINENTAL SHELF is the seabed and stage,eitherareimmobileonorundertheseabed
subsoilofthesubmarineareasthatextendbeyondits orareunabletomoveexceptinconstantphysical
territorialseathroughoutthenaturalprolongationofits contactwiththeseabedorthesubsoil (Art.77,
land territory to the outer edge of the continental UNCLOS)
margin,ortoadistanceof200nauticalmilesfromthe
baselinesfromwhichthebreadthoftheterritorialsea e. The coastal State shall have the
ismeasuredwheretheouteredgeofthecontinental exclusiverighttoauthorizeandregulatedrillingon
margindoesnotextenduptothatdistance(Art.76(1) the continental shelf for all purposes (Art. 81,
UNCLOS). UNCLOS).
Continental margin comprises the submerged 7. HIGHSEAS means allpartsoftheseathat

prolongationofthelandmassofthecoastalState,and arenotincludedintheterritorialseaorintheinternal
consistsoftheseabedandsubsoiloftheshelf,the watersofanystate (Art.1,1958Conventiononthe
slopeandtherise.Itdoesnotincludethedeepocean High Seas). They are open to all states, whether
floorwithitsoceanicridgesorthesubsoilthereof(Art. coastal or landlocked; and no state may validly
76(3)UNCLOS). purporttosubjectanypartofthemtoitssovereignty
(Id.,Art.2;Art.89,UNCLOS).Moreover,thehighseas
Rights if a Coastal State over its continental shall be reserved for peaceful purposes (Art. 88,
margin: UNCLOS).
a. TheCoastalstatehassovereignrights
over the continental self for the purpose of Mare Liberium principle principle espoused by
exploring and exploiting its natural resources. Hugo Grotius in 1609 which put forth the following
However,itdoesnotformpartoftheterritoryof reasonswhytheseacouldntbeoccupied:
thecoastalstate. a. itsresourceswereinexhaustible
b. physicaloccupationisimpossible
55
c. demarcationofboundariesisimpossible; Note:Intheeventofadisputeastowhetheracourtor
and tribunal has jurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by
d. the oceans are so immense that decisionofthatcourtortribunal(Art.288(4)).
conflicting resource use is impossible
(Sarmiento, Public International Law Bar Contentiousjurisdiction
Reviewer,p.345) TheTribunalhasjurisdictionoveralldisputesconcerning
theinterpretationorapplicationoftheUNCLOSandother
Main Constituents of the Freedom of the High internationalagreementsrelatedtotheconvention,subject
Seas: totheprovisionsofArt.297andtothedeclarationsmade
a. Freedomofnavigation inaccordancewithArt.298oftheUNCLOS(Art.288(1)
b. Freedomofoverflight and(2),UNCLOS).
c. Freedom to lay submarine cables and
pipelines Consenttocontentiousjurisdiction
d. Freedomtoconstruct artificialIslandsand
General rule: Consenttothetribunal'sjurisdictionmust
other installations permitted under
begivenexpressly.
internationallaw
e. Freedomoffishing
However,
f. Freedom of scientific research (Art. 87,
UNCLOS). 1. ITLOSenjoysmandatoryjurisdictionoverallStates
party to the UNCLOS in some specific cause of
INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNAL OF THE LAW OF THE
actions,e.g.promptreleaseofdetainedvesselsand
SEA(ITLOS) crews and requests for provisional measures in
An independentjudicialbodyestablishedbytheThirdUN certain circumstances (Art. 292(1), UNCLOS),
ConventionontheLawoftheSeatoadjudicatedisputes unlessthepartiesagreeotherwise; alsoseeArt.
arising out of the interpretation and application of the 290(5), UNCLOS) andmayreceivecases onthe
convention (Art. 1, ITLOS). It is Composed of 21 basis of international agreements other than the
independentmemberselectedbytheStatespartiestothe UNCLOS.
UNCLOS from among persons with recognized
2. SBDChasmandatoryjurisdictionunderPartXIof
competence in the field of the law of the sea and
theUNCLOSandtheAnnexesrelatingtheretoin
representingtheprincipallegalsystemsoftheworld(Art.
disputeswithrespecttoactivitiesintheAreafalling
2,ITLOS).
withinthefollowingcategories:
a. disputesbetweenStatesPartiesconcerning
JurisdictionofITLOS
theinterpretationorapplicationofthisPartand
This comprises all disputes and all applications
theAnnexesrelatingthereto;
submitted to it in accordance with the UNCLOS. It
alsoincludesallmattersspecificallyprovidedforin
b. disputes between a State Party and the
anyotheragreementwhichconfersjurisdictiononthe
Authorityconcerning:
Tribunal (Art. 21, ITLOS Statute). The Tribunal has i. actsoromissionsoftheAuthorityorofa
jurisdictiontodealwithdisputes(contentiousjurisdiction) StatePartyallegedtobeinviolationofthis
andlegalquestions(advisoryjurisdiction)submittedtoit. PartortheAnnexesrelatingtheretoorof
rules, regulations and procedures of the
56
Authorityadoptedinaccordancetherewith; enumerated in article 287 of the UNCLOS, the

or "choiceofprocedure"clause. Thefouralternatives
ii. acts of the Authority alleged to be in are:theInternationalCourtofJustice,theITLOS,
excessofjurisdictionoramisuseofpower; arbitration or special arbitration. In the event two
c. disputesbetweenpartiestoacontract,being States have selected the same procedure, it will
StatesParties,theAuthorityortheEnterprise, apply in disputes between them (Art. 287(4),
state enterprises and natural or juridical UNCLOS)
persons referred to in article153,
paragraph2(b),concerning: In the absence of agreement concerning the
i. the interpretation or application of a adjudicationforum,thedisputeswillbereferredto
relevantcontractoraplanofwork;or arbitrationinaccordancewithAnnexVII(Art.287(3)
ii. acts or omissions of a party to the and287(5),UNCLOS).
contract relating to activities in the Area
anddirectedtotheotherpartyordirectly 5. PartXVofUNCLOS,concerningthesettlementof
affectingitslegitimateinterests. disputes,doesnotapplyiftheStatesPartiestothe
d. disputes between the Authority and a disputes agree to submit the dispute to another
prospective contractor who has been procedure(Art.282,UNCLOS).
sponsored by a State as provided in 6. TheUNCLOSalsoprovidesthataStatespartymay
article153, paragraph2(b), and has duly onlyhaverecoursetotheproceduresprovidedfor
fulfilledtheconditionsreferredtoinAnnexIII, bysection2ofPartXV"onlyafterlocalremedies
article4, paragraph6, and article13, have been exhausted where this is required by
paragraph2, concerning the refusal of a internationallaw."(Art.295,UNCLOS).
contract or a legal issue arising in the
Advisoryjurisdiction
negotiationofthecontract;
TheSeabedDisputesChamberoftheITLOSiscompetent
e. disputes between the Authority and a State
togiveanadvisoryopiniononlegalquestionsarisingwithin
Party, a state enterprise or a natural or
thescopeoftheactivitiesoftheAssemblyorCouncilofthe
juridicalpersonsponsoredbyaStatePartyas
InternationalSeabedAuthority (Art.191,UNCLOS).The
provided for in article153,paragraph2(b),
Tribunal may also give an advisory opinion on a legal
where it is alleged that the Authority has
question if this is provided for by "an international
incurred liability as provided in AnnexIII,
agreementrelatedtothepurposesoftheConvention(Art.
article22;
138,RulesoftheTribunal).
f. anyotherdisputesforwhichthejurisdictionof

the Chamber is specifically provided in this
Two treaties governing the system of International
Convention(Art.187,UNCLOS).
Registrationofmarks
3. Disputes arising under the UNCLOS between
States Parties are subject to compulsory
procedures thatentailbinding decisions(withthe
exceptionofafewspecificcategoriesofdisputes
(Art.284(1),285and298(1),UNCLOS).
4. StatesPartiesmayselect,uponratificationofthe
UNCLOS, one or more dispute settlement
mechanisms from a menu of four procedures
57
1. Madrid Agreement Concerning the International protectionofindustrialproperty,enjoyinalltheother

RegistrationofMarks,whichdatesfrom1891,and countries of the Union the advantages that their
2. ProtocolRelatingtotheMadridAgreement,which respectivelawsnowgrant,ormayhereaftergrant,to
wasadoptedin1989enteredintoforceonDecember nationals;allwithoutprejudicetotherightsspecially
1, 1995, and cameintooperation onApril 1, 1996 providedforbythisConvention.Consequently,they
(WorldIntellectualPropertyOrganization). shallhavethesameprotectionasthelatter,andthe
samelegalremedyagainstanyinfringementoftheir
Madridsystem rights, provided that the conditions and formalities
Thisprovidesonesingleprocedurefortheregistrationofa imposeduponnationalsarecompliedwith.Nationals
markinseveralterritories.Itisgovernedbytwotreaties, ofcountriesoutsidetheUnionwhoaredomiciledor
the Madrid Agreement and the Madrid Protocol, and is whohaverealandeffectiveindustrialorcommercial
administered by the International Bureau of WIPO in establishmentsintheterritoryofoneofthecountries
Geneva, Switzerland (World Intellectual Property oftheUnionshallbetreatedinthesamemanneras
Organization). nationalsofthecountriesoftheUnion(Article2[1]and
3, Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Who is entitled to file an International Registration Property,March20,1883).
applicationundertheMadridProtocol?
ApplicantsfromoneofthecountriespartytotheMadrid 3. Conventionpriority:Anypersonwhohasfileda
ProtocolcanfileanInternationalRegistrationiftheyare trademarkapplicationinoneofthesignatorycountries
nationals of,have a real and effective industrial or possessesarighttoclaimthatfilingdateforpriority
commercialestablishmentin,orhaveadomicileinoneof purposes for trademark applications filed within six
the ContractingParties (Art. 2(1), Madrid Protocol). monthsinothersignatorycountries(Art.4).
TheInternationalRegistrationapplicationshallbefiledat Notes:
the International Bureau of WIPO through the office of The Paris Convention [is] selfexecuting in some
originofthebasicapplicationorregistration.Itcannotbe countries.TheConventionbecomesenforceablebythe
fileddirectlyattheBureau(Art.2(2),MadridProtocol). signatory'smereaccessionandnofurtherimplementing
legislationisrequired(Art.20).
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property ParisConventionallowssignatoriestoconcludespecial
TheParisConventionprovidesforthefollowing: agreements in the field of protection of intellectual
1. Creation of alegal entityrecognized property,aslongastheseagreementsdonotcontravene
underinternational lawcomprised of the following theregulationsoftheParisConvention(Art.19).
administrativebodies:theWorldIntellectualProperty
Organization(WIPO),theAssembly(whichcomprises Most important special agreements in relation to the
all member nations) and the Executive Committee protectionoftrademarksare:
(Articles13to17,ParisConventionfortheProtection a. MadridAgreement
ofIndustrialProperty,March20,1883). b. ProtocolrelatingtotheMadridAgreement
c. Agreement on TradeRelated Aspects of
2. National treatment and reciprocity:Nationals of IntellectualPropertyRights(TRIPS)
any country of the Union shall, as regards the d. NICEAgreement
58
e. ViennaAgreement environmentalpolicies,andtheresponsibilitytoensure
f. TrademarkLawTreaty thatactivitieswithintheirjurisdictionorcontroldonot
g. MadridAgreementonIndicationsofOrigin causedamagetotheenvironmentofotherStatesorof
areasbeyondthelimitsofnationaljurisdiction.
I NT ERNATI O NAL E N VI RO NM ENTAL L AW
Principle of Good Neighborliness prohibits
InternationalEnvironmentalLaw Statesfromusingorpermittingtheuseofitsterritory
The branchofpublicinternationallawcomprisingthose inamannerthatisinjurioustoanotherState,orthat
substantive,proceduralandinstitutionalruleswhichhave otherStatespersonsorproperty. Sicuteretuout
as their primary objective the protection of the alienumnonlaedas. Souseyourownsoasnotto
environment;thetermenvironmentbeingunderstoodas injureothers.
encompassing both the creatures and products of the
natural world and those of human civilization (Sands, 3. Principle 22 States shall cooperate to develop
PrinciplesofInternationalEnvironmentalLaw2003,p.15). further the International Law regarding liability and
compensation for the victims of pollution and other
MAJOR INSTRUMENTS THAT HAVE SHAPED THE environmentaldamagecausedbyactivitieswithinthe
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL jurisdictionorcontrolofsuchStatestoareasbeyond
ENVIRONMENTALLAW theirjurisdiction
1. The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Notes:

Environment,heldinStockholm,Sweden There are two fundamental principles of liability for
transboundarypollutionunderInternationalLaw:
2.TheRioDeclarationonEnvironmentandDevelopment, a. first, a State must show material damage and
which was adopted at the 1992 Rio Conference on causationtobeentitledtolegalrelief;and
EnvironmentandDevelopment,alsoknownastheEarth b. second,aStatehasadutytoprevent,andmay
Summit be held responsible for pollution by private parties
within its jurisdiction if such pollution results in
STOCKHOLM DECLARATION ON HUMAN demonstrableinjurytoState(TrailSmelterCase(U.S.
ENVIRONMENT v.Canada),3R.I.A.A.1905(1941).
Important principles contained in the Stockholm RIO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT AND

Declaration(Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.359) DEVELOPMENT
This was adopted at the 1992 Rio Conference on
1. Principle 1 Man has the fundamental right to Environment and Development (otherwise known as the
freedom,equalityandadequateconditionsoflife,inan EarthSummit).
environmentofaqualitythatpermitsalifeofdignity
andwellbeing,andhebearsasolemnresponsibility It reaffirms the Stockholm Declaration with the goal of
toprotect and improve theenvironment forpresent establishing a new and equitable global partnership
andfuturegenerations. throughthecreationofnewlevelsofcooperationamong
2. Principle 21 States have the sovereign right to States,keysectorsofsocietiesandpeople(Sarmiento,PIL
exploit their own resources pursuant to their own BarReviewer(2009)p.360).
59
soundenvironmentconstitutes,atthesametime,the
ImportantprinciplescontainedintheRioDeclaration performanceoftheirobligationtoensuretheprotection
(Earth Summit) (Sarmiento, PIL Bar Reviewer (2009) ofthatrightfor thegenerationstocome (Oposav.
p.361) Factoran,G.R.No.101083,July30,1993).
1. Principle1(Theroleofhumans)Humanbeings 4. Principle 7 (State Cooperation to Protect

are at the centre of concern for sustainable Ecosystem) Statesshallcooperateinaspiritof
development globalpartnershiptoconserve,protectandrestorethe
2. Principle 2(State sovereignty) Stateshave,in healthandintegrityoftheEarth'secosystem.Inview
accordancewiththeCharteroftheUnitedNationsand ofthedifferentcontributionsto globalenvironmental
theprinciplesofinternationallaw,thesovereignright degradation, States have common but differentiated
toexploittheirownresourcespursuanttotheirown responsibilities.Thedevelopedcountriesacknowledge
environmental and developmental policies, and the the responsibility that they bear in the international
responsibility to ensure that activities within their pursuit of sustainable development in view of the
jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the pressures their societies place on the global
environmentofotherStatesorofareasbeyondthe environment and of the technologies and financial
limitsofnationaljurisdiction. resourcestheycommand.

Note:ThisisalsoanembodimentofthePrincipleof Principle of Common but Differentiated
GoodNeighborliness. Responsibility
ThisrecognizesthatbecausedevelopedStateshave
3. Principle3(RighttoDevelopment) Therightto contributeddisproportionatelytoglobalenvironmental
developmentmustbefulfilledsoastoequitablymeet degradation, and because they command greater
developmental and environmental needs of present financial and technological resources, those States
andfuturegenerations. haveaspecialresponsibilityinshoulderingtheburden
. ofpursuingglobalsustainabledevelopment.
PrincipleofIntergenerationalEquity
Thisstressesthatinmakingchoicesaboutmeetingthe 5. Principle 13 (Compensation for Victims of
needs of present generations, the needsof present Pollution and other Environmental Damage)
generationsshouldnotbesacrificed. Statesshalldevelopnationallawregardingliabilityand
compensation for the victims of pollution and other
Notes: environmentaldamage.
Petitioner minors assert that they represent their 6. Principle15(PrecautionaryPrinciple)Inorderto
generationaswellasgenerationsyetunborn.Wefind protecttheenvironment,theprecautionaryapproach
nodifficultyinrulingthattheycan,forthemselves,for shallbewidelyappliedbyStatesaccordingtotheir
others of their generation and for the succeeding capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or
generations,fileaclasssuit.xxxNeedlesstosay, irreversibledamage,lackoffullscientificcertaintyshall
every generation has a responsibility to the next to notbeusedasareasonforpostponingcosteffective
preserve that rhythm and harmony for the full measurestopreventenvironmentaldegradation.
enjoymentofabalancedandhealthfulecology.Puta 7. Principle 16 (Internalization of Environmental
littledifferently,theminors'assertionoftheirrighttoa Costs) National authorities should endeavor to
60
promotetheinternalizationofenvironmentalcostsand DifferentareasofInternationalEconomicLaw
theuseofeconomicinstruments,takingintoaccount 1. International Trade Law the international
theapproachthatthepollutershould,inprinciple,bear regulation of the exchange of goods and services
the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public across borders is a major sector of international
interestandwithoutdistortinginternationaltradeand economic law. It is predominantly based on the
investment. reciprocal character of the respective rights and
obligations of all parties and considered to achieve
PolluterPaysPrinciple mutualbenefitsforallofthemprovidestheinstitutional
The polluter who creates an environmental harm basis for global trade relations and is built on pre
generally should be forced to pay the costs of existing structures (Marrakesh Agreement
remedyingthatharm. Establishing the World Trade Organization; WTO
8. Principle 18(Notification of Natural Disaster) Agreementpreamble).
States shall immediately notify other States of any 2. International Antitrust and Competition Law
naturaldisastersorotheremergenciesthatarelikelyto governs the interplay of domestic competition
producesuddenharmfuleffectsontheenvironmentof (antitrust)rulesconcerningtheissueofundertakings.
those States. Every effort shall be made by the WTOlawcontainsrudimentaryrulessanctioningthe
internationalcommunitytohelpStatessoafflicted. abuseofregulatorypowersandpracticesrestraining
9. Principle 24 (Warfare) Warfare is inherently competition (Mexico: Measures Affecting
destructive of sustainable development. Statesshall TelecommunicationServices,ReportofthePanel).In
therefore respect international law providing the absence of a truly international regime for
protection for the environment in times of armed competition, the establishment and application of
conflictandcooperateinitsfurtherdevelopment,as competition rules lie with the competent domestic
necessary. bodies. International agreements provide for mutual
10. Principle 26 (Resolution of Environmental assistance and cooperation among competition
Disputes) States shall resolve all their authorities (Agreement between the Government of
environmentaldisputespeacefullyandbyappropriate theUnitedStatesofAmericaandtheCommissionof
meansinaccordancewiththeCharteroftheUnited theEuropeanCommunitiesregardingtheApplication
Nations(Sarmiento,PILBarReviewer(2009)p.361). of Their Competition Laws 23 September 1991;
AgreementbetweentheEuropeanCommunitiesand
I N TERNAT I O NAL E CO NOM I C L AW theGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaon
the Application of Positive Comity Principles in the
InternationalEconomicLaw
EnforcementofTheirCompetitionLaws4June1998).
This stands for a complexregulatory framework flowing
3. International Investment Law covers the
from different sources of law governing international
promotionofforeigninvestmentsandtheirprotection
economicrelationsandtransboundaryeconomicconduct
againstinterferencesbythehostState. (Fraportv.
byStates,internationalorganizations,andprivateactors.In
PhilippinesICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25,para.402).
theinterestoftangiblecontours,thisnotionisconfinedto
theregulationofcrossbordertransactionsingoodsand
Notes:
capital and the international protection of intellectual
Undersomeagreements,customaryrulesstillprovide
property(MatthiasHerdegen,MaxPlanckEncyclopediaof
the standard of reference for fair and equitable
PublicInternationalLaw).
treatment.
61
general. Recent treaty practice tends to avoid undue

Ontheotherhand,treatystandardsshapethemodern limitationsonpoliticalchoices,leavingconsiderablymore
minimum standards for the treatment of foreign room for standards concerning national environment,
investorsingeneral.Recenttreatypracticetendsto health,orlabor.Nowadays,respectfortheintegrityofthe
avoid undue limitations on political choices, leaving lawofthehostStateisalsoperceivedasacriticalpartof
considerably more room for standards concerning developmentandaconcernofinternationalinvestmentlaw
national environment, health, or labor. Nowadays, (Fraportv.Philippines ICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25, para.
respectfortheintegrityofthelawofthehostStateis 402).
alsoperceivedasacriticalpartofdevelopmentanda
concern of international investment law (Fraport v.
PhilippinesICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25,para.402).
4. International Monetary Law the Articles of

Agreement of the International Monetary Fund
provides the rules for surveillance of currency
arrangements and assistance to Member States in
caseofbalanceofpaymentdeficits(Art.IV(1)(iii)IMF
Agreement).Amajorweaknessoftheactualmonetary
systemliesinthelackofatrulyeffectivecontrolof
exchangeratemanipulations.
MostFavoredNationClause
This is usually found in trade treaties or agreements
requiresthattheStatesPartiesshallaccordtoeachother
whatever privileges, concessions or benefits that they
accordtootherStates.AnexampleofanMFNClauseis
foundinArticle1oftheGeneralAgreementonTariffsand
Trade(GATT)(Tanadav.Angara,G.R.No.118295.May
2,1997).
InternationalInvestmentLawcoversthepromotionof
foreign investments and their protection against
interferences by the host State (Fraport v. Philippines
ICSIDCaseNo.ARB/03/25,para.402).
Notes:
Undersomeagreements,customaryrulesstillprovidethe
standardofreferenceforfairandequitabletreatment.
On the other hand, treaty standards shape the modern

minimumstandardsforthetreatmentofforeigninvestorsin
62

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PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW

G EN ERAL P RI NCI PLES

PrivateInternationalLaw(ConflictofLaws)Thebodyof They refer to those obligations of a State towards the

EXECUTIVECOMMITTEE SUBJECTCOMMITTEE MEMBERS

B.JUSCOGENS constituent instrument

E.SOFTLAW customs and general to a lesser extent

Philippines is not a signatory to these conventions.

2. On the international sphere, with an strengtheningweakpoints,)e.g.pactasuntservanda,

1. International conventions,whethergeneral or Note:Referencetotheteachingsofthemosthighly

3. General principles of law recognized by Nonetheless,theCourtdoeslooktopriorholdingsas

This consistsofrulesoflawderivedfromtheconsistent Evidenceofobjectionmustbeclearandthereisprobably

S UB JECTS OF I N TERNAT I O NAL L AW

8. Individuals,toacertainextent 1. Independent has

indicates its willingness to deal with the entity as such Astoeffectofrecognitioninrelationtoother

(Ecuadorian Foreign Minister Tobar and US Pres.

(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009ed., (Art. 1 1907 Hague Convention II/ DragoPorter

As a requirement under the Montevideo Convention, a

Thecontinuousanduninterruptedpossessionoveralong 1. Discovery and 1. Dereliction

b. Inherent right to collective self defense if an

2. Preventedfrombeingelectedtoorcontinuing b. Budgetary controlsthefinancesoftheUnited

f. Suspension of the rights and privileges of in GA, characterization of a question is considered

2. Security Council organ responsible for the Formulatoensureunityofpermanentmembersinthe

4. TrusteeshipCouncil organchargedwiththe Onceelected,aMemberoftheCourtisadelegate

2. Byvirtueofa b. Consent of thepartiesneeded for thecourt to

transportation are inviolate (Principle of Theprocessintheappointmentofdiplomaticenvoywhere

Negotiation of International Agreements and its Bindingeffectsoftreaty

regulations and punish the said infringement. a. Deportation expulsionofanalienconsidered

Procedure for Extradition (Judicial and diplomatic

mentioned above (Article 36 par. 1, Vienna 12. Righttosametreatmentasaccordedtonationals

Steps in settling disputes under the jurisdiction of Effectsofoutbreakofwar

LimitationsonTargetsofAttack The belligenrent may employ any amount of force to

(Nachura,OutlineReviewerinPoliticalLaw,2009,p.707) undertaken by a merchant vessel of a neutral

B. International Convention on Civil and Political b. Freedom from slavery or servitude

2. Second Generation Rights (Economic, Social and SelfdeterminationofPeoples

1. Righttheyfreely determinetheir political status

B. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CIVIL AND

methods of warfare and 1. InternationalArmedConflicts(IAC)

RightsofaPrisonerofWar: 5. Principle of Superior Responsibility

2. Principle of NonRetroactivity no person RomeStatute

their nationality or personsaffiliatedwiththe onlyagainstmilitaryobjectives(Article48,51and52

WARCRIMES 4. Destruction, appropriation, seizure, and pillage of

committed,provided,anyoneofthefollowingconditionsis a. Rivers which may be national, boundary or

b. Bays and gulfs a bay is a wellmarked

UNCLOSIIIandRA9522notincompatible withthe coasts of Alaska and Canada (Ocean States:

economiczoneandanotherpartofthehighseasor theexclusiveeconomic zoneismeasured inorder to

isindentedandcutinto,orifthereisafringe i. traversing that sea without entering internal

d. Such suspension is essential for the theproductionofenergyfromthewaters,currents

Continental margin comprises the submerged 7. HIGHSEAS means allpartsoftheseathat

Authorityadoptedinaccordancetherewith; enumerated in article 287 of the UNCLOS, the

1. Madrid Agreement Concerning the International protectionofindustrialproperty,enjoyinalltheother

1. The Stockholm Declaration on the Human Notes:

Important principles contained in the Stockholm RIO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT AND

1. Principle1(Theroleofhumans)Humanbeings 4. Principle 7 (State Cooperation to Protect

general. Recent treaty practice tends to avoid undue

4. International Monetary Law the Articles of

On the other hand, treaty standards shape the modern

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