Capacity of Pile Group and Efficiency

CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP AND EFFICIENCY
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP AND
EFFICIENCY
Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is
influenced by the spacing between the piles.
Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural
loads. The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to
individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of
pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing
between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and
the ultimate load of the group is less than the sum of the individual pile
capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile group
is much less.
Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around
the perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in
evaluating the group capacity. End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the
area enclosed by the perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a depth
corresponding to the elevation of pile tips. The friction component of pile
support is evaluated by considering the friction that can be mobilized around the
perimeter of the pile group over the length of the piles as shown in figure below:
Pile group capacity, Q = q0 X B2 + 4 X B X L X f (Square)
Where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)

L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance
Efficiency of Pile Group:

The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction
piles, particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing
piles. The pile groups which are resisting the load by combined action of friction
and end bearing, only the load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The
efficiency of the pile group can be calculated by using the following formula:
Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile
in the group at which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable
single pile.
Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse Lebarre

formula:
Where m = number of rows
n = number of piles in a row
in degrees
d = diameter of pile end
s = spacing of piles.
Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5
d and 3.5d where d is the diameter of the pile.
Load Test on Piles Methods of Pile Load

Test
Home Geotechnical Engineering Load Test on Piles Methods of Pile Load Test
Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles.
Two types of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz.
vertical, horizontal (lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
Table of Contents [show]
Initial Load Tests on Piles
This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide
guidelines for setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives
an idea of the suitability of the piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be
carried out at one or more locations depending on the number of piles required.
Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying
capacity of the pile. Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix A
Clause 6.3 of IS-2911 Part IV.
Routine Load Tests on Piles
Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required
subject to maximum of % of total number of piles required. The number of
tests may be increased to 2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The
test load applied is 1 times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911 (Part IV)
1985 shall be followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:

a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial

Test.
The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only. A detailed report for the test result
is prepared.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.
Fig: Vertical load test on piles
Pile Head The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met wherever
applicable. The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with Plaster of
Paris. A bearing plate with a hole shall be placed on the head for the jack to
rest.
Reaction- Kentledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the
piles. Anchor piles (if required) shall be placed at a centre to centre distance of
3 times the pile diameter subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles
with 0.01 mm sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal
distance around the piles on datum bars resting on immovable supports at a
distance of 3D (min. of 1.5 m) where D is the diameter of pile or circumscribing
circle for non-circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test
(routine / initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of
the pile top is either 0.1 mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one
hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first. The next increment in the load shall be
applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.
Initial Tests The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12
mm unless otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of
structure in which case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated
total displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case
of under reamed piles.
Routine Tests Acceptance

The maximum settlement at test load should not exceed 12 mm.
Lateral Load Tests on Piles
Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack
shall be the same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of
20% of the estimated safe load and at the cut off level. The load will be
increased after the rate of displacement is nearer to 0.1 mm per 30 minutes. If
the cut-off level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly at the cut-off level shall
measure the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not approachable, 2 dial
gauges 30 cm apart vertically, shall be set up and the lateral displacement of
the cut-off level calculated by similar triangles.
The safe load on the pile shall be the least of the following:
a) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm.
b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.
Pull out Tests on Piles

A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The
load increments and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a
vertical load test.
Fig: Pull-out test on piles

The safe load shall be the least of the following:
a) 2/3rd of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load
corresponding to a specified permissible lift.
b) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break.
Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin Fraction in

Pile Group Construction
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin
Fraction in Pile Group Construction
Pile foundation spacing and skin friction in a pile group decides the design of pile
foundation, its efficiency and capacity in any construction.
The main purpose of a pile foundation is to let the transfer of load through weak
soil strata (soil strata with poor bearing capacity).
The pile foundation is found to be an economical choice when soil strata at a

reasonable depth is weak. The ending of the pile foundation must reach into
strata that gain adequate bearing capacity.
Depending upon the condition, a cluster of piles can be inserted to improve the
bearing capacity.
The piles are also employed in areas where the load must be transmitted by
certain frictional resistance over the depth by means of skin friction with the
surrounding soil. This offers adequate shear resistance.
Pile foundation also helps in avoiding the construction of cofferdams for

supporting piers in water. Here the pile will carry the load to an appreciable
supporting medium below a considerable depth of the water.
The piles that are driven at an angle are called as raker piles. These are used to
resist the inclined forces. The inclined forces are the effect of horizontal thrust.
Those piles that transfer the load to or through an underlying stratum by means
of friction is called the friction pile. Here one of the embedded surfaces is the pile
surface.
End bearing piles are piles that transfer the load to the lower stratum. Specially
designed piles will transmit the load by both the means.
Suitability of Pile Foundation in Construction
The pile foundation is generally employed in the following type of soil strata:
1. Area with compact or hard stratum, underlying soil is soft material, sand or clay
2. The area with clayey soil with soft stratum overlying the firm layer. Here the
open foundations lead to high settlement
3. Dense or stiff soil with soft clay overlaid. Here the open foundations can be
spaced closely to reduce the pressure that is transmitted to the soft layer
4. Alternative layers of clay- soft layer and thick in nature
5. Sandy strata with high water table. This brings difficulty for excavation
Spacing of Pile Foundation in Pile Group Construction

The piles must be arranged in such a way that the force exerted by one of the
piles on the other is least. In the case of friction piles, this factor is very
important. This is because the soil surrounding the piles are in a stressed
condition. This force exertion will affect the frictional resisting capacity of the
neighboring piles.
The influence lines of a cluster of piles on the surrounding ground are shown in
the figure-1. The lines show the stress intensities at a point. More the distance
from the pile edge surface, lesser is the stress intensities. So, this provides an
idea on the minimum spacing that must be provided between the two piles.
Fig.1: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of End Bearing Piles
Fig.2: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of Friction Piles
For the convenience of driving and to provide adjustments for any error during
the placement or the problems due to the coming out of the pile from the plumb
causing the piles to come closer, provision of minimum spacing is employed in
the case of point bearing piles. The Indian code IS 2911 have given a proper
explanation on this note.
In the case of friction piles, the spacing must be such a way that the zone of the
influence lines on the surrounding soil must not overlap each other. This will
hence reduce the bearing values and reduce the settlement. It is hence
mentioned that the minimum spacing should not be less than the diagonal
dimension or the diameter of the pile.
The end bearing piles that are used in compressible soils must be spaced at a
minimum of 2.5d and a spacing of 3.5d(Maximum)for those piles placed on less
compressible or stiff clay soil.
The Indian Road Congress specifies a minimum spacing of 3d or a distance

equal to pile perimeter for the friction piles. In the case of end bearing piles, the
space between the piles that are placed adjacent must not be less than least
width of the pile.
The spacing of piles as per the practice followed in the UK are based on the
following formulae:
End bearing piles: Spacing S = 2.5d + 0.02L

Cohesion Piles: Spacing S = 3.5d + 0.02L
Here d is the diameter of the pile and L is its length. The standard also stipulates
for pile capacity till 300 kN, the distance from the edge of the pile to the pile
stem must be 100mm. For higher capacities, the mentioned distance must be
150mm.
Maximum Pile Foundation Spacing
The Maximum pile spacing should be decided by considering two factors:
o The design of pile cap
o Overturning Moments
The pile cap will be heavier with increase in the spacing between the piles. So,
while choosing the spacing of the piles, pile cap design should also be evaluated.
The stability of the whole pile cluster against the action of the overturning
moment must be evaluated along with the spacing of the piles.
Soil Friction Factors for Pile Foundation

The skin friction factors help in the preliminary estimation of the pile capacity.
The value of the soil friction factor varies from driven to bored piles. This factor
can be used only for preliminary calculations.
Before a final decision is taken, a full-scale load test must be carried out. The
table-1 shows the approximate skin friction factors in saturated clay. Here Ro is
the consolidation ratio.
Table.1: Skin Friction Factors of Saturated Clay

Clay Driven
Pile Length in Over Consolidated Over Consolidated
Piles Normally
meters Clay- Driven Pile Clay- Bored Pile
Consolidated
20 0.3 0.3 0.15
40 0.2 0.2 0.1
60 0.15 0.15 0.08
Effect of Soil Liquefaction on Pile Foundation

and its Remedies
Home Geotechnical Engineering Effect of Soil Liquefaction on Pile Foundation and its Remedies
Pile foundations are likely to experience liquefaction and its effects on such
foundation are in several forms or ways. Effects of liquefaction on pile
foundation is discussed.
Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which loose saturated soil such as loose sandy

silts and loose sandy soils will strength substantially. There are tests such as
standard penetration test and cone penetration test to specify whether a certain
soil is expected to suffer from liquefaction or not.
Fig.1: Effect of Soil Liquefaction on Pile Foundation
Fig.2: Liquefied Soil Around Bridge Piers

Effect of Liquefaction on Pile Foundation
Following are the effects of liquefaction on pile foundations which are discussed
in details:
o Buckling of piles in liquefiable soil
o Lateral spreading of sloping ground
Buckling of Piles in Liquefiable Soil

Piles are considerably long element and the soil around it offers an excellent
support. However, if the soil is soft and the supported load is large, then it is
likely that the pile would buckle.
It should be known that buckling of pile foundation is not common and the
aforementioned conditions should be meet in order for the pile to suffer
buckling.
Pile foundation usually carries loads through skin friction and base capacity. The
former is created by horizontal stress around the pile surface area. The
horizontal stress would act similar to strut with smaller spacing and hence a
lateral support is generated.
When the soil around the pile foundation liquefied due to earthquake affects,
then the loss of lateral support is highly probable and consequently skin friction
would no longer occur. Based on the recommendation of Eurocode-8, the
strength of liquefied soil should be ignored.
So, buckling of pile foundation is very likely to occur when it supports large axial
loads and loss its lateral support due to soil liquefaction.
Pile foundation is anticipated to buckle if pile toe is fixed in a bedrock and the
axial load supported by the pile is substantially large in comparison with Euler
buckling load of an equivalent column.
The Euler buckling load (PE) is computed according to the following expression:
Where:
EI: pile flexural rigidity
Le: pile equivalent length based on pile end conditions
The pile is assumed to be vulnerable to buckling unless the computed design
load is smaller than the Euler load by a factor of five.
The Euler equation provided above may be utilized on the condition that the pile
does not have imperfections and the load acts completely on the pile center.
If such condition does not meet, the computed bucking load will considerably
decrease. That is why large factor is provided between design load of the pile
and Euler buckling load.
Slenderness ratio, which is equal to equivalent length divided by radius of

gyration, is another indicator by which potential buckling of the pile can be
determined.
If the soil around the pile is expected to liquefy, then slenderness ratio can be
used to check the possibility of bucking. If slenderness ratio is greater than 50,
then pile bucking is highly possible whereas the pile is assumed to be safe in the
case where slenderness ratio is less than 50.
Fig.3: Buckling of Pile Foundation due to Soil Liquefaction because of Earthquake Shaking
Lateral Spreading of Sloping Ground
The movement of soil in the downward direction after the soil has been liquefied
due to earthquake shaking is termed as lateral spreading. This lateral spreading
creates considerable lateral force because of passive pressure created by the
soil wedge at the upper side of the slope.
Piles are used as a stabilization mean at the downstream and upstream of earth
dams. These piles commonly need to withstand substantial lateral forces
generated by soil passive pressure while the entire slope suffer lateral
spreading.
It is reported that, slopes with as minimum as 3o are highly possible to

experience lateral spreading after soil liquefaction. This is because liquefied soil
does not have adequate shear resistance.
It should be known that lateral spreading is usually in the order of several
meters which is adequate to generate great passive earth pressure. The lateral
spreading situation would be worse when non-liquefied soil layer is available
above the liquefied layer, especially when such layer causes the liquefied layer
to retain excess pore water pressure for longer time.
When the non-liquefied soil layer on the liquefied layer move laterally, the
lateral load exerted on the pile would be increased. The non-liquefied soil layer
may control the total imposed loads and the lateral loads due to liquefied soil is
small.
PILE FOUNDATION SELECTION BASED ON

SOIL CONDITIONS
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation PILE FOUNDATION SELECTION
BASED ON SOIL CONDITIONS
Pile foundation selection depends on the soil data received from soil exploration
bore holes at different depths.
Selection of pile foundation types and length depends on following conditions:

1. Soil conditions
2. Loads from structures
3. Nature of loads
4. Number of piles to be used
5. Cost of construction
There are three types of pile foundation based on load transfer mechanism:
1. End bearing piles
2. Friction bearing piles
3. Combination of end bearing and friction bearing piles.

Selection of End Bearing Pile Foundation:
End bearing piles also called as point-bearing piles are selected when the depth
of hard soil strata or bedrock at site is within reasonable depth. The length of
pile to be used can be easily computed based on bedrock depth obtained from
soil exploration borehole records.
In this case, the loads from structures are directly transferred the hard soil
through bearing action of pile bottom tip and it does not require the use of skin
friction to resist loads. The cost of construction of piles in such cases is
optimum.
The ultimate capacity of pile or pile group depends on the bearing capacity of
bedrock or hard strata. Number of piles to be used in this case depends on the
loads from structure and individual capacity of piles.
In this case,
QU = Q P
Where QU is the ultimate load capacity of pile foundation
QP is the load carried by the end bearing pile or pile group.
In case when the hard bedrock is not available at reasonable depth and fairly
compacted hard strata of soil exists, then piles should be extended a few meters
into the hard soil strata.
Selection of Friction Pile Foundation:

Friction piles resist the loads from structures due its skin friction with soil. This
type of pile foundation is selected when a hard stratum is available at large
depth and construction of end bearing pile becomes uneconomical. Then number
of piles in a group is selected to resist the load from structure through its skin
friction. This type of pile foundation also resists loads due to end bearing but its
value is small, thus it is neglected in calculation.
The length of friction pile to be selected in this case depends on the shear
strength of soil, loads from structures and size of piles. The capacity of
individual pile is calculated based on skin friction resistance provided by selected
length of pile. Optimum length of this pile should be used considering economy.
The number of piles required in a group can be calculated from individual pile
capacity.
In this case,
QU = Q S
QS is the load carried by the friction pile or pile group.
The load is transferred to the soil through friction in case of sandy soil and
adhesion in case of clayey soil. Loose sand and soft clays may not provide
sufficient skin friction or adhesion resistance to heavy loads from structures.
Combined End Bearing and friction Pile Foundation:
This type of pile foundation is mostly used in construction. The advantage of
using this pile is that it can resist loads from structures through both end
bearing and friction resistance. This pile has high pile capacity and is
economical.
This pile is used when the soil exploration results shows hard bedrock or fairly
compacted soils at reasonable depth and soil above bed rock supports skin
friction resistance.
In this case,
QU = QS + Q P
QS is the load carried by the friction pile or pile group
QP is the load carried by the end bearing pile or pile group.
The load is transferred to the soil through friction in case of sandy soil and
adhesion in case of clayey soil.
YPES OF PILES BASED ON CONSTRUCTION
METHOD
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation TYPES OF PILES BASED ON
CONSTRUCTION METHOD
There are three types of pile foundations according to their construction

methods:
1. Driven piles,
2. Cast-in-situ piles, and
3. Driven and cast-in-situ piles.
Driven Pile Foundations:

Driven pile foundations can be made from concrete, steel or timber. These piles
are prefabricated before placing at the construction site. When driven piles are
made of concrete, they are precast. These piles are driven using a pile hammer.
When these piles are driven into the granular soils, they displace the equal
volume of soil. This helps in compaction of soil around the sides of piles and
results in the densification of soil. The piles which compact the soil adjacent to it
is also called as compaction pile. This compaction of soil increases its bearing
capacity.
Saturated silty soils and cohesive soils have poor drainage capability. Thus these
soils are not compacted when driven piles are drilled through it. The water have
to be drained for the soil to be compacted. Thus stresses are developed adjacent
to the piles have to be borne by pore water only. This results in increase in pore
water pressure and decrease in bearing capacity of the soil.
Cast-in-situ Pile Foundations:

Cast-in-situ piles are concrete pile. These piles are constructed by drilling holes
in the ground to the required depth and then filling the hole with concrete.
Reinforcements are also used in the concrete as per the requirements. These
piles are of small diameter compared to drilled piers.
Cast-in-situ piles are straight bored piles or with one or more bulbs at intervals
are casted. The piles with one or more bulbs are called as under-reamed piles.
Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles

Driven and cast-in-situ piles have the advantages of both driven and cast-in-situ
piles. The procedure of installing a driven and cast-in-situ pile is as follows:
A steel shell of diameter of pile is driven into the ground with the aid of a
mandrel inserted into the shell. After driving the shell, the mandrel is removed
and concrete is poured in the shell.
The shell is made of corrugated and reinforced thin sheet steel (mono-tube
piles) or pipes (Armco welded pipes or common seamless pipes). The piles of
this type are called a shell type piles.
The shell-less type is formed by withdrawing the shell while the concrete is
being placed. In both the types of piles the bottom of the shell is closed with a
conical tip which can be separated from the shell. By driving the concrete out of
the shell an enlarged bulb may be formed in both the types of piles. Franki piles
are of this type. In some cases the shell will be left in place and the tube is
concreted. This type of pile is very much used in piling over water.
CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP AND EFFICIENCY
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP AND
EFFICIENCY
Capacity of pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles, but it is
influenced by the spacing between the piles.
Piles are driven generally in groups in regular pattern to support the structural
loads. The structural load is applied to the pile cap that distributes the load to
individual piles. If piles are spaced sufficient distance apart, then the capacity of
pile group is the sum of the individual capacities of piles. However, if the spacing
between piles is too close, the zones of stress around the pile will overlap and
the ultimate load of the group is less than the sum of the individual pile
capacities specially in the case of friction piles, where the efficiency of pile group
is much less.
Group action of piles is evaluated by considering the piles to fail as a unit around
the perimeter of the group. Both end bearing and friction piles are considered in
evaluating the group capacity. End bearing pile is evaluated by considering the
area enclosed by the perimeter of piles as the area of footing located at a depth
corresponding to the elevation of pile tips. The friction component of pile
support is evaluated by considering the friction that can be mobilized around the
perimeter of the pile group over the length of the piles as shown in figure below:
Pile group capacity, Q = q0 X B2 + 4 X B X L X f (Square)
Where, Q = ultimate capacity of pile group
q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)

L = Length of pile
f = shear resistance
Efficiency of Pile Group:

The efficiency of pile group depends on the following factors:
1. Spacing of piles
2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and
3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)
The reduction in total bearing value of group of piles is more in case of friction
piles, particularly in clayey soils. No reduction in grouping occurs in end bearing
piles. The pile groups which are resisting the load by combined action of friction
and end bearing, only the load carrying capacity of friction is reduced. The
efficiency of the pile group can be calculated by using the following formula:
Thus, the pile group efficiency is equal to the ratio of the average load per pile
in the group at which the failure occurs to the ultimate load of a comparable
single pile.
Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse Lebarre

formula:
Where m = number of rows
n = number of piles in a row
in degrees
d = diameter of pile end
s = spacing of piles.
Generally center to center spacing between piles in a group is kept between 2.5
d and 3.5d where d is the diameter of the pile.
PILE FOUNDATION NEED AND FUNCTIONS

Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation PILE FOUNDATION NEED AND
FUNCTIONS
Pile foundation is required when the soil bearing capacity is not sufficient for the
structure to withstand. This is due to the soil condition or the order of bottom
layers, type of loads on foundations, conditions at site and operational
conditions.
Many factors prevent the selection of surface foundation as a suitable foundation

such as the nature of soil and intensity of loads, we use the piles when the soil
have low bearing capacity or in building in water like bridges and dams
A pile foundation consists of two components: Pile cap and single or group of
piles. Piles transfers the loads from structures to the hard strata, rocks or soil
with high bearing capacity. These are long and slender members whose length
can be more than 15m.
Piles can be made from concrete, wood or steel depending on the requirements.
These piles are then driven, drilled or jacked into the ground and connected to
pile caps. Pile foundation are classified based on material of pile construction,
type of soil, and load transmitting characteristic of piles.
The use of pile foundations as load carrying and load transferring systems has
been for many years. Timber piles were used in early days, driven in to the
ground by hand or holes were dug and filled with sand and stones. The use of
steel pile started since 19th century and concrete piles since 20th century.
With the change in technology and industrial revolution, many advance systems
have been devloped for pile driving from the invention of steam and diesel pile
driving machines.
The use of pile foundations is increasing day by day due to non-availability of

land for construction. Heavy multi-storyed building are being constructed, and
load from these structures can not be directly transferred to ground due to low
bearing capacity issue and stability issues of building during lateral load
application. So, demand for use of pile foundations are increasing day by day.
Due to this demand for piles, there have been many improvements in piles and
pile driving technology and systems. Today there are many advanced techniques
of pile installation.
Function of Pile Foundation:

As other types of foundations, the purpose of pile foundations is:
To transmit the buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers
whether these loads vertical or inclined
To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration.
To control the settlements; which can be accompanied by surface foundations.
To increase the factor of safety for heavy loads buildings
The selection of type of pile foundation is based on site investigation report. Site
investigation report suggests the need of pile foundation, type of pile foundation
to be used, depth of pile foundation to be provided. The cost analysis of various
options for use of pile foundation should be carried out before selection of pile
foundation types.
Unless the ground condition is rocks, for heavy construction and multi-storied
buildings, the bearing capacity of soil at shallow depth may not be satisfactory for
the loads on the foundation. In such cases, pile foundation has to be provided.
The number of piles in a pile groups required is calculate from the pile capacity of
single pile and the loads on the foundation. Piles are a convenient method of
foundation for works over water, such as jetties or bridge piers.
Concreting of Pile Foundations Workability
and Quality of Concrete for Piles
Home Geotechnical Engineering Concreting of Pile Foundations Workability and Quality of Concrete for Piles
Concreting of pile foundations requires quality and workability of concrete to be

maintained for durable construction of pile foundations with required strength.
The grade of concrete, its workability, consistency and mixing for concreting of
pile foundation is discussed in this article.
Materials and methods of manufacture of cement concrete piles should be in

accordance with the method of concreting under the conditions of pile
installation.
The slump
for concrete for pile foundation should be as follows:
Sl. No. Types of pile Minimum Slump Maximum Slump
1 Driven cast-in-situ piles 100 180
2 Cast-in-situ bored piles
a) Water free unlined bore with wide

100 180
space reinforcement
b) Tremie concreting 150 180
3 Under reamed piles
a) Water free unlined holes 100 150
b) Tremie concreting 150 200
Consistency of concrete to be used for the piles must be suitable to the method of
installation of piles. Concrete is so designed or chosen as to have a
homogeneous mix having a slump/workability consistent with the method of
concreting under the given conditions of pile installation.
Fig: Concreting of pile foundation

The grade of concrete to be used for piling should be minimum M25 (or as as
required at the site for load conditions) with the minimum cement content of
400 kg/m3. Mixing is carried out in mechanical mixer only.
In case of piles subsequently exposed to free water or in case of piles where
concreting is done under water or drilling mud using method other than tremie,
10% extra cement over the design grade of concrete at the specified slump is
used subject to a minimum quantity of cement specified above.
For the design purpose of bore cast-in-situ piles, the strength of concrete mix
using above mentioned quantities of cement is taken as M20. Concreting for the
piles is to be done with tremie of suitable diameter. Natural rounded shingle of
appropriate size may be used as coarse aggregate. It helps to give high slump
with less water cement ratio.
For tremie concreting aggregates having nominal size more than 20mm should
not be used. Weigh Batching: The aggregate is always measured by weigh
batching making due allowance for the water content in the aggregate. Volume
batching of aggregate
Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles Types,
Uses and Advantages
Home Structural Engineering Foundation Design Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles Types, Uses and Advantages
Cased piles consist a shell around it and these piles when casted in site are
called cased cast-in-situ concrete piles. Types and advantages of these piles are
discussed.
In case of cased cast in situ piles, the shell is usually made of steel. This type of
piles is suitable for any types of soils.

Advantages of Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles
Main advantages of cased cast in situ piles are as follows.
1. The shell has driving resistance so, it can be easily driven.
2. Concrete filling is not disturbed.
3. Internal inspection can be done after driving shell.
4. Piles can be easily cut or extended in case of cased piles.
Types of Cased Cast-in-Situ Concrete Piles and Uses

Different types of cased cast in situ concrete piles are:
o Raymond piles
o Mac-Arthur piles
o Union metal monotube pile
o Swage pile
o Western button bottom pile
Raymond Piles
Raymond piles are economical piles of cast in situ piles which are developed by
A.A. Raymond in 1897. There are two types of Raymond piles are available,
namely
o Standard Raymond pile
o Step taper Raymond pile

Standard Raymond Pile
Standard Raymond pile is used as friction pile because of its heavy taper of 1 in
30. Diameter of Raymond pile gradually decreases from top to bottom. At the
top 40 to 60 cm and at the bottom it varies from 20 to 30 cm. The length of
Raymond piles varies between 6 to 12 meters.
The Raymond pile contains corrugated steel shell which is closed at the bottom
and is reinforced with wire. Wire is wounded spirally around the shell with 8 cm
pitch.
The shell is driven into the ground by placing core or mandrel in it. After
reaching required depth, mandrel part is removed and is filled with concrete.
Step Taper Raymond Pile

In this case of step taper Raymond pile, the pile consists series of shells, which
are placed one above the other. But each shell is of different size, i.e. shell size
is gradually increased from bottom to top.
To ease driving, bottom shell should be made of heavier gauge and closed at
bottom. Then next shell section is placed on it. The connection between steel
shells are done by the screw connections.
Usually 2.5 cm increase in diameter is provided for shells with respect to their
bottom one. Also, steel mandrel or core is used to driven the shell sections. Step
taper random piles can be driven up to 36 m of depth.
This type of pile can be useful as friction pile as well as end bearing pile. The
advantage compared to standard random pile is that it can be inspected easily,
fresh concrete can be filled and length flexibility.
Mac Arthur Piles
Mac Arthur piles generally in uniform diameter and shell is made of corrugated
steel. But driving is done by the combination of steel casing of heavy gauge
consisting core.
After driven to require depth, the core is removed and corrugated steel shell is
inserted in heavy gauge steel casing. Then, concrete is filled in the corrugated
steel shell and outer hard casing is removed.
Union Metal Monotube Pile

Union metal monotube piles consists only shell without any mandrel. The shell is
made of steel and is tapered fluted.
These types of piles are well suitable for most of the soil conditions that is from
end bearing to friction load carrying soils.
The shell is more rigid and watertight and this shell can be driven to larger
depth using hammer. After driving, inspection is done and then concrete is filled
in the shell.
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation FAILURE OF PILE FOUNDATION &
REMEDIES
Pile foundation is widely used deep foundation for complex geologic conditions
with kinds of load conditions, especially for soft soil foundation. Pile foundation
has large bearing capacity, well stability and small differential settlement
compared to other foundation types. But pile foundations may also get damaged
and fail specially during earthquakes.
Fig: Pile foundation failure

The failure of the pile foundation may result from any of the following causes:
1. Lack of adequate boring
2. Inaccurate soil classification
3. Soft strata under tip of pile
4. Inadequate driving formula (wrong data)
5. Improper size of hammer cause insufficient penetration, too light or damaged if

too heavy
6. Misinterpretation of load
7. Damaged of encased piles
8. Buckling of piles
9. Breaking of piles
10. Vibration that cause lateral or vertical movement
11. Flowing strata caused by adjacent excavation or bank sloughing

12. Tension failure of concrete pile for lack of reinforcement
13. Eccentricity due to bowing or falling out of plumb
14. Decay due to lower ground water level
15. Insect and marine borer attack and corrosion
16. Disintegration of concrete due to poor quality of concrete or reactive

aggregate
17. Collapse of the thin shell of the piles
18. Overweight due to earthfill.
Remedies to prevent failure of pile foundation:
1. Early repair such as encasement or replacement
2. Removal of partial load
3. Underpinning
4. Tolerances of Errors in Pile

Foundation Construction
5. Home Geotechnical Engineering Tolerances of Errors in Pile Foundation Construction
6. Tolerances of errors in pile foundation construction allows maximum errors
that can be occur during manufacturing process. Beyond these tolerances,
the piles may be rejected for use.
7. Different types of pile foundations have different tolerances for their
fabrications which are discussed below.
8. Table of Contents [show]
9. Tolerances of Errors in Pile Foundation Construction
10. Following are tolerances for various types of piles:
11. 1. Steel bearing piles
12. Dimensional tolerances of steel bearing pile sections shall comply
with the BS 4360. Fabrication tolerances for steel bearing piles and related
steelwork shall comply with BS 5950: Part 2.
13. 2. Precast concrete piles
14. The manufacturing tolerances for precast concrete piles shall comply
with the following requirements:
15. (a) The external cross-sectional dimensions shall be within 0 mm
and +6 mm of the specified dimensions.
16. (b) The wall thickness of hollow spun concrete piles shall be within 0
mm and +25 mm of the specified thickness.
17. (c) There shall be no irregularity exceeding 6 mm in a 3 m length
along the face of the pile measured using a 3 m straight edge.
18. (d) There shall be no irregularity exceeding 25 mm in a 3 m length
along the internal face of hollow spun concrete piles measured using a 3 m
straight edge.
19. (e) The centroid of any cross-section of the pile shall not be more
than 12 mm from the straight line connecting the centroids of the end
faces of the pile. For the purpose of determining the centroid, the centroid
of any cross-section of a hollow pile shall be determined by assuming that
the pile has a solid section.
20.
21. 3. Hand-dug caissons foundations
22. The centre of each section of the shaft shall lie within 50 mm of the
centreline of the whole shaft.
23. 4. Tolerances for pile installations
24. (1) Piles, including hand-dug caissons and mini-piles, shall be
installed to within the tolerances stated in Table -1.
25. (2) Piles that do not comply with the specified tolerances shall not
be forcibly corrected.
26. Table-1: Tolerances of installed piles
Tolerances
Description
Marine
Land Piles
Piles
Deviation from specified position in plan, 75mm (15mm for

150mm
measured at cut-off level mini-piles)
1 in 75
Deviation from vertical
1 in 100 for mini-piles
1 in 25
Deviation of raking piles from specified batter 1 in 25
Deviation from specified cut-off level 25mm
The diameter of cast-in-situ piles shall be at least 97% of the specified diameter.
DRIVEN PRECAST CONCRETE PILES

Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation DRIVEN PRECAST CONCRETE
PILES
Driven precast concrete piles are constructed by hammering the pile into the ground
by pile driving plant. Piles of timber, prestressed concrete and steel are also
used in this method. The piles are cast into any suitable cross-section such as
square, hexagonal, rectangular or circular.
Fig.: Simple Pile Driving Rig
Driven piles are classified as displacement piles, and where the soil can enter
during driving as small displacement piles.
Fig: Driven Precast Concrete Piles

Methods of protecting the head of the pile from shattering must be decided
before commencing the driving process. This can be determined from the end
bearing requirements and driving conditions.
Fig.: Protecting pile head damage during driving

Disadvantage of Driven Precast Concrete Piles Method:
o Damage may occur in the pile at a position not visible from the surface during
driving process.
o Pile may get laterally displaced if it encounters any obstructions like rocks in the
ground.
o The length of pile is estimated before driving commences, but the accuracy of
this assumption is only known on site, where short piles can be difficult to
extend and long piles may prove to be expensive and wasteful.
o A large rig is required for driving piles and hard-standings are required to ensure
that the ground surface is adequate for the pile-driving.
o
Home Geotechnical Engineering NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ON PILES
o NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ON PILES AND PILE GROUP
o When a fill or load is placed on compressible soil deposit, consolidation of
the compressible material takes place. When the piles are driven through
compressible soils before consolidation is complete or the site has newly
placed fill or will be placed in future, the compressible soil will downward
relative to the pile. The downward movement of soil develops skin friction
between the pile and the surrounding soil and it is termed as negative skin
friction. Negative skin friction can be developed from lowering on water
level in compressible soils such as clay, peat, mud and soft soil and also
due to increase in stress by some means (e.g. filling).
o
o The net ultimate load carrying capacity of the pile is given by the equation
o
o = negative skin friction
o = net ultimate load
o Where it is anticipated that negative skin friction would impose
undesirable, large downward drag on a pile, it can be eliminated by
providing a protective sleeve or a coating for the section which is
surrounded by the settling soil.
o To compute negative skin friction on group of piles, the minimum value from the
following equations should be used.
o (i) The negative skin friction as the sum of individual piles
o
o Where n number of piles in a group
o negative skin friction on each pile
o = S x p x L (for cohesive soils)
o (for granular soils)

o (where c cohesion, reduction factor)
o Where p perimeter of the pile
o L depth of fill
o = earth pressure coefficient
o = unit weight of fill
o f coeffieicent of friction =
o = angle of friction between pile and soil
o (ii) The block skin resistance:
o When the piles are placed close to each other, the negative skin friction
resistance may act effectively on the block perimeter of the pile group.
o
o S shear resistance of soil
o L depth of fill
o p perimeter of pile group
o unit weight of soil
o A area of pile group enclosed in perimeter p.
Types of Piles Based on Load Transfer,

Function, Material and Soil
Home Geotechnical Engineering Types of Piles Based on Load Transfer, Function, Material and Soil

Types of Piles for Pile Foundation Based on Load Transfer and
Function
Classification of piles with respect to load transmission and functional behavior
are:
o End bearing piles (point bearing piles)
o Friction piles (cohesion piles )
o Combination of friction and cohesion piles
End bearing piles

These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable
depth below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying
capacity from the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see
figure 1).
The pile behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even
in weak soil a pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be
considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water.
Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the
soil surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes
Negative Skin Friction on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect on
the capacity of the pile.
Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water and
consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the
results of the site investigate on and soil test.
Friction or cohesion piles

Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in
contact with the shaft of the pile (see fig 2).
Figure 1: End bearing piles

Figure 2: Friction or cohesion pile
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This
process of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the
porosity and compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore
piles of this category are sometimes called compaction piles.
During the process of driving the pile into the ground, the soil becomes molded
and, as a result loses some of its strength. Therefore the pile is not able to
transfer the exact amount of load which it is intended to immediately after it has
been driven.
Usually, the soil regains some of its strength three to five months after it has
been driven.Cohesion piles
Friction piles
These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The
process of driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types
of pile foundations are commonly known as floating pile foundations.
Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles

An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such
as firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop
adequate frictional resistance.
A further variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas.
This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately
above the firm layer to give an enlarged base.
A similar effect is produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at
the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a
bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles (see fig.3)
Figure 3: Under Reamed base enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

Classification of pile with respect to type of material
Piles are usually made of timber, concrete or steel. Timber can be used for the
manufacture of temporary piles and when the wood is available at an
economical price.
Concrete is used for the manufacture of precast concrete piles, cast in place and
prestressed concrete piles, while steel piles are used for permanent or
temporary works.
o Timber
o Concrete
o Steel
o Composite piles.
Timber piles
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions
where timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and
piling beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and
should not have been attacked by insects.
For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the tip should be
greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a
diameter of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the
right direction and should not be driven into firm ground. As this can easily
damage the pile.
Keeping the timber below the groundwater level will protect the timber against
decay and putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber
piles can be provided with toe cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of
protecting timber piles.
Advantages and disadvantages of Wood piles

+ The piles are easy to handle
+ Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
+ Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.
The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing
capacity.
Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water
Concrete piles
Concrete piles can be divided to precast and cast in place concrete piles:
Precast concrete Piles or Prefabricated concrete piles

it is formed and reinforced in a high-quality controlled concrete, Usually used of
square (see fig 1-4 b), triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in
short length in one meter intervals between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-
caste so that they can be easily connected together in order to reach to the
required length (fig 1-4 a). This will not decrease the design load capacity.
Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to help withstand both handling and
driving stresses. Prestressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming
more popular than the ordinary precast as less reinforcement is required.
Figure 4:a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared precast concrete pile
The Hercules type of pile joint (Figure 5) is easily and accurately cast into the
pile and is quickly and safely joined on site. They are made to accurate
dimensional tolerances from high grade steels.
Figure-5: Hercules type of pile joint

Advantages and disadvantages of Precast concrete Piles
+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile
material can be inspected before piling.
+ Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive.
+ Can be driven in long lengths.
+ Can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum.
Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.
Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.
Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited
headroom.
Cast in place Concrete piles
Cast in place concrete piles are the most type commonly used for foundations
due to the great diversity available for pouring concrete and the introduction of
the pile into the soil. Driving and drilling piles are two types of cast in place
concrete piles; however, the implementation of these piles in place may be
accompanied by some problems such as arching, squeezing and segregation.
These piles are divided to:

Piles are poured in tubes with underneath heels and left when lifting the tubes.
some of those types:
o Simplex pile: it is a tube of cast of diameter 40 cm, has an underneath heel, it is
banged underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the arable land for
the establishment, then concrete is poured inside it and banged by another
hammer. In the meantime, the pipe is raised with a certain amount so as not to
enter the soil inside. This pile can bear about 40 50 ton.
o Frankie pile: It is a number of tubes entering each other in order to easily access
to great depths within the earth. A heel of reinforced concrete can be used and
left in the ground to prevent the entry of cold water pipes. This pile can carry a
load of 50 80 ton.
o Vibro pile: It is a steel pipe of diameter 40 cm, has a conical heel with a separate
flange, it is banged underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the
arable land for the establishment, then the heel is removed and put into a tube,
after that concrete is poured. The tube is moved up and down (about 80 times
per minute) in order to compact concrete. This pile can bear about 60 ton.
o Strong pile: this pile is largely similar to Simplex pile except that the bottom heel
is made from reinforced concrete covered with cast heel. This pile can carry a
load of 25 30 ton.
o Under rimed pile: this pile is used at black clayey soil and lands of non residual
soil, so this soil is very dangerous to be established on it.
o Piles with open tubes without heel, then concrete are poured inside the tube.
The pipe has a diameter of 40 cm and an average concrete well of 12 to 15
meters depending on the level of land to be established. Some these piles:
o Strauss pile: Which is very similar to the Simplex pile but without a heel. Soil can
be removed from the tubes by special devices and concrete is poured instead of
soil. The maximum load that can be carried by these piles is from 20 25 ton.
o Kimbersol pile: A well is done of diameter about 80 cm, until reaching the arable
land for the establishment, then the bottom of the well is compacted using a
rounded hammer and filled with concrete with a ratio of 1 : 5 (cement : sand).
This pile can carry a load of 80 120 ton.
o Welfchaulzer pile: a pipe of diameter 30 40 cm is banged until reaching the
arable land for the establishment, and the inside soil is removed, then steel bars
are placed and the opened upper hole is covered tightly Leaving holes to
connect the compressed air so that leachates can be expelled, then concrete is
poured by a ratio 1 : 4.
o Raymond pile: Consists of cylindrical chips inside each other with a diameter of 40
60 cm at the top of the pile and 20 28 cm at the bottom. It is banged inside
by a Mandrill and the cylindrical chips are leaved in the soil and filled with
concrete.
Advantages and disadvantages of cast-in-place concrete piles
+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired
length.
+ Relatively inexpensive.
+ The piles can be cast before excavation.
+ Pile lengths are readily adjustable.
+ An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a
granular founding stratum leading to much higher end bearing capacity.
+ Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.
Heave of neighboring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation
and the development of negative skin friction forces on piles..
Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete,
where forces at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.
Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the
lateral forces set up in the soil. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes
up shaft of piles when tube is withdrawn.
Light steel section or Pre-cast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted
by hard driving.
Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.
Time consuming; cannot be used immediately after the installation.
Limited length.
Bored and cast-in-place (non-displacement piles)
+ Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.
+ Can be installed in very large diameters.
+ End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.
+ Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.
+ Can be installed in very long lengths.
Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently
inspected.
Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.
Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine
structures.
Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to
achieve economical base resistance.
Steel piles
Made of sectors in the form of H, X or of thick pipes (see fig. 6). They are
suitable for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively small cross-
sectional area combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in
firm soil.
They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil
with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not
as great as one might think. Although tar coating or cathodic protection can be
employed in permanent works.
It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over
dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion
process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is
0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year.
Figure 6: Steel piles cross-sections

Advantages and disadvantages of Steel piles
+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desired length.
+ Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during
driving is low (steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily spliced
or bolted.
+ Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.
+ Can carry heavy loads.
The piles will corrode,
Will deviate relatively easy during driving.
Are relatively expensive.
Composite piles
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part
of a timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to
insect attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the
ground water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the groundwater level
(see figure 7).
Figure 7: Protecting timber piles from decay: a) by precast concrete upper section
above water level. b) by extending pile cap below water level
Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil
A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed
Driven piles
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving
the pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the
ground. There may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical
direction.
Figure 8: driven piles
Bored piles
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement
piles a void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can
be produced by casting concrete in the void.
Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the formation of piles
in this way, since the borehole walls do not requires temporary support except
cloth to the ground surface.
In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from
casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but
driven into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced.
A different technique, which is still essentially non-displacement, is to intrude, a

grout or a concrete from an auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and
hence produced a grouted column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in place piles,

particularly pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.
The following are replacement piles:
o Augered
o Cable percussion drilling
o Large-diameter under-reamed
o Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite
o Drilled-in tubes
o Mini piles
How to Design Pile Cap for Group of Piles in

Foundation?
Home Geotechnical Engineering How to Design Pile Cap for Group of Piles in Foundation?

Design of Pile Cap
A pile cap is the mat that rests on groups of piles and forms part of the
foundation. The pile cap design, shape, and dimensions are discussed here.
Shape and Size of Pile Caps

The shape and plan dimensions of the pile cap depends on the number of piles
in the group and the spacing between each pile. The most common shapes of
pile caps are shown in figure below.
Fig.: Triangular Pile Cap for 3 piles

Fig.: Hexagonal pile cap for 6 to 7 piles
Fig.: Rectangular pile cap for all other number of piles

These pile cap shapes minimize the plan area for a symmetrical arrangement of
piles about the load.
The pile cap should overhang the outer piles by at least 150mm but should not
be excessive, generally not more than the diameter of the pile diameter.
This minimizes the plan area and thus the cost, while providing sufficient length
to:
o Anchor the tension reinforcement with a large radius bend
o Ensure adequate cover to the reinforcement
o Satisfy construction tolerances.
Depth of Pile Cap:

The depth of pile cap is governed by the following criteria, where applicable:
o Shear capacity of pile cap (beam and punching shear)
o Shrinkage and swelling of clay
o Frost attacks
o Pile anchorage
o Water table and soluble sulphates
o Holding down bolt assemblies for steel columns
From the criterias above, shear is the most critical criteria for selection of depth
of pile cap.
Generally, a pile cap is much deeper than a pad footing of similar dimensions,
because it is subjected to much higher concentrated reactions, and consequently
to much higher bending moments and shear forces.
However, the increased depth gives the pile cap greater rigidity which is
advantageous in spreading the load evenly to all piles.
The Federation of Piling Specialists recommend the following most effective pile
cap depths for a range of pile diameters as shown in table below:
Table: Pile cap depth for different pile diameters
Pile Diameters (mm) Depth of Pile Cap (mm)
300 700
350 800
400 900
450 1000
500 1100
550 1200
600 1400
750 1800
BORED CAST IN SITU CONCRETE PILES

Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation BORED CAST IN SITU CONCRETE
PILES
The construction of bored cast in situ concrete piles are formed by drilling and
auguring and then reinforcement is placed and concrete is poured into the hole.
For bored cast in-situ piles foundation in stiff clays, the toe of the hole can be
enlarged by under-reaming to provide greater end bearing capacity for the piles.
Once the pile shaft has been formed, reinforcement is placed and concrete
poured into the hole. To combat difficulties caused by groundwater during piling,
the hole can be lined with a casing which is driven ahead of the bore.
Fig.: Simple Percussion Rig

The method of boring of cast in-situ piles tends to be restricted to clayey soils,
and like the driven cast-in-situ pile, care must be exercised to prevent necking
of the concrete.
Bored piles can be installed in very long lengths and be of large diameter. The
on-situ cost of boring is relatively small in comparison to driven piles, thereby
offering a more economic piling opportunity for smaller sites.
Bored piles are not economic in granular soils where loosening and disturbance
of surrounding ground can cause excessive removal of soil and induce
settlement in the surrounding area.
Integrity Testing of Concrete Piles for Proper

Functioning
Home Geotechnical Engineering Integrity Testing of Concrete Piles for Proper Functioning
Integration testing of concrete piles are conducted for proper functioning of pile
foundations. This test is carried out before construction of pile caps.
Majority of cast-in-situ pile fails because of defective pile shaft necking, intrusion
of foreign matters and improper toe formation due to contamination of concrete
at base with soil particles, discontinuity of concrete, leaching of concrete due to
high water current, improper construction method, poor quality control of
concreting etc.
Cracks are developed during handling operation of precast concrete piles, this
may also lead to failure of precast concrete piles. Thus, to ensure the proper
placement of piles, its strength and durability, pile integration test is conducted
before completion of pile caps. This integration test of piles ensures proper
functioning of pile foundations without failure.
Sonic Echo Testing (IS 14893:2001) has been used successfully for checking
integrity of piles after installation.
Integrity Testing of Concrete Piles
Piles integrity testing is quick and simple method and it enables number of piles
to be tested in a single working day. This method provides information about
continuity, defects such as cracks, necking, soil incursions, changes in cross
section and approximate pile lengths (unless the pile is very long or the skin
friction is too high).
Integrity tests provide an indication of soundness of concrete but they should be

undertaken by persons experienced in the method and capable of interpreting
the results with specific regard to piling.
In piles integrity test, a small metal / hard rubber hammer is used to produce a
light tap on the top of the pile. The shock travels down the length of the pile and
is reflected back from the toe of the pile and recorded through a suitable
transducer / accelerometer (also held on the top of the pile close to the point of
impact)in a computer disk for subsequent analysis.
The primary shock wave which travels down the length of the shaft is reflected
from the toe by change in density between the concrete and the sub strata.
However, if the pile has any defects or discontinuities within its length these will
set up secondary reflections which will be added to the return signal.
By a careful analysis of the captured signal and a knowledge of the conditions of

the ground, age of the concrete etc. a picture of the location of such problems
can be built up.
Normally more than one recording of signals is done until repeatability of signals
is achieved. In case of large diameter piles, the tests are conducted at 5-6
places to cover the entire section of the pile.
General Requirements of Piles Integrity Tests

1. Pile shall be trimmed to cut off level or sound concrete level before the test with
all laitance removed.
2. The area surrounding the pile should be free from standing water and should be
kept dewatered during the tests.
3. The cast in situ piles should not normally be tested before 14 days of casting.
4. The test piles, if available at site can be used for determination of pulse velocity
and characteristic or reference signal generated. This can also be done from
those piles whose depth is accurately recorded.
The following are the complementary tests to the low strain integrity test
method. These can be used to check the soundness of concrete at test level and
to assess the stress wave velocity of pile concrete depending on concrete
density and its in-situ condition.
a) Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test This test is carried out at the head of the pile in
order to arrive at the speed of sound propagation through the cast concrete of
the pipe.
b) Penetration Test The test is used to assess the strength of the concrete at the
pile head to ensure that the pile is sufficiently cured and ready for NDT.
c) Density Testing Of Cast Cubes In order to determine the density of concrete used
each cube should be measured for density by weighing in air and water.
Limitations of Piles Integrity Tests
1. The present experience of NDT of piles is upto diameter of 1500 mm.
2. This is applicable to cast in situ concrete bored and driven piles. The test cannot
be conducted after provision / casting of pile cap.
3. This method is not suitable for piles surrounded by water as it may not give
correct results.
4. It does not provide information regarding verticality or displacement (in

position) of the piles.
5. Local loss of cover, small intrusions or type of conditions at the base of piles are
undetectable.
6. Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles

Construction Process
7. Home Geotechnical Engineering Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Construction Process
8. Driven cast in-situ concrete piles are constructed by driving a closed-
ended hollow steel or concrete casing into the ground and then filling it
with concrete.
9. The casing may be left in position to form part of the pile, or withdrawn
for reuse as the concrete is placed. The details of driven cast in-situ piles
are shown in figure below.
10.
11. Fig.: Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Details
12. The concrete is then rammed into position by a hammer as the
casing is withdrawn ensuring firm contact with the soil and the compaction
of concrete. Care must be taken to see that the concrete is not over-
rammed or the casing withdrawn too quickly.
13. There is a danger that as the liner tube is withdrawn it will lift the
upper portion of the in-situ concrete, thus leaving a void or necking in the
upper portion of the pile. This can be avoided by good quality control of
the concrete and slow withdrawal of the casing.
14. Driven cast in-situ concrete piles can prove to be economic for sand,
loose gravels, soft silts and clays, particularly when large numbers of piles
are required. For small numbers of piles the on-site costs can prove
expensive.
15. Table of Contents [show]
16. Driven Cast In-Situ Concrete Piles Construction
Process
17. The process of construction of driven cast in-situ concrete piles are
shown in figures below:
18. 1. Permanent pile casing first made ready for driving
19.
20. 2. Pile casing is then driven into the soil
21.
22. Fig.: Driving of Pile Casing
23. 3. Reinforcement cage is then lowered into the pile core
24.
25. Fig.: Reinforcement Cage placement in pile core
26. 4. Concrete Pouring
27. Then the concrete is poured in the pile core to complete the
construction of driven cast in-situ piles.
28.
29. Fig.: Concreting of Driven Cast In-Situ Pile
Types of Deep Foundations used in
Construction and Their Uses
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Types of Deep Foundations used in Construction and
Their Uses
Deep foundation is required to carry loads from a structure through weak

compressible soils or fills on to stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at
depth, or for functional reasons.
Deep foundations are founded too deeply below the finished ground surface for
their base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at
depths >3 m below finished ground level.
Deep foundation can be used to transfer the loading to a deeper, more

competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Types of Deep Foundation
The types of deep foundations in general use are as follows:
1. Basements
2. Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
3. Caissons
4. Cylinders
5. Shaft foundations
6. Pile foundations
Basement foundation:
These are hollow substructures designed to provide working or storage space
below ground level. The structural design is governed by their functional
requirements rather than from considerations of the most efficient method of
resisting external earth and hydrostatic pressures. They are constructed in place
in open excavations.
Buoyancy rafts (hollow box foundations)
Buoyancy rafts are hollow substructures designed to provide a buoyant or semi-
buoyant substructure beneath which the net loading on the soil is reduced to the
desired low intensity. Buoyancy rafts can be designed to be sunk as caissons,
they can also be constructed in place in open excavations.
Caissons foundations:
Caissons are hollow substructures designed to be constructed on or near the
surface and then sunk as a single unit to their required level.
Cylinders:
Cylinders are small single-cell caissons.
Drilled Shaft foundations:

Shaft foundations are constructed within deep excavations supported by lining
constructed in place and subsequently filled with concrete or other pre-
fabricated load-bearing units.
Pile foundations:
Pile foundations are relatively long and slender members constructed by driving
preformed units to the desired founding level, or by driving or drilling-in tubes to
the required depth the tubes being filled with concrete before or during
withdrawal or by drilling unlined or wholly or partly lined boreholes which are
then filled with concrete.
INDIAN STANDARD CODES ON PILE
FOUNDATIONS
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation INDIAN STANDARD CODES ON
PILE FOUNDATIONS
Pile foundations are needed under following circumstances:

o When top layers of soil are highly compressible for it to support structural loads
through shallow foundations.
o Rock level is shallow enough for end bearing piles foundations provide a more
economical design.
o Lateral forces are relatively prominent.
o In presence of expansive and collapsible soils at the site.
o Offshore structure
o Strong uplift forces on shallow foundations due to shallow water table can be
partly transmitted to piles.
o For structures near flowing water (bridge abutments etc.) to avoid the problems
due to erosion.
Fig: Typical Pile Foundation

Following are the Indian Standard Codes on Pile Foundations:
o IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 1 : 1979 Driven cast in-situ concrete piles
o IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 2 : 1979 Bored cast-in-situ piles
o IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 3 : 1979 Driven precast concrete piles
o IS 2911 : Part 1 : Sec 4 : 1984 Bored precast concrete piles
o IS 2911 : Part 2 : 1980 Timber piles
o IS 2911 : Part 3 : 1980 Under reamed piles
o IS 2911 : Part 4 : 1985 Load test on piles
o IS 5121 : 1969 Safety code for piling and other deep foundations
o IS 6426 : 1972 Specification for pile driving hammer
o IS 6427 : 1972 Glossary of Terms Relating to Pile Driving Equipment
o IS 6428 : 1972 Specification for pile frame

o IS 9716 : 1981 Guide for lateral dynamic load test on piles
o IS 14362 : 1996 Pile boring equipment General requirements
o IS 14593 : 1998 Bored cast-in-situ piles founded on rocks Guidelines
o IS 14893 : 2001 Non-Destructive Integrity Testing of Piles (NDT) Guidelines
References: Foundation analysis and design by Dr. Amit Prashant, IIT Kanpur
DESIGN ISSUES IN PILE FOUNDATIONS

Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation DESIGN ISSUES IN PILE
FOUNDATIONS
Pile foundations are one of the type of deep foundation. These foundations
transfer load deeper to the hard strata much below the ground surface. But
there are certain issues in the design of pile foundations related to selection of
type of pile foundation and pile installation method.
The key design issues in relation to pile foundations include:
1. Selection of the type of pile and installation method;
2. Estimation of the pile size in order to satisfy the requirements of an adequate

margin of safety against failure of both the supporting soil and the pile itself,
both in compression and tension;
3. Estimation of the settlement of the foundation, and the differential settlement

between adjacent foundations;
4. Consideration of the effects of any lateral loading, and the design of the piles
to produce an adequate margin of safety against failure of the soil and the pile,
and an acceptable lateral deflection;
5. Consideration of the effects of ground movements which may occur due to

external causes (such as soil settlement and swelling), and the estimation of the
movements and forces induced in the pile by such movements;
6. Evaluation of the performance of the pile from appropriate pile loading tests,
and the interpretation of these tests to evaluate parameters which may be used
to predict more accurately the performance of the pile foundation.
7. The selection of a pile foundation type for a structure should be based on the
specific soil conditions as well as the foundation loading requirements and final
performance criteria.
8. There are numerous types of foundation piles. A pile classification system

may be based on type of material, installation technique and equipment used for
installation.
9. Foundation piles can also be classified on the basis of their method of load
transfer from the pile to the surrounding soil mass.
Determination of Piles Settlement by Load
Test
Home Geotechnical Engineering Determination of Piles Settlement by Load Test
Determination of settlement of pile foundations by load test method, equipment

required, procedure and reporting of results in discussed.

Equipment for Pile Settlement Determination Test
Various types of equipments are required for determination of settlement of pile
foundations.
Following is the list of equipment required:
(a) Kentledge, anchor piles or other anchorages supported or installed at

suitable locations to provide adequate reactions against jacking.
(b) A load-measuring device which shall consist of a load column, pressure cell,
or other appropriate system, calibrated before and after each series of tests, or
whenever adjustments are made to the device, or at time intervals
recommended by the manufacturer of the equipment.
(c) Four deflectometers accurate to 0.025 mm.
(d) Precision levelling equipment accurate to 0.25 mm.
(e) A reference frame for supporting deflectometers and providing a datum for
deflectometer measurements.
(f) Working platforms.
(g) Screens and protection from exposure to conditions which may affect the
test.
(h) Hydraulic loading equipment.
Procedure of Pile Settlement Determination Test

The procedure before testing shall be as follows:
(a) The kentledge, anchor piles or other anchorages shall be installed. The
centre of each anchor pile shall be at least 2 m or three times the pile diameter,
whichever is greater, from the
centre of the pile to be tested and from the centre of any adjacent pile.
(b) If required, the pile to be tested shall be extended from cut-off level to
ground level. The strength of piles at joints shall not be less than any normal
section of the pile.
(c) A temporary square pile cap designed by the Contractor shall be

constructed.
(d) Working platforms, screens and protection shall be installed.
(e) The reference frame shall be set up on supports which are at least 2 m or
three times the pile diameter, whichever is greater, from the test pile and
anchor pile. The four deflectometers shall be mounted on the reference frame to
measure the deflection of the four corners of the temporary pile cap.
Fig: Pile load test for Burj Khalifa (Dubai)

Procedure: Pile Load Test
The procedure for the pile load test shall be as follows:
(a) Preliminary piles shall be tested to not less than twice the working load of
the pile or other loads stated in the Contract. Working piles shall be tested to
not less than 1.8 times working load. Reductions for group or boundary effects
shall not be made in determining the test loads.
(b) Test loads shall be applied and removed in three stages as stated in Table
1.
(c) Unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer, the test loads shall be applied
in increments, and removed in decrements, of 25% of the working load.
Increments of load shall not be applied until the rate of settlement of the pile is
less than 0.1 mm in 20 minutes.
(d) The full test loads for Stage I shall be applied in increments and shall then
be maintained for at least 24 hours after the rate of settlement has reduced to
less than 0.1 mm per hour. The test loads shall be removed in decrements and
the recovery of the pile determined before loading is resumed.
(e) The procedure stated above in (d) shall be repeated for Stage II loading.
(f) The procedure stated above in (d) shall be repeated for Stage III loading
unless the Engineer instructs the loading to be maintained for a longer period.
(g) The settlement of the pile shall be measured at hourly intervals or other
intervals agreed by the Engineer. The settlement of the pile under each
increment and decrement of loading shall be measured. The exact times at
which increments are applied and decrements are removed shall be recorded.
Settlements shall be measured and times shall be recorded in the presence of
the Engineer.
(h) The level of the reference beam shall be checked at regular intervals agreed
by the Engineer during the test.
Table 1: Test loading stages

Stage Test Load
I 25% max. test load
II 50% max. test load
III 100% max. test load
Procedure: after testing

After testing, equipment shall be removed, temporary pile caps shall be
demolished and pile extensions shall be removed to cut-off level. Unless
otherwise permitted by the Engineer, anchor piles shall be withdrawn.
Reporting of Test Results

The following shall be reported:
(a) The loads applied to the nearest 0.05 t.
(b) The settlement of the pile to the nearest 0.05 mm at hourly intervals and
under each increment and decrement of loading.
(c) The exact times at which increments were applied and decrements
removed.
(d) The levels of the reference beam, to the nearest 0.05 mm.
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation PILES AND PILE CAPS
PILES AND PILE CAPS
When the bearing capacity of soil immediately below the structure is insufficient
for a spread footing, then piles are used to transfer the load to deeper, firmer
strata. Piles may also be used where the soil is particularly affected by seasonal
changes, to transfer the load below the level of such influence.
The load carrying (bearing) capacity of a pile is the sum of the end bearing
capacity and the skin friction capacity between the peripheral area of the pile
and the surrounding soil. The contribution of each differs widely depending on
the ground conditions. For example, the skin friction resistance in sandy soils is
small compared to clayey soils.
Usually, the load to be supported exceeds the bearing capacity of a single pile,
and so a group of similar piles is used.
The group is capped by a spread footing or a cap to distribute the load to all
piles in the group. Where there are a large number of closely spaced piles,
rather than provide individual caps, it may be more economical to provide just
one large cap, thus forming a piled raft.
MICROPILES FOUNDATION INSTALLATION
METHOD
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation MICROPILES FOUNDATION
INSTALLATION METHOD
Micropiles are deep foundation used when very limited space or headroom is
available for execution with conventional pile rigs. These piles are also called as
minipiles, pin piles, needle piles and root piles.
Micropiles are small diameter bored cast-insitu piles of diameter 150 to 300 mm
constructed by rotary drilling machine and grouted using rich grout with fine
sand by injection process.
Method Statement of Micropile Installation are:

o A borehole of required diameter 150 to 300 mm is drilled using bentonite slurry
by a rotary drilling equipment to stabilize the sides of the bore hole.
o A liner of full depth upto hard rock / strata is necessary. M.S. or HDP pipe liners
are being used MS liners are however preferable.
o Tor steel reinforcement cage of a bundle of large diameter rebars is provided as

pile reinforcement.
o Pile is grouted with rich grout of cement and fine sand with water cement ratio
of 0.5 and this grout shall have compressive strength of minimum 480
kg/cm2 on 28 days. Alternatively any other suitable method including filling the
bore with coarse aggregate upto specified height of about 1m and filling it
subsequently with cement grout can also be proposed.
o The piles are socketed adequately into the hard strata / rock necessary to
develop the capacity which comes mainly in friction in the socket.
Fig: Micropiles
The safe vertical load capacities are generally from 25 to 35 MT and lateral
(shear) capacities are generally from 2 to 4 MT.
Sequence of Piling for Micropiles:

The piles should be installed in such a sequence that the load carrying capacity
of previously installed pile is not reduced. The sequence of piling shall be as per
working drawings. In a pile group, the sequence of installation of piles normally
be from the centre to the periphery of the group or from one side to that the soil
is restrained from the flowing out during operations.
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation LOAD ON PILES
Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load
imposed on them. Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical loads as well
as lateral loads. If required, vertical piles can be combined with raking piles to
support horizontal and vertical forces.
Often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load
distribution on single pile that is member of the group is assumed to be the total
load divided by the number of piles in the group. However if a group of piles is
subjected to lateral load or eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and
lateral load which can cause moment force on the group which should be taken
into account during calculation of load distribution.
Piles arrangement
Normally, piles foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap
distributes the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn,. Transfer the
load to the bearing ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the
pile cap or tie beams and trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure
at cut-off level, and depending on the type of structure and eccentricity of the
load, they can be arranged in different patterns. Figure bellow illustrates the
three basic formations of pile groups.
Cost of Pile Foundation vs. Other
Foundations for Construction Projects
Home Geotechnical Engineering Cost of Pile Foundation vs. Other Foundations for Construction Projects
Selection of pile foundations based on cost vs. other foundations for construction
projects and factors affecting pile foundation cost is discussed.
Frequently, structural designer cannot reach concrete decision about whether to

choose pile foundation or ordinary strip or mat foundation for the structure.
Especially in the case of selection of pile foundation and conventional mat or
strip foundation constructed in a deeper level to meet a soil layer with
acceptable bearing capacity.
All construction conditions need to have an indicator below which the application
of pile foundation prove to be cheaper compared to conventional strip and mat
foundations.
So, this article will try to draw the differences by which the selection of pile
foundation over other foundation types can be decided easily. This condition line
is created based on the moderately detailed cost evaluation of the foundation.
Factors that affect the cost of foundation would be discussed as well.
Fig.1: Pile Foundation Transfer Imposed Load to a Soil

Factors Affecting Cost of Pile Foundation
Obviously, final decision on using the type of foundation cannot be made based
on the estimation of excavation volume and concrete quantity of deep mat or
strip foundation in comparison with cost of piles that support the same load.
Pile foundation needs a cap which its thickness is around 45cm for two piles and
60cm to 120cm for two pair of piles. Plan dimensions of piling cap can reach up
to 2100mm2for pile with diameter of 550mm. Pile caps may be joined together
using tie beams in more than one direction.
Fig.2: Pile Cap
It is claimed that, the excavation cost of pile cap, capping beams and tie beams
could be two times the cost of machine excavation in moderately large column
bases. Not only does the pile foundation needs structural design but also
required higher degree of supervision as the construction is
progressed.
Fig.5: Excavated Region for Pile Cap Construction

Therefore, the cost of excavation and concrete of pile caps and capping beams
combined with the cost of piling, its design and supervision would be a
discouraging factor regarding the selection of pile foundation.
Moreover, it is reported that the cost of eight-meter-long pile in combination

with its cap and capping beams is greater than the construction cost of 4.5m
depth column bases employing mass concrete up to the ground level.
This statement is concluded for the case where the foundations are built in dry
conditions in which the cost of machine excavation can be kept low, and each
type of foundation subjected to the same load. It should be known that this cost
evaluation of pile and column bases conducted for sizable structures like
multistory building.
However, it is proven that the cost of pile construction for small structures, for
example, individual house is less than that of ordinary brick or concrete footing
with a depth of 1.2m.
The construction of piles foundation for individual houses will be cheaper if the
excavation can be conducted by hand and the project condition should be
suitable for cost effective, uncased, mechanically augured piles.
So, pile foundation would lose the economic advantage and consequently the
choice of pile foundation over conventional concrete or brick footing would be
undesired and uneconomical.
Additionally, if the strip foundation is narrow strip type with the same depth i.e.
1.2m, then it is recommended to use the latter foundation type.
If the required depth of the foundation reaches water bearing sands and gravels,
then it is highly recommended to use pile foundation. This is because the
excavation cost in such situation is as much as two to three times the
excavation cost in dry situations.
Pile foundation construction is substantially advisable if the soil at the site is
significantly variable. In this case, the selection of pile foundation would be
advantageous both economically and structurally.
Foundations should be selected and designed based on the soil condition at any
loading station. For example, if the soil type is compacted sand, then small pad
foundation can be selected and sizable isolated pad or combined pad foundation
shall be accepted for compressible soil.
It should be bore in mind that such foundation construction approach would

need an extensive and comprehensive soil exploration and investigation which is
costly and hence undesirable.
It might be suggested to construct foundation according to the soil condition

that may come up as the construction is progressed but this approach would
increase the duration needed for the completion of the project due to formwork
construction. This technique would prevent foundation construction planning in
advance.
For such circumstances, the construction of pile foundation would eliminate the
majority of foundation construction issues because design and construction
activities can be arranged prior to the beginning of construction process.
Lastly, the length of the pile can be increased in the case where as the soil
condition is varied instead of increasing the number of piles. As a result, the
settlement that the foundation is likely to suffer can be ignored.
PILE LOAD CAPACITY CALCULATION

Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation PILE LOAD CAPACITY
CALCULATION
Pile load capacity calculation is done to find the ultimate load the pile foundation
can support when loaded. It is also known as the bearing capacity of piles. Pile
load capacity calculation is done for single pile or a group of piles based on the
requirement of number of piles for the given load or size of foundation. We will
discuss here the load carrying capacity of both single pile and group of piles.
SINGLE PILE CAPACITY CALCULATION:

Vertical Load:
The allowable resistance to compression Rac of a single pile is provided by the

end bearing, Feb and the skin friction for each strata,Fsf. Thus,
Therefore, the maximum compressive service load that can be supported by a

single pile is its total resistance less the self weight of the pile, W. Thus
A pile can also resist a tensile load. The maximum tensile service load, that
can be resisted by pile is
Values of the end bearing and skin friction resistance are obtained from soil
exploration, pile driving energy and test loadings. These ultimate values are
divided by a partial factor of safety of between 2 and 3 to give the allowable
values Feb and Fsf.
Horizontal Load:
The horizontal capacity of a single pile is limited by maximum deflection that the
structure can accommodate and also by the structural capacity of the pile.
There are several methods of determining the modulus of subgrade reaction

(kN/m3) from which maximum horizontal capacity for a given deflection can be
determined.
GROUP PILE CAPACITY CALCULATION:

Piles are generally arranged in groups to support heavy vertical loads. To
minimize the size, and therefore the cost of the pile cap, the piles are arranged
as close together as possible.
To provide undisturbed bearing capacity and suitable driving conditions, the
recommended minimum clear distance between the piles is twice the diameter
of the pile.
The total vertical service load on a group of piles should not exceed the group
capacity, which is given by:
Group capacity= group friction capacity + group end bearing capacity
= 2D(L+K)k1 + BLk2
Where k1 and k2 are soil coefficients. Individual pile loads within the group are
limited to the single pile capacity.
TYPES OF PILES BASED ON
CONSTRUCTION METHOD
CONSTRUCTION METHOD

methods:
1. Driven piles,

capacity.

Load Test on Piles Methods of Pile Load
Test
Home Geotechnical Engineering Load Test on Piles Methods of Pile Load Test
Load tests on piles are conducted on completion of 28 days after casting of piles.
Two types of tests namely initial and routine tests, for each type of loading viz.
vertical, horizontal (lateral) pull out, are performed on piles.
Initial Load Tests on Piles
This test is performed to confirm the design load calculations and to provide
guidelines for setting up the limits of acceptance for routine tests. It also gives
an idea of the suitability of the piling system. Initial Test on piles are to be
carried out at one or more locations depending on the number of piles required.
Load applied for the initial (cyclic) load test is 2.5 times the safe carrying
capacity of the pile. Loading for Initial Tests is conducted as per Appendix A
Clause 6.3 of IS-2911 Part IV.
Routine Load Tests on Piles
Selection of piles for the Routine Test is done based on number of piles required
subject to maximum of % of total number of piles required. The number of
tests may be increased to 2% depending on the nature / type of structure. The
test load applied is 1 times the safe carrying capacity of the pile.
The Maintained load method as described in Clause 6.2 of IS-2911 (Part IV)
1985 shall be followed for loading for the Routine Tests.
This test will be performed for the following purposes:

a) To ensure the safe load capacity of piles
b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial

Test.
The tests shall be performed at the cut-off level only. A detailed report for the test result
is prepared.
Vertical Load Tests on Piles
This test will be carried out as stipulated in IS-2911 (Part IV) 1995.
Fig: Vertical load test on piles
Pile Head The pile head shall be chipped off till sound concrete is met wherever
applicable. The reinforcement shall be cut and head levelled with Plaster of
Paris. A bearing plate with a hole shall be placed on the head for the jack to
rest.
Reaction- Kentledge shall be suitably designed to get the desired reaction on the
piles. Anchor piles (if required) shall be placed at a centre to centre distance of
3 times the pile diameter subject to a minimum distance of 2 M.
Settlement- 2 dial gauges for a single pile and 4 dial gauges for a group of piles
with 0.01 mm sensitivity shall be used. They shall be positioned at equal
distance around the piles on datum bars resting on immovable supports at a
distance of 3D (min. of 1.5 m) where D is the diameter of pile or circumscribing
circle for non-circular piles.
Application of load- It shall be applied as specified depending on the type of test
(routine / initial). Each load shall be maintained till the rate of displacement of
the pile top is either 0.1 mm in the first 30 minutes or 0.2 mm in the first one
hour or 2 hours whichever occurs first. The next increment in the load shall be
applied on achieving the aforesaid criterion.
The test load shall be maintained for 24 hours.
Initial Tests The safe load on a single pile shall be the least of the following:
(i) 2/3rd of the final load at which the total displacement attains a value of 12
mm unless otherwise required in a given case on the basis of nature and type of
structure in which case, the safe load should be corresponding to the stated
total displacement permissible.
(ii) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement equals 10% of the pile
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles or 7.5% of the bulb diameter in case
of under reamed piles.
Routine Tests Acceptance

The maximum settlement at test load should not exceed 12 mm.
Lateral Load Tests on Piles
Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

The jack should be placed horizontally, between two piles. The load on the jack
shall be the same on both the piles. The load will be applied in increments of
20% of the estimated safe load and at the cut off level. The load will be
increased after the rate of displacement is nearer to 0.1 mm per 30 minutes. If
the cut-off level is approachable, one dial gauge exactly at the cut-off level shall
measure the displacement. In case the cut-off level is not approachable, 2 dial
gauges 30 cm apart vertically, shall be set up and the lateral displacement of
the cut-off level calculated by similar triangles.
The safe load on the pile shall be the least of the following:
a) 50% of the final load at which the total displacement increases to 12 mm.
b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.
Pull out Tests on Piles

A suitable set up shall be designed to provide an uplift force to the piles. The
load increments and the consequent displacements shall be as per the case of a
vertical load test.
Fig: Pull-out test on piles

The safe load shall be the least of the following:
a) 2/3rd of the load at which the total displacement is 12 mm or the load
corresponding to a specified permissible lift.
b) Half of the load at which the load displacement curve shows a clear break.
TYPES OF PILES BASED ON

CONSTRUCTION METHOD
CONSTRUCTION METHOD

methods:
1. Driven piles,

capacity.

Groups of Piles
Posted in Piles Engineering | Email This Post |
Group of piles means when we have more than 1 pile in a row. Many factors influence the pile
group stability. The major factors are Geometry of the group, soil conditions and direction of
loads.
The efficiency factor Eg is defined as the ratio of the ultimate group capacity to the sum of the
ultimate capacity of each pile in the group. It is this factor which is mostly used to express
the ultimate load considerations.
Now
Eg = [2(BL+WL)fs+BWg]/nQu
where
B=Breadth of block of soil
W=Width of block of soil
L= Length of block of soil.
S = spacing
n= number of piles
fs is the average peripheral friction stress of block
Qu= single pile capacity.
The study shows that for cohesive soils Eg>1 if S is more than 2.5 pile diameters
For cohesionless soils Eg>1 for the smallest practical spacing.
On field, we take the minimum pile spacing for conventional piles in the range of 2.5 to 3D.
Design of rock sockets is conventionally based on
where
Qd= allowable design load on rock socket
ds= socket diameter
Ls= socket length
fR= allowable concrete rock bond stress
qa= allowable bearing pressure on
Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin Fraction in

Pile Group Construction
Home Geotechnical Engineering Foundation Engineering Pile Foundation Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin
Fraction in Pile Group Construction
Pile foundation spacing and skin friction in a pile group decides the design of pile
foundation, its efficiency and capacity in any construction.
The main purpose of a pile foundation is to let the transfer of load through weak
soil strata (soil strata with poor bearing capacity).
The pile foundation is found to be an economical choice when soil strata at a

reasonable depth is weak. The ending of the pile foundation must reach into
strata that gain adequate bearing capacity.
Depending upon the condition, a cluster of piles can be inserted to improve the
bearing capacity.
The piles are also employed in areas where the load must be transmitted by
certain frictional resistance over the depth by means of skin friction with the
surrounding soil. This offers adequate shear resistance.
Pile foundation also helps in avoiding the construction of cofferdams for

supporting piers in water. Here the pile will carry the load to an appreciable
supporting medium below a considerable depth of the water.
The piles that are driven at an angle are called as raker piles. These are used to
resist the inclined forces. The inclined forces are the effect of horizontal thrust.
Those piles that transfer the load to or through an underlying stratum by means
of friction is called the friction pile. Here one of the embedded surfaces is the pile
surface.
End bearing piles are piles that transfer the load to the lower stratum. Specially
designed piles will transmit the load by both the means.
Suitability of Pile Foundation in Construction
The pile foundation is generally employed in the following type of soil strata:
1. Area with compact or hard stratum, underlying soil is soft material, sand or clay
2. The area with clayey soil with soft stratum overlying the firm layer. Here the
open foundations lead to high settlement
3. Dense or stiff soil with soft clay overlaid. Here the open foundations can be
spaced closely to reduce the pressure that is transmitted to the soft layer
4. Alternative layers of clay- soft layer and thick in nature
5. Sandy strata with high water table. This brings difficulty for excavation
Spacing of Pile Foundation in Pile Group Construction

The piles must be arranged in such a way that the force exerted by one of the
piles on the other is least. In the case of friction piles, this factor is very
important. This is because the soil surrounding the piles are in a stressed
condition. This force exertion will affect the frictional resisting capacity of the
neighboring piles.
The influence lines of a cluster of piles on the surrounding ground are shown in
the figure-1. The lines show the stress intensities at a point. More the distance
from the pile edge surface, lesser is the stress intensities. So, this provides an
idea on the minimum spacing that must be provided between the two piles.
Fig.1: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of End Bearing Piles
Fig.2: Pressure Distribution represented by Influence lines in the case of Friction Piles
For the convenience of driving and to provide adjustments for any error during
the placement or the problems due to the coming out of the pile from the plumb
causing the piles to come closer, provision of minimum spacing is employed in
the case of point bearing piles. The Indian code IS 2911 have given a proper
explanation on this note.
In the case of friction piles, the spacing must be such a way that the zone of the
influence lines on the surrounding soil must not overlap each other. This will
hence reduce the bearing values and reduce the settlement. It is hence
mentioned that the minimum spacing should not be less than the diagonal
dimension or the diameter of the pile.
The end bearing piles that are used in compressible soils must be spaced at a
minimum of 2.5d and a spacing of 3.5d(Maximum)for those piles placed on less
compressible or stiff clay soil.
The Indian Road Congress specifies a minimum spacing of 3d or a distance

equal to pile perimeter for the friction piles. In the case of end bearing piles, the
space between the piles that are placed adjacent must not be less than least
width of the pile.
The spacing of piles as per the practice followed in the UK are based on the
following formulae:
End bearing piles: Spacing S = 2.5d + 0.02L

Cohesion Piles: Spacing S = 3.5d + 0.02L
Here d is the diameter of the pile and L is its length. The standard also stipulates
for pile capacity till 300 kN, the distance from the edge of the pile to the pile
stem must be 100mm. For higher capacities, the mentioned distance must be
150mm.
Maximum Pile Foundation Spacing
The Maximum pile spacing should be decided by considering two factors:
o The design of pile cap
o Overturning Moments
The pile cap will be heavier with increase in the spacing between the piles. So,
while choosing the spacing of the piles, pile cap design should also be evaluated.
The stability of the whole pile cluster against the action of the overturning
moment must be evaluated along with the spacing of the piles.
Soil Friction Factors for Pile Foundation

The skin friction factors help in the preliminary estimation of the pile capacity.
The value of the soil friction factor varies from driven to bored piles. This factor
can be used only for preliminary calculations.
Before a final decision is taken, a full-scale load test must be carried out. The
table-1 shows the approximate skin friction factors in saturated clay. Here Ro is
the consolidation ratio.
Table.1: Skin Friction Factors of Saturated Clay

Clay Driven
Pile Length in Over Consolidated Over Consolidated
Piles Normally
meters Clay- Driven Pile Clay- Bored Pile
Consolidated
20 0.3 0.3 0.15
40 0.2 0.2 0.1
60 0.15 0.15 0.08
NUMBER AND SPACING OF PILES IN A GROUP.

Very rarely are structures founded on single piles. Normally, there will be a minimum of three piles
under a column or a foundation element because of alignment problems and inadvertent
eccentricities. The spacing of piles in a group depends upon many factors such as
1. overlapping of stresses of adjacent piles,

2. cost of foundation,
3. efficiency of the pile group.
The pressure isobars of a single pile with load Q acting on the top are shown in Fig. 15.24(a).
When piles are placed in a group, there is a possibility the pressure isobars of adjacent piles will overlap
each other as shown in Fig. 15.24(b). The soil is highly stressed in the zones of overlapping of
pressures. With sufficient overlap, either the soil will fail or the pile group will settle excessively since
the combined pressure bulb extends to a considerable depth below the base of the piles. It is possible
to avoid overlap by installing the piles further apart as shown in Fig. 15.24(c). Large spacings are not
recommended sometimes, since this would result in a larger pile cap which would increase the cost of
the foundation.
The spacing of piles depends upon the method of installing the piles and the type of soil. The piles can
be driven piles or cast-in-situ piles. When the piles are driven there will be greater overlapping of
stresses due to the displacement of soil. If the displacement of soil compacts the soil in between the
piles as in the case of loose sandy soils, the piles may be placed at closer intervals.
Figure 15.24 Pressure isobars of (a) single pile, (b) group of piles, closely spaced,
and (c) group of piles with piles far apart.
But if the piles are driven into saturated clay or silty soils, the displaced soil will not compact the soil
between the piles. As a result the soil between the piles may move upwards and in this process lift the
pile cap. Greater spacing between piles is required in soils of this type to avoid lifting of piles. When
piles are cast-in-situ, the soils adjacent to the piles are not stressed to that extent and as such smaller
spacings are permitted.
Generally, the spacing for point bearing piles, such as piles founded on rock, can be much less than
for friction piles since the high-point-bearing stresses and the superposition effect of overlap of the
point stresses will most likely not overstress the underlying material nor cause excessive settlements.
The minimum allowable spacing of piles is usually stipulated in building codes. The spacings for
straight uniform diameter piles may vary from 2 to 6 times the diameter of the shaft. For friction piles,
the minimum spacing recommended is 3d where d is the diameter of the pile. For end bearing piles
passing through relatively compressible strata, the spacing of piles shall not be less than 2.5d.
For end bearing piles passing through compressible strata and resting in stiff clay, the spacing may be
increased to 3.5d. For compaction piles, the spacing may be Id. Typical arrangements of piles in
groups are shown in Fig. 15.25.
Figure 15.25 Typical arrangements of piles in groups
2006 New York Code - Minimum Spacing

Of Piles.
27-692 Minimum spacing of piles. Piles shall be spaced to meet the

following requirements:
(1) Spacing of piles shall provide for adequate distribution of the
load on the pile group to the supporting soil, in accordance with the
provisions of subdivision (b) of section 27-700 of article eight of this
subchapter.
(2) In no case shall the minimum center-to-center spacing of piles be
less than twenty-four inches, nor less than the values for specific
types of piling as indicated in article ten of this subchapter. Unless
special measures are taken to assure that piles will penetrate
sufficiently to meet the requirements of section 27-689 of this article
without interfering with or intersecting each other, the minimum
center-to-center spacing of piles shall be twice the average diameter of
the butt for round piles; one and three-quarters times the diagonal for
rectangular piles; or, for taper piles, twice the diameter at a level
two-thirds of the pile length measured up from the tip. In cases of
practical difficulty, the spacing of new piles from existing piles under
an adjacent building may be less than the above values provided that the
requirements relating to minimum embedment and pile interference are
satisfied and that the soil under the proposed and existing buildings is
not overloaded by the closer pile grouping.
Disclaimer: These codes may not be the most recent version. New York may have
more current or accurate information. We make no warranties or guarantees about the
accuracy, completeness, or adequacy of the information contained on this site or the
information linked to on the state site. Please check official sources.

Capacity of Pile Group and Efficiency

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CAPACITY OF PILE GROUP AND EFFICIENCY

q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)

Efficiency of Pile Group:

2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and

3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)

Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse Lebarre

Where m = number of rows

n = number of piles in a row

d = diameter of pile end

Load Test on Piles Methods of Pile Load

This test will be performed for the following purposes:

b) Detection of any unusual performance contrary to the findings of the Initial

Routine Tests Acceptance

Lateral Load Tests on Piles

Fig: Horizontal load test on piles

b) Final load at which the total displacement corresponds to 5 mm.

Pull out Tests on Piles

Fig: Pull-out test on piles

Pile Foundation Spacing and Skin Fraction in

The pile foundation is found to be an economical choice when soil strata at a

Pile foundation also helps in avoiding the construction of cofferdams for

4. Alternative layers of clay- soft layer and thick in nature

Spacing of Pile Foundation in Pile Group Construction

The Indian Road Congress specifies a minimum spacing of 3d or a distance

End bearing piles: Spacing S = 2.5d + 0.02L

o The design of pile cap

Soil Friction Factors for Pile Foundation

Table.1: Skin Friction Factors of Saturated Clay

20 0.3 0.3 0.15

40 0.2 0.2 0.1

60 0.15 0.15 0.08

Effect of Soil Liquefaction on Pile Foundation

Liquefaction is a phenomenon in which loose saturated soil such as loose sandy

Fig.2: Liquefied Soil Around Bridge Piers

o Buckling of piles in liquefiable soil

o Lateral spreading of sloping ground

Buckling of Piles in Liquefiable Soil

Slenderness ratio, which is equal to equivalent length divided by radius of

It is reported that, slopes with as minimum as 3o are highly possible to

PILE FOUNDATION SELECTION BASED ON

Selection of pile foundation types and length depends on following conditions:

2. Loads from structures

2. Friction bearing piles

3. Combination of end bearing and friction bearing piles.

Table of Contents [show]

Selection of Friction Pile Foundation:

There are three types of pile foundations according to their construction

2. Cast-in-situ piles, and

3. Driven and cast-in-situ piles.

Driven Pile Foundations:

Cast-in-situ Pile Foundations:

Driven and Cast-in-situ Piles

q0 = ultimate bearing pressure of footing of area B2 (B = size of pile group)

Efficiency of Pile Group:

2. Total number of piles in a row and number of rows in a group, and

3. Characteristics of pile (material, diameter and length)

Efficiency of a pile group can also be obtained by using Converse Lebarre

n = number of piles in a row

d = diameter of pile end

PILE FOUNDATION NEED AND FUNCTIONS

Many factors prevent the selection of surface foundation as a suitable foundation

The use of pile foundations is increasing day by day due to non-availability of

Function of Pile Foundation:

To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration.