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Home > Bile History And Archasology An! Outing > 8, Ancient Midale Eastern Culture Ard The Bible
8. Ancient Middle Eastern Culture And The
Bible
God's revelation did not come into a vacuum, He spoke to a people who were a part of the
contemporary culture and called them to become followers of His true way. In the process, God
did not ignore the culture surrounding His called ones.‘ There are many points of contact with
the cultures of the Mesopotamians, Canaanites, Egyptians, Hittites and others. The large
question is, how much of the revelation of God is couched in terms and concepts familiar to all
people in that region and how much is unique. Cross is critical of Yehezkel Kaufmann for his
insistence that Israelite religion “was absolutely different from anything the pagan world ever
knew.” Cross insists that this approach violates fundamental postulates of scientific historical
method 2 The Evangelical will find himself in more sympathy with Kaufmann than with Cross.
Nevertheless, it is mistaken to assume that there is no connection between the Bible and its
cultural milieu. Cross uses the term “epic” to describe the genre of Israel's religious expression
{in contrast to mythic). He believes that the word “historical” is a valid description of what goes
on in this religious expression, but he says, “At the same time confusion often enters at this
point. The epic form, designed to recreate and give meaning to the historical experiences of a
people or nation, is not merely or simply historical. In epic narrative, a people and their god or
gods interact in the temporal course of events. In historical narrative only human actors have
parts. Appeal to divine agency is illegitimate. Thus the composer of epic and the historian are
very different in their methods of approach to the materials of history. Yet both are moved by a
common impulse in view of their concern with the human and the temporal process, By contrast
myth in its purest form is concerned with ‘primordial events’ and seeks static structures of
meaning behind or beyond the historical flux."
Mesopotamian culture and the Patriarchs.
Abraham and His Milieu
God called Abraham from Ur and made a unique covenant with him. The record also indicates
that the main center of Patriarchal activity before coming to Palestine was Haran (Aram-
Nahariam, Gen. 24:10. Padan-Aram, Deut. 26:5). Many of the place names in the region of
Haran are tied in with Abrahamic history: Serug, Nahor, Terah.*
Culture at Nuzu
“Nuzi [sometimes Nuzu], modem Yorghan Tepe, about 9 miles south-west of Arrapha, modern
Kirkuk, in the eastem hill-country of ancient Assyria, was excavated (1925-31) by the American
Schools of Oriental Research in Baghdad, first with the Iraq Museum and later with Harvard
University, under the direction of E. Chiera, R. H. Pfeiffer, and R. F. S. Starr. The settlement,
originating before 3000 B.C., had, c, 2200 B.C., an Akkadian population and was called Gasur,
but by 1500 B.C. its name was Nuzi and its population mainly Hurrian. The ruins, including a
temple in seven levels, a palace, with some painted rooms, and many private houses, contained
pottery, and other small objects. Most important, however, were some 4,000 cuneiform tablets
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dating c, 1500-1400 B.C. and written in Akkadian influenced by Hurrian vocabulary and idioms.”=
While the dates of these tablets are considerably later than the date for Abraham (c. 2000 B.C.,
though critical scholars would date the patriarchs, if they even existed, in the middle of the
second millennium), the fact that the patriarchal narratives have more in common with these
data than with those later in Israelite history, makes their discussion pertinent to patriarchal
studies. Kitchen’s excellent little work defends the patriarchal authenticity and deals with the
parallels. He also argues that the Hurrian influence has been exaggerated. Many of these
parallels are found in Mesopotamia in general.&
Filial adoption
The purpose of this adoption was to provide a childless couple with care in their old age and the
performance of religious rites in exchange for an inheritance. This seems to fit the action of
Abraham in connection with Eliezer as a “son of his house” who would inherit from Abraham
(Gen. 15:2-4).7 Weir also includes the adoption of someone into a family without sons. He
believes the Jacob and Laban situation fits this description.8
Teraphim
The Teraphim stolen by Rachel were once assumed to represent property ownership 2 Kitchen
believes this is a fallacious identification. He believes she took them for her own protection and
blessing.12
Birthright
The importance of the birthright is stressed at Nuzi. “A double share by the principal son,
normally the eldest natural son, as is definitely prescribed in Deut. xxi. 15ff."4 At Nuzi, an eldest
son might be demoted as was Reuben.
Blessings/oaths
Kitchen downplays the significance of blessing-oaths at Nuzi and of the idea of selling a
birthright 12 In other words, he does not believe the Nuzi material is parallel 42
Conclusion
Weir concludes his discussion by saying, “The Nuzi documents do not mention any Old
Testament incident or personage, nor do they indicate with certainty that any of Israel's
ancestors ever lived in or visited Mesopotamia. Their fifteenth-century provenance cannot
accurately date patriarchal traditions since the customs they portray may have originated much
earlier and may have persisted in Palestine until the monarchial period. They reveal, however,
that the social customs, much of the terminology, and many of the personal names in the
Pentateuch and elsewhere in the Old Testament were those current in parts of the Near East
during the second millennium B.C., and to that extent they validate Israelite tradition.”
Van Seters has led the way in trying to destroy the edifice built up in the Albright era supporting
the historicity of the patriarchs. Kitchen has shown that Van Seters’ attempts to tie the patriarchal
stories into the first millennium are unsuccessful.15
Culture and the Mosaic Era
Albright’8 defends the general historicity of the Book of Exodus, though he believes the
patriarchs were polytheistic. In so far as Moses is concerned, he makes the following
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observations:
“Itis absurd to deny that Moses founded the Israelite religious system. He was a Hebrew born in
Egypt, raised under Egyptian influence, Egyptian slave labor, Rameses, topography of eastern
delta, Sinai peninsula fits, etc.”
“The Name YHWH was revealed only to Moses--Exodus 6:1; 3:14. ‘He causes to be.” Yahweh
asher yihweh. Beside this fuller form there was also a normally abbreviated form Yahu (the
jussive form of the imperfect causative which appears as Yahweh), which is found in all early
personal names (shortened in northern Israel to -yau- and after the Exile to -yah). There is no
non-lsraelite name which has been put forth as an antecedent to this name which can be
adequately defended. Elephantine = yaho." Pettinato tentatively believes he has found a “ya”
ending on names.*Z [However, the biblical account in Exodus 3 seems to indicate a qal, the
simple form]1&
“An original characteristic of the Israelite God was that he stood alone, no family connections.
The Sons of God (Angels and Israelites) were so by creation."
He was not restricted to any abode. No exact spot,
Anthropomorphic--but the body was always clothed in the Kabod.
Aniconic aspect--nothing to prove Israel ever depicted God. He argues that even the calves of
the northem Israel were pedestals for Jehovah
A sacrificial system was a part of the practice of all Asiatics and particularly imbedded in Semitic.
thought (cf. Genesis 4).
Law codes were common to Semites (cf. Ur-Nammu and Hammurabi). The striking peculiarity of
Israel is that they were commanded not to sin because Yahweh so wills it. There is a moral-
ethical element present here that is not present in the other law codes of antiquity.
Was Moses a monotheist? “If by that we mean one who teaches the existence of only one God,
the creator of everything, the source of justice, who is equally powerful in Egypt, Palestine and in
the desert, who has no sexuality, and no mythology, who is human in form, but cannot be seen
by human eye, and cannot be represented in any human form-then the founder of Yahwehism
was certainly a monotheist."12
The Bible, of course, does not begin monotheism with Moses. The majestic opening of the Bible
with Bereshit ...Elohim, “In the beginning God . . ." is not simply a Mosaic or later religious
thought which has developed through the intellectual process of man, but is a statement of fact.
Whether we speak of the time of Abraham (2000 B.C.) or of Moses (1500 B.C.) there is nothing
in the surrounding situation which is conducive to monotheism. Crass polytheism has had a long
history in the Mesopotamian valley when God calls Abraham out of it. The Canaanite religion as
graphically depicted in the Ugaritic literature as well as in the archaeological finds is virulently
hostile to monotheism. The only /ogical conclusion at which one can arrive is that monotheism
comes only through divine revelation in a miraculous manner. If this could have happened in the
time of Moses, it could have happened in the time of Abraham and, of course, did happen in the
time of Adam. Historical study simply will not support the evolutionary hypothesis as an
explanation of the development of monotheism.22
Ancient law codes and the Mosaic law
Ur-Nammu. Sumerian (212-2095)ANET, Supplement p. 523.
Laws of Eshnunna—ANE, p. 133 (c. 2000 B.C.) Discovered at Susa around A.D. 1900. It is
Amorite and was apparently carried there.
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Code of Hammurabi—ANE, p. 138ff (c, 1700 B.C.) Laws found at Ebla antedate Ur-Nammu and
Hammurabi by centuries.
Compare the following
Hammurabi
Law# 1
14
2
24
60
"7
120
129
130
154
195
196ff
209
250
266
Bible
Exod. 23:103; Deut. 5:20; 19:16-21
Lev. 19:11, 13; Exod. 20:15; Deut. 5:19; 22:1-4
Exod. 21:16; Deut. 24:7
Exod. 22:2-3
Deut. 21:1ff
Lev. 19:23-25
Exod. 21:2-11; Deut, 15:12-18
Exod, 22:7-9
Deut. 22:22
Deut, 22:23-27
Lev. 18:6-18; 20:10-21; Deut. 27:20-23
Exod. 21:15
Exod. 21:23-25; Lev. 24:19-20; Deut. 19:24
Exod. 21:22-25
Exod. 21:28-36
Exod. 22:10ff
Note that only 16 out of 282 of Hammurabi's laws bear resemblance to the biblical laws and
these are usually quite general. Why are there similarities? Common institutions: marriage,
government, private ownership, etc. Common problems: death, murder, theft, slavery, etc. It
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should be extremely unusual if there were not many points of similarity. Why are there
differences? There is no need here even to discuss a common heritage as in the case of the
flood. The Mosaic Law was divinely instituted. It was theocratic government as opposed to civil
government in the other nations. There was no doubt utilization of many things already practiced
by the people, but there is no borrowing from Mesopotamia here.21
The Sacrificial System
The origin and explanation of the sacrificial system in the Bible are very vague. Animal sacrifice
appears to be taken for granted in Chapter 4 of Genesis, but its origin and significance are
simply assumed. Animal sacrifice is part of all the ancient religious systems. (At Ugarit the
Shelem [peace] and Asham [guilt] offerings have been identified) We can assume from
Genesis 4 that God instituted animal sacrifices and explained to Adam their significance. This
information was preserved by Noah but perverted and misunderstood by his descendants. The
instruction to Moses, then, is taking at least some things which are familiar to the people and
placing them in their true perspective.
The Sanctuary
Many have argued and some still do, that the tabernacle is nothing but the later temple
anachronistically placed in the time of Moses. Few would hold that today even though the
antiquity of the details would be denied.23
Some [ink the ark with a portable shrine as used by the Arabs.4 This illustrates the attempt by
many to find every possible link with identifiable objects in history, however tenuous, based on a
philosophy of no supernatural revelations.
The Canaanites and Israel2&
The term Canaanite is historically, geographically and culturally synonymous with the
Phoenicians. Canaanite refers to a northwest Semitic people and culture of western Syria and
Palestine before the 12th century B.C., and the term Phoenician refers to the same people and
culture after that.
The Canaanites played an important part in history of civilization. In 3-2 millennium, they bridged
the gap between Egypt and Mesopotamia, and to them we no doubt owe much of the slow, but
constant transfusion of culture which we find in the ancient near east.
Forced out of Palestine and most of Syria in the 13th and 12th centuries, the Phoenicians turned
their energies seaward and became the great mariners and traders of all time.
The Greeks attribute their achievements in the arts of peace to them (cf. also writing).
Inscription and Grammar Work--chiefly Gesenius
Renan--1860-61 cf. Pritchard.
Byblos~Montet—Dunand (1921- )
Ugarit--Schaeffer (1929- )
Khadattu (Arslan Tash) Thureau Dangin (1928)
Hamath (Orontes) Ingholt (1931-38)
Plains of Antioch (McEwan) (1932-37) (Around Orontes)
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Mari--Parrot (1933- )
Alalakh-Wooley (1936-39)
Ugarit
Schaeffer, Excavation; C. H. Gordon—Texts.2” There were at least two consonantal alphabetic
scripts which had been devised by the Canaanites, The cuneiform alphabet was used at Ugarit
The other was a direct progenitor of later Phoenician. They were also familiar with Akkadian,
Egyptian hieroglyphics and Byblian syllabic characters (this is a hieroglyphic form syllabary in
use toward the end of the third millennium B.C.--used to write a very early form of Canaanite).
Canaanite Culture
Among other reasons it did not reach a greater height was that it had a low religious level. The
Canaanites had a primitive mythology. Their religion contained the most demoralizing cultic
practices then existing in the near east, Human sacrifice, sacred prostitution, eunuch priests,
serpent worship, brutal mythology.
Literature
The relation of Ugaritic to the Old Testament has been demonstrated but over-extended by
Dahood especially. For a more conservative treatment, see Craige in Word Biblical Commentary
Psalms.
Phoenicians
They spread the Canaanite culture, religion, language and alphabet all over the Mediterranean
area.28 They established colonies as far as Spain.22 They founded Carthage (Qart-hadasht—
new town, hence, several names like this). Tarshish—Smelting plant (several), Moloch—idol.
Child sacrifice. For example, a stele (55 x 12 cm.) was found in a field of stelae and Urns with
offering remains mostly of children in Carthage. Donner & Rollig #79. “To the Lady, to Tanat the
face of Baal and to the Lords to Baal Hamon; This is what Canami slave of Eshmunamas son of
Baalyatan vowed--his flesh...” (My translation, 3rd century, B.C.). The rest concems warnings
to those who would disturb the stone.22 Albright agrees with O. Eissfeldt that “molek was a
sacrificial term and not the name of a Canaanite divinity. Punic molk and Heb. molek (vocalized
correctly by MT) are in fact the same word, and both refer to a sacrifice which was, for
Phoenicians and Hebrews alike, the most awe-inspiring of all possible sacred acts-whether it
was considered as holy or as an abomination.”31
The Contacts with Paganism during the Time of the Judges
In the Canaanite religion El is the head of the pantheon. He has been displaced by Baal as
Chronos was by Zeus. He probably deciined in relative prominence during the period 2500-1500
B.C. He was still worshipped, however, at local shrines and his name is retained in El Elyon and
El Olam. His wife seems to be Asherah (Ashirat in Ugaritic literature). Her longer name is “the
Lady who treads on the Sea (dragon)." She is the foe of Baal and his wife/sister Anath. The word
Asherah is usually translated grove (Judges 3:7) in KJV since the symbol of her presence was a
sacred tree or pole.2 Mot killed Baal and took him to the underworld, Anath freed him after a
violent struggle with Mot, Anath was also called the Queen of Heaven. These gods were sadistic
and sexual.33 Amos and Hosea inveigh against this religious system which had completely
permeated the northern kingdom
The most important offspring of this “couple” is Baal. Baal is really a title. The names of Baal
include Zabul (the exalted), Lord of Earth, Rider of the Clouds, Lord of Heaven. Baal-zebul (not
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zebub) in Ekron. Beelzebub is a title for Satan in the New Testament. He is also called Hadad
(cf. Ben-Hadad in Scripture). The idea of Yahweh being Baal was once accepted and people
named their children thusly. However, this is later looked on with disfavor because of Baal
worship and these names are changed, e.g., Ishbaal = Ishbosheth (bosheth--shame).°4
Ashtoreth (Astarte) is mentioned quite frequently in the Old Testament. It is not clear whether
she is the wife of Baal. In any event she is the goddess of love and the Egyptians called her and
Anath, goddesses who conceive but do not bear (cf. Deut. 28:4 where ashtaroth means fruit of
flocks). In Phoenician Palestine Astarte grew in importance while Anath became hidden under
various appellations. Her name was later fused in Aramaic as Atargatis. The Queen of Heaven,
Venus, Diana, Aphrodite and Mary are all part of the virgin cult originating in the earliest days of
man's apostasy.
Dagon is a grain god who is the son of El and father of Baal in Ugaritic literature. References in
Judges: Baalim, 2:11; Baal, 2:13; 10:6; Ashtoreth, 2:13; 10:6; Groves, 3:7; Altar of Baal and
Grove by it, 6:25; Ephod, 8:27; Baal-berith, 8:33; house of Baal-berith, 9:4; Men of Hamor? 9:28;
house of their god, 9:27; Gods of Syria, Sidon, Moab, Ammon, Philistines, 10:6; Chemosh,
11:24; Dagon, 16:23; ephod, teraphim, graven image, molten image, 18:14.
The Baal cycle portrayed in ANET, pp. 129-142 is the seasonal cycle in which Baal breeds, dies
and is later revived. The sexual activity pictured in the literature was carried out in practice by the
people. Small wonder God condemned the religion of the Canaanite and the later prophets
inveighed against it. This kind of culture can only degrade.35
1As indicated above, an important work on this subject is John H. Walton, Ancient Near Eastern
Thought and the Old Testament.
25. M. Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel, p.
vill
Sibid., is it possible that this discussion has bearing on the current debate about
contextualization of the Gospel in the missions? Does one not need to be able to distinguish
between culture as a neutral issue and culture that is antithetical to the biblical revelation?
4J. Kelso, Archaeology and Our Old Testament Contemporaries, p. 19.
8c. J. Mullo Weir, “Nuzi" in AOTS, p. 73. The following discussion is based primarily on this
essay.
SK. Kitchen, The Bible in Its World, See Provan, et al., A Biblical History of Israel, p. 115 for a
recent discussion of Nuzi and the Patriarchs,
Ubid., p. 70 and Weir, “Nuzi,” p. 73.
Sibid
°C. H. Gordon, “Biblical Customs and the Nuzu Tablets,” Biblical Archaeologist 3.1 (1940): 1-12.
19k. Kitchen, The Bible in Its World, p. 70.
“Weir, “Nuzi,” p. 76.
2\bid., pp. 76-77.
8kitchen, The Bible in Its World, p. 76
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A4weir, “Nuzi," p. 83.
18bid., see J. Van Seters, “The Problem of Childlessness in Near Eastern Law and the
Patriarchs of Israel,” JBL 87 (1968): 401-8 (See f.n. 2 for a list of Nuzi text publications);
Abraham in History and Tradition, 1975.
16w, F. Albright, SATC.
12K, Kitchen, The Bible in Its World, p.47.
18Cf, Segal, Pentateuch, only the meaning is revealed, not the name at this time. Cf. also John
Day ‘Religion of Canaan" in Anchor Bible Dictionary 1:834, who agrees with me on the Qal form.
48pibright, SATC, p. 272. Albright's point of view, of course, has been completely rejected by
modern secular writers. The data has not changed; only the interpretation
29Cf. Albright's own views on the evolution of religion, Ibid., pp. 170ff. He quotes with favor
anthropologist Fr. Schmidt (Ursprung der Gottsidee) who argues that the existence of “high”
gods among present primitive peoples points to monotheism. At least, he says, Schmidt has
disproved the fetishism-polytheism-monotheism approach
21See Walton, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament, p. 293 for a comparison.
22WV. F. Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, p. 59
23See Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel.
24See Wright, BA, chapter 7.
25For further reading from a critical point of view see Eissfeldt, The Old Testament an
Introduction, Wright, Biblical Archaeology, Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, and
SATC, DeVaux, History of Israel. From an evangelical point of view, see Walton, Ancient Near
Eastern Thought and the Old Testament.
28See W. F. Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan. Also “The Role of the Canaanites in the
History of Civilization’ in BANE. See also F. M Cross, Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic. More
recenily J, Van Seters, In Search of History and Jonathan N. Tubb, Canaanites in Peoples of the
Past.
21See ANET.
28For a further discussion, see A. Mazar, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, pp. 356-57.
288ee J. G. Scheuer, “Searching for the Phoenicians in Sardinia,” BAR 16:1 (1990) 53-60.
30Carthage was traditionally founded in 814 B.C., although nothing prior to 750 B.C. has been
found archaeologically (time of Uzziah). The Carthaginians became famous in history through
the Punic (corruption of Phoenician) Wars (264-241, 218-201, 149-146). Carthage was
destroyed during the final war.
Sty, F, Albright, Yahweh and the Gods of Canaan, p. 236. But see also Diana Edelman, “Biblical
Molek Reassessed,” JAOS 107 (1987) 727-31. For child sacrifice at Carthage see Stager and
Wolf, “Child Sacrifice at Carthage, BAR 10/1 (1984) 37-51 and Patricia Smith, “Infants
Sacrificed? The Tale Teeth Tell,” BAR 40/4 (2014) 54-56, 68.
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32See “Queries & Comments,” BAR 40:3 (2014) 8 for the debate on this meaning between
Dever and Lipinski,
33ANET, p. 139, h.l AB.
34Cf, Hosea 2:16, “You will call me /shi (my man) and you will no longer call me Baali (my
husband).
38Source for this discussion: Emest. R Lacheman, Studies on the Civilization and Culture of
‘Nuzi and the Hurrians.
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