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doi:10.1111/jpc.12403
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract: HenochSchnlein purpura is the most common systemic vasculitis of childhood. In the majority of children, the outcome of
HenochSchnlein purpura is excellent with spontaneous resolution of symptoms and signs. However, a small subset of patients will develop
long-term sequelae in the form of chronic kidney disease. While the clinical presentation and diagnosis of HenochSchnlein purpura is
straightforward, treatment of HenochSchnlein purpura nephritis and long-term renal outcomes of more severely affected children are less
certain. This review article gives a general overview of HenochSchnlein purpura with emphasis on recently published information, including
the new classication of childhood vasculitis, insights into pathogenesis of HenochSchnlein purpura and a summary of various treatments of
established HenochSchnlein purpura nephritis.
Fig. 2 Pathogenesis of IgA glomerulonephritis. In patients with IgA neph- Fig. 3 Purpuric skin changes in a patient with HSP.
ropathy (IgAN), galactose-decient IgA1 is recognized by anti-glycan IgG
antibodies. The formed immune complexes cannot enter the space of
Disse due to their size and interact with the asialoglycoprotein receptor
Abdominal pain
(ASGP-R) on hepatocytes, but are able to pass through the larger fenestrae
in the glomerular capillaries overlying the mesangium. These deposited Approximately two thirds of children with HSP develop
complexes induce glomerular injury by activation of the alternative com- abdominal pain,17 usually diffuse, increasing after meals, and
plement pathway and recruiting inammatory cells (with permission from sometimes associated with nausea and vomiting. These symp-
reference 15). toms are caused by submucosal haemorrhage and oedema of
the bowel wall, predominantly affecting the proximal small
bowel. The most severe gastrointestinal complication is intus-
susception, affecting 34% patients with HSP. In 60% of these
causing glomerulonephritis.12,15 Deposition of IgA1-containing
cases, it is limited to small bowel. Clinical presentation of intus-
immune complexes in other sites (skin, gut, joints) leads to
susception is characterised by severe abdominal pain, often
organ-specific clinical manifestations of HSP.
colicky in nature and vomiting. Other significant, though less
common gastrointestinal complications are gangrene of the
Clinical Manifestations bowel, bowel perforation and massive haemorrhage.
Renal
Glomerulonephritis
Nephrotic syndrome
Renal failure
Ureteric obstruction
Gastrointestinal
Intussusception
Gangrene of the bowel
Bowel perforation
Gastrointestinal haemorrhage
Central nervous system
Cerebral haemorrhage
Seizures
Paresis
Peripheral neuropathy
Other
Pulmonary haemorrhage
Testicular haemorrhage
Scrotal haemorrhage Fig. 4 Target sign on transverse ultrasound of an intussusception. The
Myositis concentric mass represents the tissue layers in the bowel wall of the
Myocarditis intussusceptum and the intussuscipiens. The curved, echogenic (bright)
area is due to the trapped mesenteric fat (with permission from
reference 26).
Urinalysis Histology
Every child with HSP should have urinalysis performed at diag- Biopsy of the affected skin reveals leukocytoclastic vasculitis
nosis and during follow-up. Dipstick assessment of urine for with deposition of IgA-containing immune complexes, pre-
blood and protein is a good screening test for nephritis. Urine dominantly in small vessels in the papillary dermis (primarily
microscopy may reveal dysmorphic red cells and red-cell casts. venules). Neutrophils undergo destruction (leukocytoclasis)
Positive dipstick reading for protein requires quantification of with destructive fragmentation of the nuclei of dying cells
protein excretion either by measuring protein/creatinine ratio (karyorrhexis) during apoptosis or necrosis (Fig. 5). Deposits of
on a first morning urine sample or protein excretion on a timed IgA and C3 in the dermal capillaries of purpuric lesions and
urine sample (24-hour collection). uninvolved skin by immune-fluorescent staining are considered
valid diagnostic criterion, with 100% specificity in combination
Blood tests with leukocytoclastic vasculitis.8
Kidney biopsy is usually performed in patients with uncer-
There are no blood tests specific for HSP and measurement of
tain diagnosis and in those with more severe kidney involve-
serum levels of total IgA is not helpful in confirming the diag-
ment (rapidly progressive nephritis, nephrotic syndrome). In
nosis or providing prognostic information. Galactose-deficient
general, there is a correlation between the severity of renal
IgA1 serum levels seem to distinguish patients with HSP nephri-
manifestations and findings on kidney biopsy. Light microscopy
tis from patients without nephritis, and might become an impor-
findings can range from mild mesangial proliferation to severe
tant commercially available biomarker in the future.14,25
crescentic glomerulonephritis. Diffuse mesangial IgA deposits
Imaging seen on immunofluorescence are the hallmark of HSP nephritis
(Fig. 6) and co-deposition of C3 complement (75%) might also
Not all patients with HSP require diagnostic imaging, which is be present. The absence of the classical complement pathway
generally reserved for children with abdominal pain in whom components (C1q and C4) distinguishes HSP nephritis from
intussusception is suspected. Abdominal ultrasound is the tech- other forms of immune-mediated glomerulonephritis, such as
nique of choice with the accuracy in diagnosing intussusception lupus nephritis. Electron microscopy shows electron dense
and acetylsalicylic acid), tonsillectomy, and B-cell depletion reflecting the tissue damage, such as urinary biomarkers of
with rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil.4246 The efficacy of tubulointersitial (profibrotic cytokines) or glomerular (urinary
these treatments is yet to be tested in prospective clinical trials. podocytes) injury. Furthermore, we need well-designed multi-
Use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or centre randomised controlled prospective studies on treatment
angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) has become an accepted of HSP nephritis to answer questions such as who should be
treatment of HSP nephritis with persistent proteinuria, with treated, when and with what medication. It is a hope that with
beneficial effects not only on reduction of proteinuria but also the early detection of HSP patients at risk of developing ESKD
on inhibition of renal fibrosis. Although there are no available and their appropriate and timely treatment, the outcomes of
studies on the efficacy of ACEIs or ARBs in HSP nephritis, these children will improve.
long-term data showing their beneficial effect on renal survival
and improvement of proteinuria in patients with IgA nephropa- Acknowledgements
thy, a disease with the same pathophysiology, are encouraging.47
I thank Dr Leo Francis, Pathology Queensland, Royal Brisbane
Prognosis of HSP and Womens Hospital, Brisbane for providing the histological
samples and Dr Steve McTaggart, Queensland Child and Ado-
In the majority of children, the outcome of HSP is excellent with lescent Renal Service, Brisbane for reviewing this manuscript.
spontaneous resolution of symptoms and signs. HSP recurs in
approximately one third of patients, typically within 4 months Multiple Choice Questions
of the initial presentation. Recurrent purpura can be occasion-
ally associated with joint complaints and episodes of gross hae- Q1. Which one of the following mechanisms plays the most
maturia although each subsequent episode is generally milder important role in pathogenesis of HenochSchnlein
and shorter. The long-term morbidity of HSP is related to the purpura:
degree of HSP nephritis. a. Anaphylactoid reaction to various medications (non-
In unselected cohorts of children, HSP nephritis is a mild steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics)
disease, characterised by microscopic haematuria and minimal b. Immune reaction to infective agents (bacteria, viruses)
proteinuria, with <1% risk of progression to end-stage kidney involving the classical complement pathway
disease (ESKD).18 Reports from tertiary centres indicating that c. Inherently deficient glycosylation of IgA1 molecules pre-
1030% of children will develop ESKD are likely to overesti- disposing to formation of immune complexes and poor
mate the true risk of ESKD due to the selection of cases with clearance of IgA1 from circulation
more severe renal impairment seen in these centres.48,49 Chil- d. Abnormally expressed asialoglycoprotein receptor on
dren at risk are those with nephrotic or nephritic/nephrotic hepatocytes leading to poor clearance of IgA1 molecules
syndrome or renal failure at presentation, and those with from circulation with subsequent formation of immune
impaired kidney function and persistent proteinuria after complexes
several years of follow-up.29 Children with uncomplicated HSP e. Increased production of normally glycosylated IgA1
are usually managed in the primary care setting either by a GP immunoglobulin in affected individuals leading to the
or a paediatrician. The aim of the initial follow-up is to iden- deposition of this immunoglobulin in the vessels of
tify patients with worsening kidney involvement and is based affected organs
on serial urinalyses, blood pressure measurement, blood tests A1. Correct answer is c.
to assess kidney function and exclusion of other causes of glo- People with HSP (and IgA nephropathy) have inherited predis-
merulonephritis. A practical pathway for detection and referral position to abnormal glycosylation of IgA1 molecules. Following
of children with HSP nephritis to a paediatric nephrologist intercurrent infection, abnormally glycosylated molecules
during the first 612 months after diagnosis has been devel- form large immune complexes that are poorly cleared by
oped (Fig. 7).50 The involvement of a paediatric rheumatologist the liver and deposit in the vessels of the affected organs.
in cases of severe arthritis/arthralgia might also be warranted. Anaphylactoid reactions do not play role in pathogenesis of HSP.
Histological recurrence of HSP nephritis (IgA deposition) Activation of the alternative complement pathway plays a role
in transplanted kidneys can be as high as 60% but is rarely in organ damage; the classical complement pathway is not
associated with clinical recurrence.51 Long-term outcomes of involved in pathogenesis of HSP. Individuals with HSP have
transplanted kidneys in patients with HSP nephritis are com- normal asialoglycoprotein receptors in the liver. Abnormal
parable to other primary diseases with 90% survival at 10 glycosylation of IgA1 molecules rather than increased produc-
years.52 tion of normally glycosylated IgA1 is the main predisposing
factor in pathogenesis of HSP.
Conclusion Q2. Which one of the following statements regarding diagnosis
of HenochSchnlein purpura is correct:
HSP is a common childhood vasculitis with a good outcome in a. There is no specific test for HSP and the diagnosis is
the majority of affected children. However, there is a small made based on the clinical findings
subgroup of children who will develop significant renal impair- b. Total IgA in serum is elevated in the majority of patients
ment and some of them will eventually progress to ESKD and with HSP
require kidney transplantation. To predict which patients are at c. Measurement of galactose-deficient IgA1 in serum is a
risk of long-term renal sequelae, we need better biomarkers useful and widely available test for HSP
Fig. 7 Suggested clinical pathway for detection and referral of patients with HSP nephritis. This pathway has been adapted from local guidelines developed
by Dr D Hothi and Bristol Paediatric Nephrologists, and reprinted with permission from reference 50. Abbreviations: EMU early morning urinalysis; UP:PC
urine protein/creatinine ratio.
d. Contrast enema is an imaging test of choice for diagnosis healthy controls, but this test is not widely available for clinical
of intussusception in children with HSP purposes. Contrast enema would miss intussusception limited to
e. Kidney biopsy is usually performed in children with HSP the small bowel; abdominal ultrasound is the imaging test of
who have haematuria or proteinuria on presentation choice. Kidney biopsy is usually done in patients with uncertain
A2. Correct answer is a. diagnosis and in those with more severe kidney involvement
Diagnosis of HSP is clinical and is based on presence of purpura or (rapidly progressive nephritis, nephrotic syndrome).
petechiae plus one of the following: abdominal pain, arthritis or Q3. Which one of the following is the correct answer with
arthralgia, histological presence of leukocytoclastic vasculitis or regard to management of HenochSchnlein purpura:
proliferative glomerulonephritis, or renal involvement (haema- a. All children with HSP should be admitted to hospital for
turia, red blood cell casts or proteinuria). There are no tests close monitoring and intravenous hydration
specific for HSP. Serum level of total IgA is not clinically useful b. Treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is
test since it is elevated in 50% of patients with HSP. Serum levels contraindicated in children with HSP because of the
of galactose-deficient IgA1 can distinguish patients with HSP from potential adverse effects on the kidneys
c. Early treatment with glucocorticosteroids will prevent 14 Allen AC, Willis FR, Beattie TJ et al. Abnormal IgA glycosylation in
development of HSP nephritis and chronic kidney Henoch-Schnlein purpura restricted to patients with clinical
disease nephritis. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 1998; 13: 9304.
d. Children with HSP who have persistent microscopic 15 Novak J, Julian BA, Tomana M et al. IgA glycosylation and IgA immune
complexes in the pathogenesis of IgA nephropathy. Semin. Nephrol.
haematuria require kidney biopsy and immunosuppres-
2008; 28: 7887.
sive treatment
16 Trapani S, Micheli A, Grisolia F et al. Henoch Schonlein purpura in
e. Treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibi- childhood: epidemiological and clinical analysis of 150 cases over a
tors or angiotensin receptor blockers is an accepted 5-year period and review of literature. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 2005;
treatment of HSP nephritis in children with persistent 35: 14353.
proteinuria 17 Choong CK, Beasley SW. Intra-abdominal manifestations of
A3. Correct answer is e. Henoch-Schnlein purpura. J. Paediatr. Child Health 1998; 34: 4059.
Majority of children with HSP can be managed out of hospital 18 Narchi H. Risk of long term renal impairment and duration of follow
with close monitoring in an outpatient setting. NSAIDs are up recommended for Henoch-Schonlein purpura with normal or
useful treatment for arthralgia/arthritis in children with HSP, minimal urinary ndings: a systematic review. Arch. Dis. Child. 2005;
90: 91620.
but potential side effects on the kidney must be kept in mind
19 Jauhola O, Ronkainen J, Koskimies O et al. Renal manifestations of
and close monitoring of kidney function is important. There is
Henoch-Schnlein purpura in a 6-month prospective study of 223
no evidence from randomised controlled trials that early use of children. Arch. Dis. Child. 2010; 95: 87782.
glucocorticoids prevents kidney disease in children with HSP. 20 Belman AL, Leicher CR, Mosh SL et al. Neurologic manifestations of
Persistent microscopic haematuria is a common finding in chil- Schoenlein-Henoch purpura: report of three cases and review of the
dren with mild HSP nephritis; most of these children continue to literature. Pediatrics 1985; 75: 68792.
have normal kidney function and will do well. In children with 21 Ha TS, Lee JS. Scrotal involvement in childhood Henoch-Schnlein
HSP nephritis and persistent proteinuria (especially those who purpura. Acta Paediatr. 2007; 96: 5525.
are also hypertensive), treatment with angiotensin-converting 22 Vats KR, Vats A, Kim Y et al. Henoch-Schnlein purpura and
enzyme inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers seems to pulmonary hemorrhage: a report and literature review. Pediatr.
Nephrol. 1999; 13: 5304.
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23 Robson WL, Leung AK, Mathers MS. Renal colic due to
proteinuria one should start this treatment is, however, unclear.
Henoch-Schnlein purpura. J. S. C. Med. Assoc. 1994; 90: 5925.
24 Ozen S, Pistorio A, Iusan SM et al. EULAR/PRINTO/PRES criteria for
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