INTRODUCTION

1.1 Interior Orientation

The main purpose of interior orientation is to define the position of the perspective centre and
the radial distortion curve. A camera with known interior orientation is called metric if the
orientation elements do not change. An amateur camera, for example, is non-metric because
the interior orientation changes every time the camera is focused. Interior orientation which
primarily consists pointing on the fiducial marks which can be done by operator control or
pattern matching method. Interior orientation defines the internal geometry of a camera or
sensor as it existed at the time of a camera or sensor as it existed at the time of image capture.
The variables associated with image space are defined during the process of defining interior
orientation. Interior orientation in primary used to transform the image pixel coordinate
system or other image coordinate measurement system to the image space coordinate system.
Preparation necessary to recreate the geometry of the project rays to duplicate exactly the
geometry of the original photo. Interior orientation reconstruction of the centre of perspective
example the reference of the image on the camera, or even the interior orientation is just
putting the image in the same position they had in the camera at the shooting time. Interior
orientation means to match the floating mark with the fiducial marks of the photo in case of
analytical equipment and/ or digital, and to align the fiducial marks of the photo with the
plate, in the case of analogue device.

1.2 Relative Orientation

The relative orientation of two overlapping images describes the relative position and attitude
of two images with respect to one another. It is a 5-parameter problem. Given these 5
parameters all imaging rays of conjugate features intersect, and these intersections form the
model surface. After having completed the interior orientation for both images separately, the
two image coordinate systems are explicitly known. Therefore, relative orientation is a no
semantic task, and arbitrary conjugate features can be used for the computation of the
orientation parameters. It must only be assured that enough features distributed across the
complete model are used. A general, autonomous module for relative orientation should be
fast, accurate, robust, and reliable

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1.3 Exterior orientation

Exterior orientation defines the position and angular orientation of the camera that captured
an image. The variable defining the position and orientation of an image are referred to as
element of exterior orientation. The element of exterior orientation define the characteristic
associated with an image at time of exposure of capture. The positional elements of exterior
orientation include Xo, Yo and Zo. The position of the perspective center with respect to the
ground space coordinate system X, Y and Z. Zo is commonly referred to as the height of the
camera above sea level which is commonly defined by a datum. The angular or rotation
element of exterior orientation describe the relationship between the ground space coordinate
system, the image space coordinate system and three rotation angle commonly used to define
angular orientation.

1.4 Aim and Objective

Aim

To create the aerial triangulation after through the process of interior orientation, relative
orientation and exterior orientation in photogrammetric processing.

Objective

i. To perform interior orientation

ii. To establish the relationship between image coordinates system with ground
coordinates system
iii. To perform Relative and Absolute in Exterior orientation
iv. To perform block adjustment

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 METHODOLOGY

2.1 Flow of work

INSERT DATA
- Create new project by using Photomod
Software
- Insert Image Penang and / or Melaka

ANALOGUE PHOTO DIGITAL PHOTO

INTERIOR ORIENTATION INTERIOR ORIENTATION

- Insert Fiducial Coordinate & Focal Length - Manage camera used DMC
- Manual, Semiautomatic and Automatic - Assign selected camera
Interior Orientation - Set camera rotation 0 degree
- Generate Interior Orientation Report - Generate report of interior oriemtation

RELATIVE ORIENTATION RELATIVE ORIENTATION

- Automatic Tie Point Measurement - Automatic tie point measurement
- Relative Orientation Report - Relative Orientation report
- Change triplet residual threshold X,Y and Z - Change triplet residual threshold X, Y and
- Mark Tie Point in Six Zone Z

EXTERIOR ORIENTATION
EXTERIOR ORIENTATION
- GCP List By Insert Coordinate
- Insert GCP coordinate in Triangulation
- Import Imu File
- Block Adjustment
- Block Adjustment
- Generate Full Report
- Generate Report Of Block

Figure 2.1: Flow of work

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2.2 Data Acquisition

Penang: Image doc010 and doc011 were used.

Figure 2.2: Image of Penang

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Malacca: Image Ap41_02~430_rgb and Ap41_02~431_rgb is selected from three images
provided.

Figure 2.3: Image of Malacca

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2.3 Interior Orientation

Figure 2.4: New Project

From the figure above, the Photomod 5 Lite software is opened and Create new project is
clicked. On the Name box, the name of the project had been written as Melaka since the data
use is digital image of Malacca and Penang if the data use is analogue image of Penang.
Central projection is selected on the type and the coordinate system is selected From DB and
International is chosen, the coordinate system to Kertau/UTM Zone 47N is selected.

Figure 2.5: Add image

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New strip tab is appeared and the name is put as Strip 1. Using function Block on the top of
the tab, selects Add images from files to select the required aerial photos either image of
Penang or Malacca. Click on the icon to add all the images to the list. Set the output
format choose No at compression menu, On the Output files Placement choose overwrite at
when output file exist. Then click Convert.

Figure 2.6: Manage Cameras

In orientation tab, select interior orientation and choose manage camera. Add new camera
insert the information of camera name, camera type either digital or film, point of origin,
focal length, calibration date, principle point, fiducial mark. If choose image Penang it should
to insert all the fiducial coordinate data as below while if choose image Malacca, click digital
the insert the value of focal length 120mm and choose DMC at standard camera. At Manage
Project Cameras window, set the camera rotation for the selected images. Then click
Execute to apply the camera settings to all the aerial photos selected. After the conversion
had been complete, all the images that had been selected before will appear on the Strip 1. To
locate fiducial mark for accurate position it has to zoom in. When the position point correctly
click measure mark and continued to next point. According to the fiducial marks quadrant
and coordinates, the marks are selected on each on the edge of the images. To select the
mark, click on Measure Mark button. The marks are first selected roughly in the circle.

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 Points Film X (mm) Film Y (mm)

1 -106.001 -106.001
2 -105.999 106.002
3 106.001 106.002
4 105.999 -106.000

Table 2.1: Fiducial Marks

Figure 2.7: Report of Interior Orientation

To see the report of interior orientation, from the Orientation menu, interior orientation is
chose then Report on interior orientation is selected. Set the tolerance for the fiducial marks.
A window showing the Interior Orientation report will appear and showing the result and
error. Any items showing Yellow and Red have errors and need to be edited until it becomes
white, its mean no error or in tolerance. Click on the edit button to edit the error. The interior
Orientation workspace will appear again. But this time we need to carefully select the fiducial
marks of the images by zooming each of the marks been selected. By zooming closely, we
can see an Orange line showing the correction for the fiducial marks for that point. The
correction steps need to be done 2 to 3 times until the report is no longer has error. Then
preview the report again. At the Project State window, click refresh to see whether the
Interior Orientation process have been done correctly.

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2.4 Relative Orientation

Figure 2.8: Automatic Tie Points

From the Orientation on the top of the menu, Automatic tie point measurement is clicked.
Then, the generation of tie point is started automatically by clicking the Start menu at the
bottom of Automatic Tie Point Measurement tab but before generate the tie point click
relative orientation report setting than select for all image for show report, insert value 1.000
for vertical parallax threshold of stereo pairs and the value of triplet residuals threshold for
Penang image is XY is 0.018 and Z is 0.05 and Malacca image is XY is 0.00849 and Z is
0.05. An angle discrepancy threshold, degrees are 30.00. The number maximum for check
number of tie points is six, and two

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 Figure 2.9: Coordinate selected

The windows show a coordinate selected from this area. The point coordinates are provided
from lecturer. After GCP point marking, the tie point of all image are compute automatically

by the software. GCP list can be imported or manually input to the GCP list. Button is
clicked to input the GCP manually. There have two type of tie point it is in-strip and inter-
strip which is in-strip is side lap of image and inter-strip is at the end lap of the image. After
that, the report will show and the distribution uniformity should be uniform in and the box
colour is white. If it appears to be non-uniform and the colour of the box is yellow or red,
then the more tie points should be added. When relative orientation process finish and report
so good the window project state click green.

Point of GCP Coordinate, X (m) Coordinate, Y (m) Height, Z (m)

1 452731.868 257118.132 5.289
2 452135.038 257677.854 5.514
3 453309.521 257467.572 15.259
4 452242.214 258276.650 14.652
5 453713.305 257430.899 20.103
6 453628.630 258351.291 22.388
7 454225.533 257950.454 17.777
8 453447.143 257252.591 12.732
Table 2.2: GCP for Malacca image

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Point of GCP Coordinate, X (m) Coordinate, Y (m) Height, Z (m)
1 268844.286 E 595923.939 N 1.733
2 269034.558 E 596572.965 N 1.874
3 270947.418 E 596524.136 N 2.507
4 270614.149 E 595293.847 N 2.875
5 270095.888 E 596413.634 N 2.018
Table 2.3: GCP for Penang image

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2.5 Exterior Orientation

Figure 2.10: Block Adjustment

When finish the interior and relative orientation, next to continue to exterior orientation.
Click Block Adjustment icon on the project state window, block adjustment is process of
exterior orientation. This process for determination of individual photo orientation for each
photo based on control points measured.

Figure 2.11: Generate report

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Choose point attribute and point list menu then the error for each point can be review. Then
for the adjustment, coordinate types need to be edit whether Control, Check or Excluded.
Each point will represent the error of residual. The green point showed the tie point between
images and the triangle show every GCP points. If extend the limit, each should be edit again
until under the limitation. There are three steps to process exterior such as an independent
strip, independent stereo pairs and bundle adjustment. Select a bundle adjustment to continue
this process and click report and choose what are need to be included in the final report such
residual, control and check, on stereo pairs, on images, exterior orientation angles and mark
bad points. Then choose between models on tie residual. Make sure the value of X, Y and Z
is same like before. Choose alpha, omega, kappa model and radian units. After finish fill all
of detail, compute the parameters.

Figure 2.12: Result of bundle adjustment

The windows show result of bundle adjustment of third parameters. After finish the
parameters, the GCP point can changes the colour from Red to Green. On the project state
window, the exterior orientation will appear with green tick like the figure below. When
exterior orientation process finish and report and parameter so good the window project state
click green. The report of block adjustment is created by click report on the window and
saves the process.

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 Figure 2.13: Georeferenced of Penang and Malacca

Then images are directly georeferenced for 2 images. The images are rotate automatically
based on true direction and true ground coordinate system. The ground control measurement
is made by removing the point same as the lab manual. This step should be done for all of
eight GCP points for Malacca and five GCP point for Penang.

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 DATA AND RESULT

3.1 Result of Interior Orientation

The errors have been completely removed and the figure below shows that fiducial marks
measured are below the tolerance of RMS. The result of both images is in the tolerance of
Interior Orientation. The figure below had shown the result of process Interior Orientation. If
the result of report in red colour, thats meant the value of residual not in tolorance. Adjust
the mark to get the result in white result. Interior Orientation is to make the geometry images
are correct.

3.1.1 Penang

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3.1.2 Malacca

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3.2 Result of Relative Orientation

The Relative Orientation has been applied only when the tie points and GCPs are sufficient.
The distribution uniformity has to achieve its uniform status meaning that the tie points and
GCPs had been distributed uniformly throughout the images. Besides, the points between
images have to be within its tolerance of RMS and y-parallax of the points. The result of
relative orientation was shown in the figure below. The tolerance for this process is for XY is
0.018mm and for Z is 0.05mm. If the result not in the tolerance, add more tie point in the
images. The result must in white report. The table of distribution uniformly must show
uniform.

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3.2.1 Penang

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3.2.2 Malacca

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3.3 Result of Exterior Orientation

The images have been orientated and the position is determined precisely with correct
projection. Figure below shows the result after interior, relative and exterior orientation is
performed. The figure shows the result of both images for exterior orientation. In this step,
the image must be process by bundle adjustments. The aim for this process is apply to
compute the residual of GCP.

3.3.1 Penang

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3.3.2 Malacca

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 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS

The comparison between analog and digital image processing

Analog image processing Digital image processing

Includes processing on two dimensional Deals with developing a digital system that
analog signals. performs operations on digital image.
The image processing is quite complex. The image processing is easier.
Slow and low quality of image distribution. Fast and high quality image distribution.
Required for human viewing. Is a matrix of many small elements or pixels.

Analysis had been done on the generalized adjustment residuals information that was got
from block adjustment process. Figure had shown the ground control points residuals. For
image of Penang, the limit that needed to be considered is 0.018 for the x, y and elevation of
the GCP points and 0.050 for z. However, for Malacca image the limit that needed to be
considered is 0.008 for x, y and elevation of the GCP points and 0.050 for z. for both images,
the GCP points should get the values of adjustment less than the limit provided. Once the
residuals is unacceptable, * will appeared at the values. The GCP points on the images need
to be adjusted until the * is missing. The points with acceptable residuals may not be
appeared in the report.

Penang

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Malacca

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 CONCLUSION

In conclusion, all objectives of this lab task had been achieved successfully. From this task,
there are three reports that can be produced from three orientation process performed which
are interior orientation, relative orientation and lastly exterior orientation. In interior
orientation process, the understanding on how to define the position of the perspective center
and the radial distortion curve. Interior orientation is easily to perform using digital image
compared than analog image. This is because, analog image needs to defined by four fiducial
marks at each corner of the image while for digital image only use the point of origin to
perform the interior orientation. On the other hand, interior orientation means to match the
floating mark with the fiducial marks of the photo in case of digital, and to align the fiducial
marks of the photo with plate in case of analog devices. When doing the relative orientation,
image from analog and digital should follow the same procedure. The automatic tie point
measurement is performed to generate the tie points on the both image. Once the report of
relative orientation is produced, the yellow color shown that tie points are not distribute in
good condition. So, some tie points should be added to the zone that had been yellow. Lastly
in exterior orientation, some GCP points are added on the digital and analog image. Exterior
orientation also defined the position of the perspective center (o) with respect to the ground
space coordinate system (x, y, and z). z commonly referred to the height of the camera above
sea level. Block adjustment is done to compute adjustment (or transformation) based on
internal relationship between overlap images, ground control points (GCPs), a camera model
and applying the adjustment to the images within a block.

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 REFERENCE

Mdm. Sharifah Norashikin Bohari, Lecturer of Advanced Photogrammetry, UiTM Perlis,

2016.

Lecture note Advanced Photogrammetry SUG 613

Horn, B. K. (1989). Relative Orientation. 1-38.

http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/manage-data/raster-and-images/block-adjustment-
for-mosaic-datasets.htm

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