MODULE DESCRIPTION

1. Module Code: BIT 123

2. Module Title: Fundamental Mathematics
3. Level: 1 Semester: II Credits: 15
4. First year of presentation: 2014 Administering Faculty: School of
Business
5: Pre-requisite or co-requisite modules, excluded combinations
- High School level mathematics
- Self-study individual readings

6.1. Brief description of aims and content

At the end of the module, the students will be able to:

Explain the general aspects of algebra including Set theory, functions,

equations, sequences and series and matrices.
Explain the general aspects of differential and integral calculus
Understand and solve business and economic problems using basic
mathematical concepts.

6.2. Learning Outcomes

Having successfully completed the module, students should be able to demonstrate:
i. understanding of basic mathematical Theories
ii. the ability to apply mathematical skills to solve problems (equilibrium price,
supply and demand related problems, elasticity values)
iii. ability to use basic differential and integral techniques for decision making

7. Indicative Content

Unit 1: Algebra
 Set theory : Definitions, Set elements, Subsets, Set operations and
applications to probability; Set of real numbers, exponentiation
and irrational numbers in IR, factorisation in IR ,and algebraic
fractions ;
Functions: Definitions, domain of a function, graphs of functions,
parity, periodicity, quadratic and parabolic functions ;
Equations: First and second-order equations; Exponential
equations.
Sequences and series: Definitions and properties, Arithmetic and
Geometric progressions, Sum operations.
Unit 2: Matrix algebra
Definitions, and properties; Types of matrices, operations on
matrices
Determinant of a matrix, matrix inversion,
Application of matrices

Unit 3: Differential and integral calculus

Differential calculus: Limits and continuity, Rules of
differentiation, derivatives of explicit and implicit
functions(polynomial, logarithmic, exponential), Higher order
derivatives
Integral calculus : Definition, Rules of integration, Integral
functions, Applications , Limits, continuity, differentiation,
integration, and transcendental functions.
MULTIVARIABLE CALCULUS: Partial differentiation,
multiple integration, and infinite series.

8 Learning and Teaching Strategy

The students have to attend the lecture sessions. They are expected to do lot of
exercises by taking real life examples. By group study they themselves will be able
clear all their doubts, in case they have not followed the lecture sessions.
9. ASSESSMENT STRATEGY
The main principles that underlying assessment are: understanding, interpretation
and application. A student is evaluated through a combination of assignments,
exercises, group discussion and examination. The final grade in the module will be
based on the following percentages (See table below). There will be mandatory
assignments which will be individually graded. Also, the student performance is
evaluated by the lecturer by his/her class participation and oral (group) presentation
of assignments. There will be one final exam.
Component Weighting Learning objectives
(%) covered
In-course
assessment:
Assignments: 20 i to v (see section 6.2
above)

CAT 30 i to v (see section 6.2

above)
Final examination 50 i to v (see section 6.2
above)
Total 100

10 Strategy for feedback and student support during module

Students who have problems will be understood by giving home works and asking
questions in the class. In case they need additional explanation that will be provided
as discussion group.

11 Indicative Resources
Core Text
Joseph A Gallian (2009) Contemporary Abstract Algebra, Cengage Learning, USA
Charles C. Pinter (2014) A Book of Set theory, Kyung Moong Publishers, South
Korea
James stewart (2007) Calculus: Early transcendentals, Cengage Learning, UK
Background Texts
Courant, R. and H. Robbins. 1996. What Is Mathematics? : An Elementary
Approach to Ideas and Methods, 2nd Ed , Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Louise Swift. 1997. Mathematics and statistics for Business, Management and
Finance, Macmillan Business, London.
Journals
Journal of Mathematics.
Teaching/Technical Assistance

LCD projector with lap top

Others
n/a
13: Please add anything else you think is important

14. UNIT APPROVAL

Deans and Heads of all Departments contributing to the programme to confirm
agreement
Department Dean/Head of Department Date
Signature
1
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Signature
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2
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Seen and agreed
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Unit 1: ALGEBRA
1. Set theory

An unordered collection of objects forms a set.

The objects in a set are called the elements, or members, of the set.
We denote sets by uppercase letters such as A, B, C, and members of
set by lowercase letters such as a, b, c,
Two sets are equal if they have the same elements.
One can describe a set by
listing all its members between braces, i.e., enumeration (e.g., {a, e, i,
o, u}),
use a set builder notation (e.g., { x x is a vowel in the English
alphabet}), or
graphically using Venn diagrams
Note that when set notation is used, an element in a set is listed only
once. Example, the set of letters in word bookkeeper is b, o, k , e, p, r.
To indicate that an element a is a member of set A , we write a A , which
is read a is an element of A or a belongs to A . To indicate that the
element a is not a member of the set A , we write a A , which is read a
is not an element of A or a does not belong to A .
The cardinality of a finite set S is the number of distinct elements in S,
and is denoted by S.
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
 A set that contains all the objects under consideration is called the
universal set, denoted by U.
A set with no elements is an empty set or sometimes the null set,
denoted by . Note that the set is not an empty set since it is a set
which contain one element .
The set S is a subset of T iff every element of S is also an element of T,
denoted by S T.
S is a proper subset of T, denoted by S T, iff S T and S T. If S is
not a subset of set T, we write S T .
The cardinal number of a set A, denoted n(A); is the number of
elements in the set. n(A) is read the number of elements in set A
The power set of a set S is the set of all subsets of S, denoted by P(S).
Example, given a set S a, b, c, thus, the power set of S is
P( s) , a, b, c, a, b, a, c, b, c, a, b, c. Therefore, the number of elements
(subsets) in a power set are computed as 2 , where n(S ) is the number of
n( S )

elements in set S . Furthermore from above example it is clear that every

set is a subset of itself and an empty set is a subset of every set.
The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A B, is
defined as {(a, b) a A b B}.
Set operations:
o Union A B = {x x A x B} i.e. the set of all elements
that belong to A or to B or to both.
o Intersection A B = {x x A x B} i.e. the set of all
elements that belong to both A and B.
o Difference A B = {x x A x B}
o Complement = {x x A} i.e. the set of all elements in the
universal set that are not in A
o Distributive law C (A B)=(C A) (C B)
o Distributive law C (A B)=(C A) (C B)
o De Morgans laws 1. (A B)=A B 2. (A B)=A B
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is an empty set ( A B ),
i.e. two sets with no elements in common.
Exercises
1. How many elements are there in each of the following sets? Are the sets all
different? i) ii ) iii ) iv) , v) ,

2. Let A x / x is an int eger between 1 and 15, inclusive.decide whether the following
statements are true or false.
a)1 A b) 16 A c) 15 A d )15 A e) 15 A f ) 1,2,11 A
3. List
g) A A h) A A i) A A j) A k ) A l) A
all the subsets of the set w, x, y, z

4. The difference, A-B, of two sets A and B is defined to be the of all elements in A
that are not in B. Use Venn diagrams to illustrate the following sets:
a) A B b)( A B) ( B A) c) U A where U is universal set

5. Let U={-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7};
A={2, 5};
B={x| x is an integer and x2 is less than 16};
C={3}; E={0,1,2,3,4};
F={-3,-2,0,2,7}
i. Answer the following as true or false. (a) 3C ; (b) 5A B ; (c) 4 4 ; (d) A

ii. Answer the following as true or false. (a) C A; (b) C B; (c) B E; (d) C (B E)

iii. Compute ( A B) F

iv. Compute (A F) B

v. Compute ( A' C ) E

vi. Compute (B ' F ' ) ( A C)

1.1. Set of real numbers (Algebra)

Recall about set of numbers

The set of Natural numbers IN 1,2,3,4,

The set of Whole numbers W 0,1,2,3,4,5, W IN 0

The set ODDS O 1,3,5,7,9,11,

The set of EVENS E 0,2,4,6,8,10,12,
A FINITE set has cardinal number a whole number
A INFINITE set is a set that is not finite

Set of Integer numbers Z ,5,4,3,2,1,0,1,2,3, Z Z 0 Z

a
Set of Rational numbers, or limited and periodic non-limited decimal numbers Q | a; b Z and b 0
b

I is the set of irrational numbers are real numbers that cannot be written as rational numbers. Irrational numbers
are non-terminating/ non-repeating decimals.

One big example of irrational numbers is roots of numbers that are not perfect
roots - for example 2 , 3
5, 17 . 17 is not a perfect square.

The union of the set of rational and irrational numbers is the set of REAL
NUMBERS. IR Q I

IR x | x corresponds to po int on the number line ,

Set of numbers can be expressed in terms of subsets of real numbers as follows

IN W Z Q IR Q I

1.2. Definition
If a, b IR , then there are three possible cases of order in IR : a b , a b , a b

If a and b are real numbers, then a b mea ns that b-a is positive,

 a b means that a b or a=b.
1.2.1. Theorem

a) If ab and b c ,then a c

b) If a b ,then a c b c

c) If ab and c d ,then a c b d

d) If a b ,then ac bc when c is positive and ac bc when c is negative

1 1
e) If a and b are both positive or both negative and a b ,then
a b.

Remark: These five properties remain true if and are replaced by and ,
respectively.
1.3. Intervals
Recall of definition of real number as number line:

= { / } = ], +[

Zero is the origin on the number line;

Zero separates the negative real and positive real +

a) Open interval

If a and b are two real number such that a < b then the set = {: < < }
consisting of all real number between a and b (excluding a and b) is called an
open interval and it is denoted by (a, b) or ], [.

b) Closed interval

The set = {: } consisting of all real number between a and b

(including a and b) is called interval and it is denoted by [, ].
c) Semi-closed and semi-open interval

The interval ], ] = {: < } is semi-open semi-closed interval.

The interval [, [ = {: < } is semi-closed semi-open interval.

Interval Set notation Geometric picture Namely

notation
a, b x : a x b Closed
interval
a, b x : a x b Open
interval
a, b x : a x b Half
closed
a, b x : a x b Half open
, b x : x b Closed
above
, b x : x b Half open
a, x : a x Half
closed
a, x : a x
, x : xisrea ln umber Open

Exercise:
Let U , A x : x 0, B x : x 1 and C x : x 2 Find each of the
following set:
a) A B b) A C c) B C d) A B e) A C f ) BC g) A h) B
i) C j) A \ B k) B \ C l) A B m) B C n) A B o) B C
 1.4. Indices (power) and Fraction indices (radical)
1.4.1.Indices:

Indices or power, provide a convenient notation when we need to multiply a

number by itself several times.

EX: 3x3x3x3=34 , a x a x a x a x x a =

In the expression, is the power of , when a is the base and is the

exponent.
Rules of indices

= + Ex: x 3 x 5 x 35 x 8

x6
= (m>n, a0) Ex: x 64 x 2
x 4

am 1 x3 1 1
n
nm , (m n, a 0) Ex: 7
74 3
a a x x x

( ) = ( ) = Ex: x x
2 3 3 2
x 3.2 x 6

() = Ex: xy 8 x 8 y 8

3
x x3
( ) = Ex: 3
y y

0 = 1

1 1
= , > 0, 0 Ex: x 5
x5

1.4.2. Fractional indices

1
= the nth root of a. Ex: 271 / 3 3 27 3
 1 1
= ( ) = ( ) = ( ) = Ex: x4/3 3 x4

27 3 27 3
= Ex: 3 3
8 8 2

= Ex: 4b 4 b 2 b

Exercises
1. Simplify the given expression as much as possible. Assume a, b, c are positive real
numbers.

a) (a 3 b 2 c 5 )(a 2 b 6 c 3 )

b) a 3 b 2 2
c2
3

1 x 1
2. Write as simple fraction with positive exponent:
1 x 2
3. Rationalize each denominator:
6x
a)
2x
x4
b)
x 2
4. Express as a simple fraction reduced to lower terms
y x

x2 y2
y x

x y

1.5. Logarithms
Consider the following exponential expression:
=
is the base, and is the exponent of the exponential expression.
The logarithm of to the base is the exponent to which must be raised to obtain
.
Example: Evaluate
 i) log 10,000
ii) log 3 81
Answer:
i) log 10,000 = log 104 = 4
ii) log 3 81 = log 3 34 = 4
Laws of logarithmic operations
Multiplication law: log ( ) = log + log
Example: log 3 (9 27) = log 3 9 + log 3 27 = 2 + 3 = 5

Quotient law: log ( ) = log log

27
Example: log 3 ( ) = log 3 27 log 3 9 = 3 2 = 1
9

Zero Power law: log ( ) = log

Example: log 5 (53 ) = 3 log 5 5 = 3
log = 1

EXERCISES 1.2
1. Evaluate the following
1
i) log ii) log 2 81 + log 2 16 iii) 4log 4 3 + 2 log 2 ( )
9
2. Simplify
4
5 16 (3 ) 6
i) 7 7 ii)
2 (3 )3

1.6. Absolute values of a real numbers (or modulus)

The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number x, denoted by x : is defined as

x if x 0
x
x if x 0
thus we have x 0 also x x

ab a b but a b a b (does not necessarily imply a=b).

Theorem 1:

For every :

i) x= max (-x, x);

ii) x x
iii) x = min (-x, x)
iv) x x
2 2
v) x = 2 = x

Proof of theorem:

i) If , x = > 0 = > < 0 ;

Thus in either case x is larger of the two number ; . : =

max(, )

ii) Using i) x = max(, )

iii) x = < > 0 x = < < 0

Thus in either case x ; . : x =

min(, )
iv) Using iii) x = min(, )

2
v) For 0, x = x = 2

2
For < 0, x = x = ()2

2 2 2 2
Thus in either case x x = ()2 = 2 x = 2 = x

Theorem 2:

If ,

i) =

ii) = 0

iii) + + (triangular inequality)

iv)

Proof of theorem

i) If , 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 = ()2 = =

But are both non-negative, therefore we take the positive sign, (we
reject negative sign).

Thus =

2 2 2
ii) 2 = ( )2 = = =( ) = by rejecting negative
2 2

sign we get

= 0

iii) + 2 = ( + )2 = 2 + 2 + 2 2 + 2 + 2 Since ( )

=> + 2 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 + 2 + 2 = ( + )2

=> + 2 ( + )2 => + = ( + ) +
+ are both positive, we reject negative sign;

Therefore + +

iv) = + + (by using the previous property iii)

Theorem 3:

For real number , , show that

i) < < <

ii) < < < +

Proof:

i) We have = max(, ) < by assumption

< <

< <

Therefore < <

ii) = max{( ), ( )} <

( ) < ( ) <

< + < < < +

Example: If , + such that > prove (show) that 2 > 2

Solution: if x, y IR

(1) By multiplying x to both side of x y , we get x 2 xy

(2) By multiplying y to both side of x y , we get xy y 2
Therefore by combining (1) and (2) we get x 2 xy y 2 x 2 y 2

Note that for each real number x y there exist a real number a 0 such that y xa.

2. FUNCTION

2.1. FUNCTION AND GRAPHS

Def1: A function is a rule that receives an input and produces an output.

EX: If 6 is the input, then 6+2=8 will be the output.

Input Function output

Def2:

= ( )

f is a function if each element of A has one or zero image in B

Domf x A / f ( x) B The range (co-domain, Image)
Domain=pre-image

The set of elements of A for which the output exist in B, is called Domain (pre-
image) of f , denote Domf

The set of the output is called Range (co-domain, image) denoted

Im f codom f B

2.2. Function as mapping

Before define a function as mapping first we define a relation.

Definition: A relation, R, from a set A to a set B is well defined subject of the

Cartesian product A B . For all elements x A and y B , the relation from A to B

is denoted A B .

Definition: A mapping function is a function from set A to a set B is a relation

from A to B in which each element of A is paired with one, and only one,
element of B

Arrow diagram illustrated the mapping of the domain to the range.

 A B

1. .a

2. .b

A is a mapping of the domain to range since A dom f (all element in A is a pre-

image or mapped in B )

A mapping function can be:

injective function
surjective function
bijective function

i. Injective function

An injective function (or one-to-one function) is a function which maps distinct

input values to distinct output value.

A function f : A B is injective if for every y in range there is at most one x in the

domain with f ( x) y

i.e. x1 x2 A f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) B another way (by contrapositive)

f is injective x1 , x2 A, whenever f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) x1 x2

N.B: An injective does not necessarily cover all possible output

Example: 1.
A f B

. .
 .

f is injective because to each input in A corresponds one and only one output
in B

2.
g:RR
g is injective since is one-to-one
x g ( x) 2 x 3

Proof: Suppose x, y R / g ( x ) 2 x 3

We want to show that if g ( x1 ) g ( x2 ) x1 x2

g ( x1 ) 2 x1 3 and g ( x2 ) 2 x2 3

g ( x1 ) g ( x2 ) 2 x1 3 2 x2 3
2 x1 2 x2
x1 x2

Therefore g is injective

Exercise: show that

h: z z
is not an injective function
x h( x ) x 2

ii. Surjective function (Onto)

A function is said to be surjective or onto if its values span its whole co-domain
(range).
It means for every y in the range (codomain) there is at least one x in the
domain such that f ( x) y . Another way

A function f :AB is surjective if y B, x A / f ( x) y

If y B, x A such that f ( x) y . i.e. f [ A] B

Examples: 1. Show that the function f is surjective

f :RR
x f ( x) 2 x 1

Proof: Let y R / y 2 x 1 . We want to show that y R, x R / f ( x) y

y 1
y 2x 1 2x y 1 x R . Therefore f is surjective
2

3. show that

f :N N
is not surjective.
x f ( x) x 2

Answer: f is not surjective because there are natural numbers (in the arrival
set) which are not perfect square that have no input. Eg: 2,3,5,6,7,8,.

Exercise: show that the function

f :RR
is not surjective
x f ( x) x 2

iii. Bijective function

A given function f : A B is bijective if it is both injective and surjective

A function f is bijective if and only if every element of codomain is mapped by

exactly one element of the domain
Example: 1. f : A B where A is natural number less or equal to 10 and B is x 10

natural number less or equal to 20.

i.e. A {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

B {11, ,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20} , therefore we can define f ( x) x 10, x 10 N ,

Example: 2. For any set x, the identity function ( f ( x) x ) is bijective.

2.3. Numerical functions

f : A B is numerical function if A, B are R

f :RR
is numerical function in one variable
x f ( x) ax b

f ( x) ax b, a, b R

n
algebraic functions
f ( x ) ar x , r Q
r

r 0

2.3.1.Some standard real functions (Algebraic function) and their graph

2.3.1.1. Constant function
f :RR
x f ( x) c

A real function defined by f ( x) c where c is a fixed real number ( c R ) is

called a constant function. It has Domain: Dom f R and range: Im f {c}

Ex: f ( x) 3 is constant function

Graph of a constant function defined on f ( x) c is a horizontal line which is

parallel to x-axis or independent axis.

Constant function has equation yc

Graphic representation of constant function
Y

(0,c) y=c

(0,0) X

2.3.1.2. Identity function:

f :RR
Identity function is a real function defined by f ( x) x , it has
x f ( x) x
Dom f R and Im f R
The graph of identity function is a straight line. It has equation yx
X -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Y -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2 D yx

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-2

2.3.1.3. Linear function:

f :RR
x f ( x) ax b, a, b R and a 0
 Where a is a slope of function and decreasing function when the slope is
negative (i.e. a 0 ) and is positive when the slope is positive ( a 0 ). A linear
function has equation D y ax b

Coordinates of linear function (intercept points)

The coordinates of linear function are found by solving y ax b
b b
If y 0 ax b o then x , the coordinate of x and y are ,0 respectively.
a a
If x 0 then y b , the coordinates are (0, b)

1
Example: Given the linear function y 2 x 1 then the coordinates are ( ,0) and (0,1)
2

Note that two points or two couple of coordinate are enough to define the path of
straight line (path of linear function)
Graph of linear function

Y a0 Y

b D y ax b b a0

The slope is positive the slope is negative

b b
0 X 0 X
a a

Parallel condition of two lines

Two lines (linear equations) D y ax b and D' y a' x b' are said parallel if their
slope are equal. i.e. slope a in D is equal to that a ' in D '
Mathematically D // D' a a '

Ex: D1 y x 1 and D2 10 x are parallel since their slope are equal a 1 a'

Perpendicular condition
Two lines (linear equations) D y ax b and D' y a' x b' are said to be
perpendicular if the product of slope is equal to -1. i.e. D D' aa' 1
Ex: D1 3x y 1 and D2 3 y x 2

x 2
D1 y 3x 1 and D2 y x
3 3

1
The product of slope is aa' 3 1 , therefore D1 and D2 are perpendicular.
3

2.3.2. Equations and inequalities of first order

2.3.2.1. Equations

Definition

An equation is an expression with an equal sign. I n addition to this, in equations,

unlike in functions, none of the variables in the expression is designated as the

dependent variable or the independent variable, although the variables are explicitly

related.

a) Formulation and examples

The linear equation has this standard for
+ = , ,
Example: Write the following equations in standard form
3
a) + =
4
+ 3
b) =
+ 43

Answers:
 3
a) + = 8 + 12 = 3 8 = 3 12 7 + 15 = 0
4
+ 3
b) =
+ 43
( + )(4 3) ( + )( 3) = 0
8 2 + 12 6 9 8 2 7 + 24 + 21 = 0
23 + 12 = 0
b) Solution of linear equations
To solve an equation involving a variable is to find the value or roots of the
equation, and the set of these values is referred to as the solution set.

+ = 0 = =


={ }

Example1:
Solve the following
3
i) = +9
4 4
+3 1 1
ii) =
16 4 8

Answer:
i) 3 = + 36 2 = 36 = 18 = {18}
ii) + 3 4( 1) = 2 + 3 4 + 4 = 2 3 = 2 7 = 5
5
=
3
5
={ }
3
Example2: The sum of two consecutive odd numbers is 32.What are the two odd
numbers?
Answer:
Let us denote the first number as and the second one is + 2
According to the given statement we have, + ( + 2) = 32
2 + 2 = 32 2 = 30 = 15
The first number is 15 and the second one is 17
Example3: A consumer P spends a monthly average of 23 shillings more on luxury
goods than a second consumer Q. Both P and Q spend 139 shillings on luxury
goods. What is the average monthly expenditure of each of the two consumers?
Answer: Let us consider the expenditures of the second consumer Q is
The expenditures of the second consumer P is + 23
Both P and Q spend 139 shillings on luxury goods means that + ( + 23) = 139
2 + 23 = 139 2 = 116 = 58
The average monthly expenditure of second consumer Q is 58 shillings and the
average monthly expenditure of first consumer P is 81 shillings
Example4: The national income, Y, of a country is given by: Y=C+I+G
Where C, I and G are, respectively, the consumption, investment and government
1
expenditure components of the countrys national income. Consumption is the size
3
of investment, but 50,000 shillings less than government expenditure. If the national
income of the country is 1,050,000 shillings, find the levels of consumption,
investment and government expenditure for the country?
1
Answer: = and = + 50,000
3

Y = C + I + G = 1,050,000 Y = C + 3 + + 50,000 = 1,050,000

1
5 = 1,000,000 C = 1,000,000 = 200,000
5
The levels of consumption is 200,000 shillings, investment is 600,000 shillings,
and government expenditure for the country is 250,000 shillings.
2.3.2.2. Inequalities
Inequalities of first degree with one unknown
The general form of inequation of 1st degree in one unknown (linear
inequality) is: ax b 0; ax b 0; ax 1 0; ax b 0 where a IR0 , b IR
3 3
Example: 1) 2 x 3 0 2 x 3 x , S ,
2 2

2) 3x 6 0 3x 6 x 2 S 2,

3) 5 3x 0 3x 5 x 5 / 3 S ,5 / 3

The sign of ax b

By solving ax b 0 x b / a

x b/a

ax b Opposite sign of a 0 sign of a

Example: 1 2 x 0 2 x 1 x 1 / 2
x 1/ 2 S ,1 / 2

1 2 x + 0 -
Sign of product (quotient)

P( x) (a1 x b1 )(a2 x b2 )

x1 b1 / a1 ; x2 b2 / a2

x - x b1 / a1 x b2 / a2

a1 x b1 - 0 + +

a2 x b2 - - 0 +

(a1 x b1 )(a2 x b2 ) + 0 - 0 +
Example: Solve (2 x 6)(6 3x) 0

(2 x 6)(6 3x) 0 2 x 6 0 and 6 3x 0

x 6 / 2 3 and x 6 / 3 2

x 3 and x2

x 3 2

2x 6 - 0 + +

6 3x - + 0 -

(2 x 6)(6 3x) + 0 + 0 -

S 3,2

Exercises: 1) Solve and graph: i) 2(2 x 3) 6( x 2) 10 ; ii) a) 5 2 x 3 7

2x 6 4 3x (4 3x)( 2 x 6)
2) Solve i) 0; ii) 0 ; iii) 0
6 3x (2 x 6)(6 3x) 6 3x

2.3.2.3. Equation and inequalities with absolute values

Solve in IR the equation x 3 x 5 12

Solution:

x 3 if x 3 0 x 3 if x 3
x 3
( x 3) if x 3 0 x 3 if x 3

x 5 if x 5 0 x 5 if x 5
x5
( x 5) if x 5 0 x 5 if x 5
So, there are three cases to deal with: (1) x 5 ; (2) 5 x 3 ; (3) x 3

R- Case 1: x 5 x 3 x 5 12

x 3 x 5 2
2 x 2 12
2 x 14
14
x 7
2
S 7

R+ Case 2: 5 x 3 x 3 x 5 0

x 3 x 5 12
0 x 4 (impossible equation)
S

Case 3: x 0 x 3 x 5 12

x 3 x 5 12
x5
S 5

The general solution of equation is S s1 s2 s3 7,5

Exercise

Solve in IR the inequality x 3 x 2 11 (hint: three cases to analyse are: x 2,

2 x 3, x 3) Solution case1

The Solution should be S s1 s2 s3 5,2 2,3 3,6

2.3.3. Quadratic function

2.3.3.1. Factoring
a. Using common factors ab2 a 2b ab(b a)
 b. Using the difference of squares: a 2 b 2 (a b)(a b)
c. Perfect squares and identities : (a b) 2 a 2 2ab b 2
(a b)3 a 3 3a 2b 3ab2 b3
a 3 b 3 (a b)( a 2 ab b 2 )
a 3 b 3 (a b)( a 2 ab b 2 )
d. Grouping terms: a 2 2ab b 2 1
a 2 2ab b 2 1 (a b) 2 1 (a b 1)(a b 1)
Ex:
x 2 4 x 5 ( x 2) 2 2 2 5
( x 2) 2 9
( x 1)( x 5)
e. Factorization of the quadratic function y ax2 bx c a, b, c R
b c
ax 2 bx c a[ x 2 x ]
a a
b b c
a[( x ) 2 ( ) 2 ]
2a 2a a
b 2 b2 4ac
a[( x ) 2 2]
2a 4a 4a
b 2 b 2 4ac
a[( x ) ]
2a 4a 2
Let b 2 4ac
b 2
a[( x
) 2]
2a 4a
b
ax 2 bx c 0 a[( x ) 2 2 ] 0
2a 4a
b b
x x
2a 2a 2a
b b
x1 , x2
2a 2a
If 0, ax2 bx c a( x x1 )( x x2 )
0, ax2 bx c a( x x1 ) 2 for x1 x2
0, No real root, but complex

Sum and product of roots

b b 2b b
S x1 x2
2a 2a 2a a

b b b 2 b 2 b 2 4ac c
p x1 x2
2a 4a 2
2 a 4a 2 a
ax2 bx c x 2 Sx p

2.3.3.2. The graphical representation of quadratic function

b
The point s(m, n) in the vertex of the graph of ax2 bx c where m and n 2 . When a 0,
2a 4a
s is minim and the graph turn down while when a 0 , s maximum and the curve turn up.

Example: x 2 6 x 5 0 , 36 20 16
64 64
x1 5, x 2 1
2 2

s x1 x2 5 1 6
p x1 x2 5 *1 5

x 2 6 x 5 ( x 5)( x 1)
S {1,5}

Sign of quadratic function

If 0 , ax2 bx c a( x x1 )( x x2 ) it has two distinct roots

x x1 x2

ax 2 bx c Sign of a 0 opposite sign of a 0 sign of a

ax 2 bx c Has the sign of a except between the two roots when there exist.

Example: Solve in R ,

x 2 2 x 15 0 , 4 60 64

28 28
x1 3 And x2 5
2 2

x -5 3

f (x) + 0 - 0 +
S ] 5,3[

Example
 2.3.4.Polynomial function:
f :RR
x f ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 an x n

Where n is a positive integer, called degree of polynomial and ai is constant for

all value i .
A polynomial is a power function of the form f ( x) kx p where k R and p Z

A polynomial function has domain R : Dom f R

Example: f ( x) x 5 3x 4 7 x 3 5x 2 2 x 10 is a polynomial of degree 5.

2.3.5.Rational function:
A rational function is quotient of two polynomial functions
P( x)
Thus a rational function can be defined as R( x) where p(x) and Q(x) are
Q( x)
polynomial function (provide that Q( x) 0 ).
x2 2x 9
Ex: R( x)
x3
x 3 3x 2
Ex: R( x) 2
x 2x 1
 2.3.6.Divisibility of polynomial
Let P(x) be the polynomial of degree n

Definition: P(x) is divisible by ( x ) if the remainder is 0

Factoring the polynomial of high than two order

P( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 an x n

div a0 {1 , 2 , , k }, i 1,2,3,, k where i are divisors of a0

If P( i ) 0, then P( x) ( x i )q( x)

If p( i ) 0 , then ( x i ) is not a factor of P(x)

Example: 2 x 3 3x 2 32 x 15

Solution div15 {1,3,5,15}

P(3) 54 27 96 15 0

P( x) ( x 3)q( x)

Horner method
2 3 -32 15
X=3 6 27 -15
2 9 5 0
P( x) ( x 3)q( x) ( x 3)(2 x 2 9 x 5),

To factoring q(x) by Horner method we need to find divisors of -5 and then

substitute it
q(5) 50 49 5 0

2 9 -5
x=-5 -10 5
2 -1 0
q( x) ( x 5)(2 x 1) , therefore note that q(x) could be factoring using quadratic method.

Exercises: Given P( x) bx3 2 x 2 3x 5

i. Find b such that ( x 1) be a factor of P(x)

ii. Solve p( x) 0
iii. Solve p( x) 0

Factoring the following

1
1) P( x) 12 x 3 16 x 2 5 x 3 ( x )
3
2) p ( x) 2 x 11x 17 x 6 ( x 2)
3 2

3) p ( x) 5 x 3 31x 2 31x 5 ( x 1)
4) p ( x) x 5 4 x 4 x 3 2 x 2 x 3 ( x)
5) p ( x) 6 x 5 41x 4 79 x 3 27 x 2 41x 6

Domain of definition of a numerical function

Let f : IR IR

x y f (x)

Domf x IR | y exist

x2 1
* deno min ator 0 Ex: f ( x) , x 3, thus Domf IR \ 3
x 3

* f ( x) ; f ( x) 0 Ex: f ( x) x ; x 0, thus Domf IR

* ln u ( x); u ( x) 0

* a x ; a IR0 \ 1

Operation in numerical function

1. Equality
Let f : IR IR with Dom f I
g : IR IR With Dom g J
 f gI J And x I ; f ( x) g ( x)

Function Definition Domain

f g f g ( x) f ( x) g ( x) I J
f .g f .g ( x) f ( x) g ( x) I J
1 1
( x)
1 I * x I | f ( x) 0
f f f ( x)
f f f ( x) I J*
( x)
g g g ( x) J * x J | g ( x) 0
f f ( x) f ( x) I x IR | f ( x) 0
f n
f n ( x) [ f ( x)]n I IR
Examples: Find the domain of the function
i) F(x)=1 (2 1)

3
Exercise: Given f ( x) and g ( x) 7 2 3x Find
x 2
2

i) Dom f
ii) Dom g
iii) Dom f g
f
iv) Dom
g
2. Comparison of function
Let f and g with the same domain E

f g if x E , f ( x) g ( x) ; f g if x E , f ( x) g ( x)

f is a positive function f 0 if x Dom f ; f ( x) 0

f is a positive function f 0 if x Dom f ; f ( x) 0

f 0 if x Dom f if f ( x) 0

Composition of function

Let f : A B

g:BC
g f read g after f

g f ( x) g[ f ( x)]

Example
f : x 2x 1

1
f :x
x 3

1 1
g f ( x) g (2 x 1)
(2 x 1) 3 2 x 2

1 1 2 ( x 3) 1 x
f g ( x) f ( ) 2 1
x 3 x 3 x 3 x 3

In general f g g f , but the associativity is possible h ( g f ) (h g ) f

Inverse function

Let f : A B

Then an inverse function of f is a function in the opposite direction from B to A , denoted by

f 1 : B A .

That is, if an input x into the function f produces an output y , then y is an input into the inverse
function f 1
1
f : f [ B] A
f ( x) f 1[ f ( x)] x
i.e. f 1 ( y ) x y f ( x)

Example: Find the inverse of the function

f :R R
x6
x f ( x)
x7

Solution
x6
Let us solve the equation y
x7
 ( x 7) y x 6
xy 7 y x 6
x( y 1) 6 7 y
6 7y
x
y 1

6 7x
The inverse function f 1 is given by the formula f 1 ( x)
x 1

Exercises

Determine the inverse of each real function

3x 2 1
f ( x)
f ( x) 3 2 x 2 x2
f ( x) x 3 x 1
f ( x)
1 5
f ( x)
x x2 1
f ( x)
f ( x) x 2x 3
f ( x) (2 x 1) 2 x9
f ( x)
x2

Even and Odd function

f : R R with domain Dom f

f is even if x Dom f , x Dom f and f ( x) f ( x)

f is odd if x Dom f , x Dom f and f ( x) f ( x)

Example

3x 2 1
f :x 2 is an even function
x 1

f : x x2 is an even function

g : x 2 x 3 5x is an odd function

g:xx is an odd function