ELECTRODYNAMICS

Electrodynamics is the Physics of the electromagnetic field.

Fields are the mediators of the interaction between material objects.

The force between the objects is transmitted (at a finite speed) by stresses
induced in the intervening space by the presence of the objects.

In Maxwell's theory, the field is its own physical entity, carrying momenta
and energy across space, and action at a distance is only the apparent effect
of local interactions of charges with their surrounding field.

In Einstein's theory of motion, matter acts upon space-time geometry,

deforming it, and space-time geometry acts upon matter, accelerating it.
 Fields representation
A scalar field is an assignment of a scalar value to every point in space.
Ex. Temperature : T( r, , )
A scalar field is a tensor field of order zero. A tensor can be represented as a
multi-dimensional array of numerical values.

A vector field is an assignment of a vector to each point in space.

A vector field can be written as = + + , where the components

are scalar fields.
A vector field is a 1st-order tensor field.
Ex. Gravitational field , Electric field , Magnetic field

We have flux (flow) of the electric field through a surface

or the circulation of magnetic field
The analogy with fluid flow is limited.
http://web.mit.edu/viz/EM/
http://web.mit.edu/viz/EM/flash/E&M_Master/E&M.swf
 ELECTRODYNAMICS

Space is altered by the presence of a charged object. Other objects in

that space experience the strange and mysterious qualities of the space.

Er , t - strength of the electric field, or simply, electric field;

Dr , t - electric displacement field, or electric flux density;

Br , t - magnetic flux density, or magnetic induction or simply,
magnetic field;;
H r , t - strength of the magnetic field or, auxiliary magnetic field;

Maxwell's equations are a set of partial differential equations that form the
foundation of classical electrodynamics. They describe how electric and
magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and
currents.
 ELECTRODYNAMICS

The source of the electromagnetic field is a very important quality of

matter named electric charge.

There are two classes of electric charges:

negative electric charges
positive electric charges
The elementary carrier of the negative electric charge is a stable
fundamental particle named electron,
and the elementary carrier of positive charge is another stable fundamental
particle, proton.

The elementary charge e 1.602 *10 19 C (Coulombs)

At the macroscopic level, any electric charge is an integer number of e.

In every physical process, the total electric charge is conserved.

electrization
 Every material is made up of atoms as the smallest unit. Atoms are not the only
basic structure in the Universe, but they do comprise all the types of matter
than can be seen and touched.

ATOM

ELECTRONS
NUCLEUS -e
me

PROTONS NEUTRONS
+e 0
mp mn

How Do You Charge Objects? http://web.mit.edu/viz/EM/flash/E&M_Master/E&M.swf

Friction
Transfer (touching)
Induction

The first electrostatic generator called friction machine was invented around 1663 by
Otto von Guericke, using a sulphur globe that could be rotated and rubbed by hand.
 Continuous charge distributions

Linear charge density () = (C/m)

Charge on the curve =

for a homogeneous charge distribution q L

Surface charge density () = (C/m2)

Charge on the surface q dA

for a homogeneous charge distribution q A
dq
Volume charge density () (C/m3)
dV

Charge in the volume V q dV

q V
V
for a homogeneous charge distribution
 (Strength of) Electric Field

An electric charge q produces an electric field everywhere.

To quantify the strength of the field created by a charge in a point, it can be
measured the force that a positive test charge q0 experiences at that point
and to divide by the magnitude of test charge.
q0 is considered to be infinitesimally small so that the field generated by q0 does not disturb the source charges.

F
E E
SI N /C V /m
q0
FROM THE FIELD THEORY POINT OF VIEW, we say that the charge q
creates an electric field which exerts a force = on a test charge q0.

Convention: the direction of the electric field vector is the direction that a
positive test charge is pushed or pulled in the presence of the electric field.

The superposition principle for the strength of the electric field:

n
E Ei
i 1
For a continuous electric charge distribution :

E dE
 (Strength of) Electric Field

The electrostatic fields can be visualized by electric

field lines
(imaginary lines, tangent in every point to the vector E ).
The electric field lines must begin on positive charges (or at infinity)
and end on negative charges (or at infinity) and can not cross each other.
 The Coulombs Law
The electric field at a distance r from a
point charge q is given by:
+
1 q r
E
4 r 2 r A

being a direct consequence of Coulombs law (1785).

Coulombs law describes the electrostatic interaction between 2 electric point

charges q, q0 at rest, situated at distance r relative to each other, in an
environment of electrical permittivity : (1)

1 qq 0 r q +
F
4 r 2 r
- (2)
Permittivity of free space 0 8,8 1012 F m , q 0

1
9 109 m F the Coulomb's constant
40
A
C
d
 (Electric displacement field) Electric flux density

For vacuum:

D 0E

D SI C/m 2

For dielectric media: D 0E P

For linear dielectrics (isotropic), the polarization vector is

P 0 eE with e the electric susceptibility - scalar.
The electric flux density or the electric
displacement vector for isotropic media is: D E

0 r the dielectric permittivity r 1 e the dielectric constant

One of the basic problems of electrostatics is the calculus of electric field ,

due to a spatial distribution of electric charge:
Superposition law for electric fields,
Gausss law for electric field.
 Gausss law
Elementary electric flux is the rate of flow through a small (elementary) area dS:

d e D dS


n dS dS n

dS
unit vector that points in a direction
perpendicular to the area (always points
outwards);

e

D dS

D n dS
Gausss law: The net flux through any closed surface is proportional to the net
charge enclosed.
D dS q in q qi q dV
i V

From Gauss theorem (or Ostrogradsky's theorem or divergence theorem):

D -The first Maxwell equation
The divergence of a vector can be seen as the volume density of the outward flux of vector field
from an infinitesimal volume around a given point.
It measures the magnitude of vector field's source or sink at the given point (rate of flux
density), in terms of a signed scalar.
 Applying Gausss law

Identify regions in which to calculate electric field.

Choose Gaussian surfaces
Point charge Linear charge Surface charge

Calculate qin , charge enclosed by the surface

Apply Gausss law to calculate electric field
 Electric field of an infinitely long rod of uniform charge density

1 r
E
2 r r

with the radius vector (perpendicular to the rod) n

E

D dS qint

dS dS n
r D dS L
+++ +++ Slat

dS1
E(V/m)
E1 L

For =1nC/m

It can be use also the superposition principle-see the

simulation:
http://web.mit.edu/viz/EM/visualizations/electrostatics/calculatingElectric
Fields/LineIntegration/LineIntegration.htm r (m)
 Electric field for an infinite plane of charge ()

Is a constant vector field perpendicular to

E planar surface of area S
2

E1


dS1 dS n1 E3 D dS qint

+ + + + + + + + + + + 2D dS S basis
S basis

+ + + + + + + + + + +
dS 3
+ + + + + + + + + + +

dS1 dS n1

E2
 Electric dipole
The electric dipole consists on two equal but opposite charges +q andq,
separated by a distance a. The electric dipole moment vector points from
q to +q and is = .
Any molecule in which the centers of the positive and negative charges do not coincide may
be approximated as a dipole. By applying an external field, an electric dipole moment may
also be induced in an unpolarized molecule.

Electric field created by a finite dipole and a point dipole:

In a uniform electric field, the field

exerts a toque on the dipole that
about the midpoint O of the dipole is
=
electric dipole moment electric field

Connection between dipole field and constant field pulls dipole into alignment.
http://web.mit.edu/viz/EM/visualizations/electrostatics/index.htm
 Electric potential
The work done by the electrostatic field on a moving charge

F
dL = = E
q0
The work done by the electric field in moving q0 on a curve : =

Due to the fact that electric force is conservative =

-ones of Maxwells equations

xE 0 incomplete because describes only how the electric field "circulates" around a
static electric charge (source) --- the electric field "circulates" around time
varying magnetic fields.
The curl of a vector field is a vector ( ) that describes the infinitesimal rotation of the vector field.
The attributes of this vector (length and direction) characterize the rotation at a given point-
it is directed along the axis of rotation, its magnitude gives the speed of rotation and, by the right hand
rule, the direction of rotation.
 Electric potential
The electric potential is a scalar having the magnitutude of electric
potential energy of a unit positive electric charge located in that point:

Wp SI J /C V
q0

From mechanics F W , and F q 0E E
p

dL dWp =

The electric potential difference between two points (the voltage):

= = =

Obs. In practice, it is often convenient to choose the reference point for the
electric potential (set the potential there to be zero) to be at infinity.
 Electric potential due to a point charge

Electric potential due to a point charge q,

1 q r
E
4 r 2 r

E =

q
with =0 at
4 r

Electric potential due to a charged volume is:

1 dV

4 r
V

where r is the distance from the elementary charged volume to the point and V is
the charged volume, with =0 at
 Electric potential

For a constant electric field the potential difference between 2

points

= = ( )=-Ed
 Electric potential

The curves characterized by constant electric potential are called

equipotential curves. In three dimensions we have equipotential surfaces.

The direction of is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface

through the point.

Electric field, equipotential

 Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field
0 = 0, > 0 , < 0
0

=
= (work-kinetic energy theorem)

Applications in Physics Experiments performed in lab C217:

1. In the James Franck and Gustav Hertz experiment (which demonstrated, in
1914, the existence of excited states in atoms) the electrons emitted by
filament of a triode (special tube) are accelerated by the potential UGK
between the cathode K and the grid G.
2. In order to obtain the electron specific charge the electrons emitted by the
filament of a triode are accelerated by the voltage U, applied between
filament and grid and measured by a voltmeter
 Electric capacitance

For an isolated charged conductor (without exterior electric field),

the electric potential of its surface, , is proportional to the amount of
charge, q stored on.

q
C CSI Coulomb / Volt Farad

A capacitor is a device that basic configuration is two conductors

carrying equal but opposite charges having different shape, size and
relative position so that the electric field is localized in a finite space region.
Applications for capacitors
-storing electric potential energy, https://nationalmaglab.org/education/magnet-academy/watch-
play/interactive/capacitor
-delaying voltage changes when coupled with resistors,
-filtering out unwanted frequency signals,
-forming resonant circuits
-making frequency-dependent and independent voltage dividers when combined with resistors.
 Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Two metallic parallel plates of equal area S separated by a distance d

Electric field for an infinite

E
2
plane of rest charge = is

+

The electric field is concentrated between the positive and negative plates
Q
E
S

1 2 U S
E Q U CU
d d d
S
S
C the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
d
Cylindrical capacitor

2
=

Spherical Capacitor

= 4

For a single isolated spherical conductor of radius R = 4

 Capacitors in Electric Circuits - Equivalent Capacitance

Parallel Connection

Series Connection
 Energy Density of the Electric Field

The electric energy density:

dWe 1 1 2
we D E we E
dV 2 2

The energy stored in a capacitor can be regarded as being stored in the electric
field itself :
q
dWe q d
q dq C =
C

Q q dq Q 2 CU2 1 0S 1
We (Ed) 2 0 E 2 V
0 C 2C 2 2 d 2

S
In the case of a parallel-plate capacitor C =
d

S
ELECTRODYNAMICS

1.Coulombs law;
2.Gauss law (electric flux def., Gauss law);
3.(Strength of) Electric field (def., due to a point charge, for an infinite plane
of charge, between plates of a parallel-plate capacitor-lecture10);
4.Electric dipole;
5.Electric potential (def., due to a point charge, examples for equipotential
surfaces); Voltage;
6.Motion of a charged particle in a uniform electric field (force, trajectory
depending on velocity direction); Applications;
7.Electric capacitance (for an isolated charged conductor; for a parallel-plate
capacitor); Applications;
8.Equivalent capacitance (series and parallel connection);
9.Energy of the electric field;