Fluid Power Engineering E-Note 05112015 042241AM

BRIEF CONTENTS
Sr. No. Chapters Page No.

1 Hydro Power Plant 1.1 – 1.9
2 Impact of Jet 2.1 – 2.28
3 Hydraulic Turbines 3.1 – 3.41
4 Centrifugal Pump 4.1 – 4.25
5 Reciprocating Pump 5.1 – 5.15
6 Reciprocating Compressor 6.1 – 6.35
7 Rotary Compressor 7.1 – 7.11
8 Centrifugal Compressor 8.1 – 8.29
9 Axial Compressor 9.1 – 9.15
10 Miscellaneous Machines 10.1–10.13
1HYDRO POWER PLANT
Course Contents
1.1 Advantages, disadvantages and
application of hydro power plant
1.2 General layout and essential
component of hydro-electric
power plant
1.3 Site selection of hydro-electric
power plant
1.4 Classification of hydro-electric
power plant
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot Page 1.1
Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 1. Hydro Power Plant
1.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Advantages:
 The operating cost of thermal power plant is less compare to thermal and other power
plant.
 The cost of power generation of hydro electrical power plant is not affected by the load
factor.
 There is no requirement of fuel while in case of thermal power plant fuel required,
hence hydro-electric plant is not dependent on transport facilities. In case of hydro-
electric power plant no need of fuel handling mechanism and no smoke, exhaust gases,
ash, soot and no health hazards due to air pollution.
 Here speed of turbine is 300 to 400 rpm while turbine used in thermal power plant run
at a speed of 3000 to 4000 rpm. Hence in hydro-electric power plant there is less
mechanical problem and no required any special materials for construction of plant.
 The life of hydro-electric power plant is 100-125 years which is 20-25 years of thermal
power plant.
 Hydro power plant efficiency if higher than other power plant and does not changes
with age of plant.
 Hydro-electric power plant is simple in design, and easy maintenance while in the
thermal power plant number of operation is required and hence complex mechanical
system required.
 Hydro-electric power plant having quick response to the change of load compare to
thermal power plant.
Disadvantages:
 The investment cost of hydro-electric power plant much more than thermal power
plant.
 Power generation by hydro-electric plant depends on the water availability which
depends on natural phenomenon of rain.
 The site of hydro-electric plant is selected where water availability at economical head.
These sites are mostly far away from the load center. Therefore long transmission line
required and so more power losses.
 Time required for construction of plant is much more than thermal power plant.

Major applications of hydro power plant
 Normally hydro projects are developed for the following purpose:

1.To control the flood in the river
2.To produce electricity
3.To store the water for irrigation
4.To store and supply drinking water
 Hydro power plant is also used in interconnected system. In an interconnected system
(steam and hydro power stations) the base load is supplied by hydro power and peak
load supplied by steam power plant. This system is not only increased load factor but
also reduces the wastages of energy (wastage of water) and saving cost of electricity.
 Small hydro power plant (up to 10 MW) is used for serving a small community or
industrial plant.
 Micro hydro power plant (up to 10 kw) is used to provide power to an isolated home or
small community or are sometimes connected to electric power networks.
 Pico hydro power plant (up to 5 kw) is used to provide power to small remote
communities that required only small amount of electricity.
1.2. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

 While selecting a suitable site, if a good system of natural storage lakes at high altitudes
and with large catchment areas can be located, the plant will be comparatively
economical.
 The following factors should be given careful consideration while selecting a site for a
hydro-electric power plant:
1. Availability of Water
 The availability of water at the site is the most important aspect of hydro power plant
because all other designs are based on it.
 In hydro power plants, potential energy of water fall or kinetic energy of flowing water
stream is utilize for generation of electric power, therefore such station should be built
where there is adequate water available at good head and huge quantity of water is
flowing across a given point.
 Estimate should be made about the average quantity of water available throughout the
year and also maximum and minimum quantity of water available during the year.
 These details are necessary to decide the capacity of plant to decide peak load plant
such as steam, diesel or gas turbine plant, and to provide adequate spillway or gate
relief during the flood period.

1. Hydro Power Plant Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
2. Water-Storage.
 The output of a hydropower plant is not uniform due to wide variations of rain fall. To
have a uniform power output, water storage is needed so that excess flow at certain
times may be stored to make it available at the times of low flow.
 To select the site of the dam; careful study should be made of the geology and
topography of the catchment area to see if the natural foundations could be found and
put to the best use.
3. Head of Water.
 In order to produce a requisite quantity of power it is necessary that a large quantity of
water at a sufficient head should be available.
 An increase in effective head reduces the quantity of water to be stored and handled by
penstocks, turbine etc. and therefore capital cost of plant is reduced.
 The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed plant should always be within limits
throughout the year.
4. Catchment area
 The reservoir must have a large catchment area so that level of water in reservoir may
not fall below the minimum limit required in dry season.
5. Availability of land type of land
 The land to be selected for the site should be cheap and rocky in order to withstand the
weight of dam large building and heavy machinery.
 The rock should be strong enough to withstand the stresses transmitted from the dam
structure as well as the of the water when reservoir is full of water.
6. Distance from Load Center.
 The site where hydro-electric power plant is to be constructed should be nearer to the
load center so that cost of power transmission is minimized.
 Most of the time the electric power generated in a hydro-electric power plant has to be
used some considerable distance from the site of plant.
 For this reason, to be economical on transmission of electric power, the routes and the
distances should be carefully considered since the cost of erection of transmission lines
and their maintenance will depend upon the route selected.
7. Accessibility of Site
 It is always a desirable factor to have a good access to the site of the plant. This factor is
very important if the electric power generated is to be utilized at or near the plant site.
The transport facilities must also be given due consideration.

Page 1.4 Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
1.3 GENERAL LAYOUT & ELEMENTS OF A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER

PLANT
Essential elements of hydro-electric power plant are:
1. Catchment area:
 The whole area behind the dam draining into a river across which the dam has been
built at a suitable place is called catchment area.
 Water collected from catchment area is stored in a reservoir, behind a dam.
2. Reservoir:
 The water reservoir is the primary
requirement of hydro-electric
power plant.
 A reservoir is employed to store the
water. There are two types of
reservoir: (A) Natural; i.e. lake in
high mountains and (B) Artificial; i.e.
erecting a dam across a river.
3. Dam:
 It provides high head, which is
necessary to produce higher power.
 Dams are built of concrete or stone
masonry, earth or rock fill, etc.
4. Spillways:
 It is a safeguarding structure for the
dam.
 Whenever water flows over certain
limit (during floods). It flows
through the spillways.
5. Conduits:
 It carries water from head race to
tail race. Fig. 1.1 General Layout of Hydro Power
 A head race is a channel which leads Plant
water to a turbine and a tail race is a
channel which conducts water from the wheels.
 The conduits may be open or closed:
A. Open Conduits: Canals & Flumes
B. Closed Conduits: Pipelines, Tunnels and Penstocks.

6. Surge tank:
 There are additional storage spaces near the power plant.
 It is used to reduce the effect of water hammer and improve performance of machines
by providing better speed regulation.
7. Prime movers:
 Impulse or reaction turbines having different types of vanes fitted to the wheels.
8. Draft tube:
 Used to discharge water to the tail race.
9. Power house:
 A power house is a building in which turbines, alternators and auxiliary plant are
housed.
1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-PLANT

 The hydro power plant are classify according to availability of head , quantity of water
and nature of load as follows.
A. According to the availability of head
I. High head plants
II. Low head plants
III. Medium head plants.
I. High Head Plants

 When available head is usually greater than 300m, plant is called high head plant.
 The surge tank provide with system to reduce water hammer effects on the penstock.
 The Francis turbine (up to 300 m) and Pelton wheel are common prime movers are used
in this power plant. Fig. shows the elevation of a high head plant.
Fig. 1.2 Schematic of high head power plant

II. Low Head Power Plants

 When the head of water available is less than 50 m, the power plant is called low head
plant.
 In this plant, dam is constructed across the river to create necessary head of water.
 The power house is located near the dam, no surge tank is required.
 In this power plant generally Francis, propeller or Kaplan turbine used as a prime mover.
Fig. 1.3 Schematic of low head power plant

III. Medium Head Plants
 When available head usually lies between 50m to 300m, the plant is called medium
head plant.
 This type of power plant consists of surge tank, forebay, penstocks, trash rack, and
reservoir.
 In this plant water is carried in open channel from main reservoir to the forebay and
then to the power house as shown in fig.
 In this power plant Francis, Propeller or Kaplan turbine used as a prime mover.
Fig. 1.4 Schematic of medium head power plant

B. According to the quantity of water available

I. Run-off river plant
II. Run-off river plant with reservoir
III. Storage type plants
IV. Pump storage plants
V. Mini and micro hydro plants
I. Run-off river plant

 When a river flowing through a hilly region, the flowing water is directly fed to
turbines, water is not being stored, the power plant is known as run-off river plant.
 In this plant output from the turbine is limited both the extent of flow available in the
river at given instant and capacity of plant. The utility of such power plant is very
limited.
II. Run-off river plant with reservoir

 The utility of run-off power plant is increased by providing reservoir in the plant.
 The reservoir allow to store water during the off peak hour and use during peak hours
of the same day.
III. Storage type plants

 In this type of plant water is stored during rainy season and supply same during the dry
season.
 The size of reservoir is large enough to store water during wet season and supply water
during remaining season.
IV. Pump storage plants

 This type of power plant is used where less amount of water is available.
 In this plant, water after passing through turbine is pumped back from the tail race to
head race(reservoir) during off peak period of other power plant.
 This type of power plant generates power for peak load but during off peak period,
water is pumped from tail race to head race reservoir for future use.
V. Mini and micro hydro plants

 When power develops from low head as 5m to 20 m, plant is known as mini hydro
plant.
 When power develops from head less than 5m, plant is known as micro-hydro power
plant.
 The bulb turbine is utilized in such type of small hydro power plant.

C. According to the nature of land

I. Base load plant
II. Peak load plant
I. Base load plant
 This type of power plant generates power output continuously.
 They run without stop and meet the average demand of electricity.
II. Peak load plant
 This type of plant, generates power during the peak load hours.
 This plant do not runs continuously and generates power to meet the demand of
electricity during the specific hours only, normally when demand is more than average
load (base load).

2
IMPACT OF JET
Course Contents
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet of
Water on a Stationary Plate
Water on a Moving Plate
Water on a Series of Flat
Vanes
Water on a Series of Radial
Curved Vanes
2.6 Jet Propulsion
2.7 Examples

2. Impact of Jet Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
2.1 Introduction
 Analysis and design of turbo machines is essentially based on the knowledge of
forces exerted on or by the moving fluids.
 Liquid comes out in the form of a jet from the outlet of a nozzle with high velocity,
which is fitted to a pipe through which the liquid is flowing under pressure.
 If some plate, which may be fixed or moving, is placed in the path of the jet, a force
is exerted by the jet on the plate.
 This force is obtained from Newton’s 2nd law of motion or from Impulse –
Momentum equation.
Impact of Jet: It means the force exerted by the jet on a plate which may be
stationary or moving.
Impulse – Momentum Principle:

 Newton’s 2nd law of motion states that “The rate of change of momentum is equal to
the force applied and takes place in the direction of force.”
 If mass of the fluid is m which flows with a velocity v, the momentum = mv
Let the change in velocity in dt time interval is dv
Then,
And
According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
Where F.dt is the impulse of the force and m.dv is the change in momentum. Hence
it is known as Impulse – Momentum principle.
2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate

 Impact of jet on a stationary plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A. Plate is vertical to the jet

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 2. Impact of Jet
B. Plate is inclined to the jet

C. Plate is curved
I. Jet impacts at the center of the curved plate
II. Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate, when plate is symmetrical
III. Jet strikes at one end of the curved plate, when plate is unsymmetrical
D. Hinged plate
Following assumptions are made in general for the discussion of the above cases:
 The plate is smooth and there is no loss of energy due to fluid friction with the
plate
 No loss of energy due to impact of jet
 Velocity is uniform throughout
A. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical flat plate

 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate as
shown in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1 Jet striking a fixed vertical plate

 The plate is stationary and does not deflect even after the jet strikes on it.
 The plate deflects the jet by 90° and then jet leaves the plate tangentially. Hence the
component of the velocity of jet V, in the direction of the jet, after striking will be
zero.
 Let,

V = velocity of jet
d = diameter of jet
a = area of c/s of the jet
ρ = density of fluid
Q = volume flow rate of fluid
̇ = mass flow rate of fluid
 The force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of jet,
[
]
̇
[ ]
[Note: If the force exerted on the jet is to be calculated then (Final – Initial) velocity
should be taken]
B. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary inclined flat plate

 Consider a jet of water coming out from the nozzle, strikes an inclined flat plate as
shown in Fig. 2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Jet striking a fixed inclined plate

 Let,
V = velocity of jet in the direction of x
θ = angle between the jet and plate
then,
Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
̇
 The plate is very smooth and there is no loss of energy due to impact of jet then, jet
will move over the plate after striking, with a velocity equals to initial velocity, i.e. V.
 Force exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,
[
]
[ ]
 This force can be resolved into two components,

i. In the direction of the jet (Fx) and,
ii. Perpendicular to the direction of flow (Fy)
And
C. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary curved plate

I. Jet strikes the curved plate at the center
 Let a jet of water strikes a fixed curved plate at the center as shown in Fig. 2.3.

 The jet after striking the plate, comes out with the same velocity in the tangential
direction of the curved plate if the plate is smooth, and there is no loss of energy due
to impact of jet.
Fig. 2.3 Jet striking a fixed curved plate at the center

 Now the velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved into two components:
i. In the direction of the jet and
ii. Perpendicular to the direction of the jet.
 The component of velocity in the direction of jet
( ve sign is taken as the velocity at outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of
water coming out at the nozzle)
 The component of velocity perpendicular to the direction of the jet
 The forces exerted by the jet on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
̇[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
Similarly,
̇[ ]
( ve sign means is acting downwards)

II. Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is
symmetrical
 Let the jet strikes the curved fixed plate at one end tangentially as shown in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Jet striking curved fixed plate at one end

 Let the curved plate is symmetrical about X-axis, then the angle made by the
tangents at the two ends of the plate will be same.
 Let,
Velocity of jet of water
Angle made by jet with X-axis at inlet tip of the curved plate.
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is zero, then the velocity
of water at the outlet tip of the curved plate will be equals to V.
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
̇[ ]
[ ]
Similarly,
̇[ ]

III. Jet strikes the curved plate at one end tangentially when the plate is
unsymmetrical
 When the curved plate is unsymmetrical about X-axis, then the angles made by the
tangents drawn at the inlet and outlet tips of the plate with X-axis will be different.
 Let,
Angle made by tangent at inlet tip with X-axis
Angle made by tangent at outlet tip with X-axis.
(Refer Fig. 2.4 with different angles and )
 The forces exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction of X and Y are,
̇[ ]
[ ]
Similarly,
 ̇[ ]
[ ]
D. Force exerted by a jet of water on a hinged plate

 Consider a jet of water striking a vertical plate at a center which is hinged at point O.
 Due to the force exerted by the jet on the plate, the plate will swing through some
angle about the hinge as shown in Fig. 2.5.
Fig. 2.5 Force on a hinged plate

 Let,
Distance of the center of jet from hinge O
Angle of swing about hinge
Weight of plate acting at C.G. of the plate
 The dotted line shows the position of the plate, before the jet strikes the plate.
 The point A on the plate will be at after the jet strikes the plate.
 Let, the weight of the plate is acting at point .

 Now, when the plate is in equilibrium after the jet strikes the plate, the moment of
all the forces about the hinge must be zero.
 Two forces are acting on the plate:
1. Force due to jet of water, normal to the plate,
Where, Angle between jet and plate

2. Weight of the plate, W
 Under equilibrium moment of normal force about hinge must be equals to moment
by weight at the same point.
2.3 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Moving Plate

 Impact of jet on a moving plate is discussed here for the following cases:
A. Moving plate is vertical to the jet
B. Moving plate is inclined to the jet
C. Moving plate is curved
I. Jet impacts at the center of the moving curved plate

II. Jet strikes at one end of the moving curved plate, when plate is
unsymmetrical
A. Force exerted by a jet of water on flat vertical plate moving in the

direction of jet
 Fig. 2.6 shows a jet of water striking a flat vertical plate moving with a uniform
velocity away from the jet.
Fig. 2.6 Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate

 Let,
Velocity of the jet (absolute)
Velocity of the flat plate
 In this case jet does not strike the plate with velocity V, but it strikes with a relative
velocity (because plate is not stationary).
 Relative velocity of the jet with respect to plate
 Mass of water striking the plate per sec,
̇
̇
 Force exerted by the jet on the moving plate in the direction of the jet,
̇ [ ]
[ ]
 In this case the work will be done by the jet on the plate, as plate is moving. (for the
stationary plate, the work done is zero)
 Work done per second by the jet on the plate,
( )

(Here SI unit of W is Watt because it is work done per sec, i.e. Power)
B. Force exerted by a jet of water on the inclined plate moving in the

direction of the jet
 Let a jet of water strikes an inclined plate, which is moving with a uniform velocity in
the direction of the jet as shown in Fig. 2.7.
Fig. 2.7 Jet striking an inclined moving plate

 Let,
Absolute velocity of the jet of water
Velocity of the flat plate
Cross section area of jet
Angle between jet and plate
 Relative velocity of jet of water
 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
̇
 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is assumed zero, the jet
of water will leave the inclined plate with a velocity equals to (V – u).
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the plate in the direction normal to the plate,
[ ]

[ ]
 This normal force can be resolved into two components namely and in the
direction of the jet and perpendicular to the direction of the jet respectively.
C. Force exerted by a jet of water on the moving curved plate

I. Jet strikes the moving curved plate at the center
 Let a jet of water strikes a curved plate at the center of the plate which is moving
with a uniform velocity in the direction of the jet as shown in Fig. 2.8.
Fig. 2.8 Jet striking a moving curved plate at the center

 Let,
Velocity of the flat plate in the direction of jet
Cross section area of jet
 Relative velocity of the jet of water or the velocity with which jet strikes the curved
plate

 If the plate is smooth and loss of energy due to impact of jet is assumed zero, then
the velocity with which the jet will be leaving the curved vane equals to (V – u).
 Component of velocity in the direction of jet at outlet .
( ve sign is taken as the velocity at outlet is in the opposite direction of the jet of
water coming out at the nozzle)
 Mass of water striking the plate per second,
̇
 Force exerted by the jet of water on the moving curved plate in the direction of the
jet,
̇ [ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
II. Force exerted by a jet of water on an unsymmetrical moving curved

plate when jet strikes tangentially at one of the tips
 Fig. 2.9 shows a jet of water striking a moving curved plate/vane/blade tangentially
at one of its tips.
 As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss of energy due to impact of the jet will be zero.
 In this case as plate is moving, the velocity with which jet of water strikes is equals to
the relative velocity of the jet with respect to the plate.
 As the direction of jet velocity and vane velocity is not same, the relative velocity at
inlet will be vector difference of the jet velocity and plate velocity at inlet.

Fig. 2.9 Jet striking unsymmetrical moving curved plate at one end
 Let,
Absolute velocity of the jet at inlet
Absolute velocity of the jet at outlet
Relative velocity of the jet and plate at inlet
Relative velocity of the jet and plate at outlet
Velocity of the vane at inlet
Velocity of the vane at outlet
Angle between the direction of the jet and direction of motion of the plate at
inlet
Guide blade angle
Angle made by the relative velocity , with the direction of motion of the vane
at inlet
Vane/blade angle at inlet
The components of the velocity of the jet , in the direction of
motion and perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane respectively.

Velocity of whirl at inlet

Velocity of flow at inlet
Angle made by the velocity with the direction of motion of the vane at outlet
Angle made by the relative velocity , with the direction of motion of the vane
at outlet
Vane/blade angle at outlet
The components of the velocity , in the direction of motion of vane
and perpendicular to the direction of motion of the vane at outlet respectively.
Velocity of whirl at outlet
Velocity of flow at outlet
 The triangles ABD and EGH are called the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet
respectively.
 If the vane is smooth and having velocity in the direction of motion at inlet and
outlet equal then we have,
And
 Mass of water striking the vane per second,

̇
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion,
Fx= mass of water striking per sec X [Initial velocity with which jet strikes in the
direction of motion – Final velocity of jet in the direction of motion]
But,
Initial velocity with which jet strikes the vane and,
The component of this velocity in the direction of motion
Similarly,
The component of the relative velocity at outlet in the direction of motion
[ ]
̇ [ ]
[ ]

As we know
[ ]
Equaion 2.19 is true only when angle shown in Fig. 2.9 is acute angle .
 If then and equation 2.19 becomes,
 If is an obtuse angle the expression for will become,
[ ]
 In general,
[ ]
 Work done per second on the vane by the jet,
[ ]
 Work done per second per unit weight of fluid striking per second ,
[ ]
[ ]
 Work done per second per unit mass of fluid striking per second ,
[ ]
[ ]
2.4 Force exerted by a jet of water on a series of flat vanes

 The force exerted by a jet of water on a single moving plate is not practically
feasible. Its only a theoretical one.
 In actual practice, a large number of plates/blades are mounted on the
circumference of a wheel at a fixed distance apart as shown in Fig. 2.10.

Fig. 2.10 Jet striking a series of flat vanes mounted on a wheel

 The jet strikes a plate and due to the force exerted by the jet on the plate, the wheel
starts moving and the 2nd plate mounted on the wheel appears before the jet, which
again exerts the force on the 2nd plate.
 Thus each plate appears successively before the jet and jet exerts force on each
plate and the wheel starts moving at a constant speed.
 Let,
Velocity of jet
Diameter of jet
Velocity of vane
 In this case the mass of water coming out from the nozzle per second is always in
contact with the plates, when all the plates are considered.
 Hence, mass of water per sec striking the series of plates
Also,
The jet strikes a plate with velocity
 After striking, the jet moves tangential to the plate and hence the velocity
component in the direction of motion of plate is equals to zero.
 Force exerted by the jet in the direction of motion of plate,
[ ]
 Work done by the jet on the series of plates per second,

 Kinetic energy of the jet per second,
 Efficiency of the wheel,
Condition for maximum efficiency

 For a given jet velocity V, the efficiency will be maximum when,
[ ]
[ ]
Maximum efficiency,

2.5 Force Exerted by the Jet of Water on a Series of Radial Curved

Vanes
 For a radial curved vane, the radius of the vane at inlet and outlet is different and
hence the tangential velocities of the radial vane at inlet and outlet will not be equal.
 Consider a series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel as shown in Fig. 2.11.
The jet of water strikes the vanes and the wheel starts rotating at constant angular
speed.
Fig. 2.11 Series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel

 Let,
Radius of wheel at inlet of the vane
Radius of wheel at outlet of the vane
Angular speed of the wheel
Then,
 The mass of water striking per second for a series of vanes = The mass of water
coming out from nozzle per sec =
Where,
Area of jet, and
Velocity of jet

 Momentum of water striking the vanes in the tangential direction per sec at inlet =
mass of water striking per sec X component of V1 in the tangential direction
 Similarly,
Momentum of water at outlet per sec = X component of V2 in the tangential
direction
 Now angular momentum,
 Torque exerted by the water on the wheel,
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
 Work done per sec on the wheel,
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
 Equation 2.32 is valid only when, . If the angle is an obtuse angle
then,
[ ]
 In general,
[ ]
 If the discharge is radial at the outlet then, and hence ,
[ ]

 Efficiency of the radial curved vanes,
[ ]
̇
[ ]
[ ]
2.6 Jet Propulsion

 Jet propulsion means the propulsion or movement of the bodies such as ships,
aircrafts, rockets etc. with the help of jet.
 The reaction of the jet coming out from the orifice provided in the bodies is used to
move the bodies.
 A jet of fluid coming out from an orifice or nozzle, when strikes a plate, exerts a force
on the plate. The magnitude of the force exerted on the plate can be determined
depending upon whether plate is flat, inclined, curved, moving or stationary. This
force exerted by the jet on the plate is called “action of jet”.
 According to Newton’s third law of motion, every action is accompanied by an equal
and opposite reaction.
 Hence the jet while coming out of the orifice or nozzle exerts a force on the orifice or
nozzle in the opposite direction in which jet is coming out.
 The magnitude of the force exerted is equals to the ‘action of the jet’.
 This force which is acting on the orifice or nozzle in the opposite direction is called
“reaction of the jet”.
 If the body in which orifice or nozzle is fitted, is free to move, the body will start
moving in the direction opposite to the jet.
 The following cases are important where this principle is used:
A. Jet propulsion of a tank to which orifice is fitted, and
B. Jet propulsion of ships.
A. Jet propulsion of a tank with an orifice

 Consider a large tank fitted with an orifice in one of its sides as shown in Fig. 2.12.

 Let,
Constant head of water in tank
from the center of orifice
Area of orifice
Velocity of the jet of water
Co-efficient of the velocity of
orifice
Then, Fig. 2.12 Jet propulsion of a
√ tank with an orifice
And
 Force acting on the water is equal to the rate of change of momentum,

[ ]
[ ]
Note:- Here change of velocity is to be taken as final minus Initial as we are finding
force on water and not force exerted by the water.
 Thus F is the force exerted on the jet of water.
 This jet of water will exert a force on the tank which is equals to F but
opposite in direction as shown in Fig. 2.12.
 If the tank is free to move or the tank is fitted with frictionless wheels, it will starts
moving with velocity say ‘u’ in the direction opposite to the direction of jet.
 When the tank starts moving, the velocity of the jet with which it comes out of the
orifice will not be equal to V but it will be equal to relative velocity of the jet w.r.t.
tank.
If,
Absolute velocity of jet
Velocity of tank
Relative velocity of jet or velocity of jet w.r.t tank
Hence,
Mass of water coming out from the orifice per sec
Force exerted on the tank,
[ ]

[ ]
 Work done on the moving tank by jet per sec,
 Efficiency of propulsion is,
( )
Condition for Maximum Efficiency

 The efficiency will be maximum when,
[ ]
[ ]
 Maximum efficiency,
Note: Jet propulsion of ships is not discussed here as it can be derived by using the same
approach with ship. For detail study of jet propulsion of ships, kindly refer “Fluid Mechanics
and Hydraulic Machines by R. K. Bansal”.

Example
2.1 A jet of water of diameter 5cm moving with a velocity of 25 m/sec impinges on a
fixed curved plate tangentially at one end at an angle of 30˚ with the horizontal.
Determine force of the jet on the plate in the horizontal and the vertical direction
if the jet is deflected through an angle of 130˚. Also find direction and resultant
force.
[14; V. L. Patel]
Solution:
 Fx  mIVx  FVx 
 1 cos30  V1 cos20
 ρAV1 V
π
 103  0.052  2525cos30  25cos20 
4
Fx  2216.06 N
 Fy  m IVy  FVy 
 1 sin30  V1 sin20
 ρAV1 V
π
 103  0.052  2525sin30  25sin20 
4
Fy  193.87 N
 Fr  Fx2  Fy2
 2216.062  193.872
Fr  2224.52 N
Fy
 tan  
Fx
 193.87 
  tan1  
 2216.06 
  4.59 with X  direction
2.2 A jet of water impinges on a symmetrically curved vane at its center. The velocity
of the jet is 60 m/s and the diameter 120 mm. The jet is deflected through an angle
of 120°. Calculate the force on the vane if the vane is fixed. Also determine the
force if the vane moves with a velocity of 25 m/s in the direction of the jet. What
will be the power and efficiency? [GTU; DEC – 2010]

Solution
Case-1 When vane is fixed, than find jet force in x direction.
 Fx  m IVx  FVx 
 ρAV1 V   V cos θ  
π
 103  0.122  60 60   60cos60  
4
Fx  61072.56 N
Case  2 When vane is moving in the x direction with 25m / sec.
 Fx  V1  u   V1  u  cos60 
π
 103  0.122  60  60  25    60  25  cos60 
4
Fx  20.78 N
WD
 Power P   Fx  u
s
 20.78  25
P  519.5 KW
WD / s F u
 η  x
KE / s 1 m V 2
 1
2
519.5  103

1
ρA V1  u V12
2
519.5  103

1 π
 103  0.122  60  25   602
2 4
η  72.91%
2.3 A jet of water having a velocity of 15 m/sec strikes a curved vane which is
moving with a velocity of 5 m/sec. The vane is symmetrical and it so shaped that
the jet is deflected through 120˚. Find the angle of the jet at inlet of the vane so
that there is no shock. What is the absolute velocity of the jet at outlet in
magnitude and direction and the work done per unit weight of water? Assume the
vane to be smooth. [17.21; R. K. Bansal]
Solution:

  ABD Applying sine rule,

V1 u1 V
   r1
sin 180  θ  sin  θ  α  sin  α 
V1 u1
 
sin 180  θ  sin  θ  α 
15 5
 
sin 180  30  sin  30  α 
 sin  30  α   .16666
 α  20.41
V1 V
  r1
sin 180  θ  sin  α 
V1 Vr 1
 
sin 180  30  sin  20.41 
 Vr 1  10.46 m / s
  ACD
Vw 1
cos α 
V1
Vw 1
 cos20.41 
15
 Vw 1  14.06 m / s

 V2  Vf22  Vw22
 5.232  4.062
 V2  6.62 m / s
Vw 2  4.0587 m / s
Vf 2
 tan 
Vw 2
5.095
 tan1
3.82
  53.17
WD
s m Vw 1  Vw 2   u
 
unit weight mg
1
 Vw 1  Vw 2   u
g
1
 14.06  4.0587  5
9.81
 9.225 Nm
2.4 A jet of water having a velocity of 15 m/sec, strikes a curved vane which is
moving with a velocity of 5 m/sec in the same direction as that of the jet at inlet.
The vane is so shaped that the jet is deflected through 135˚. The diameter of jet is
100mm. Assume the vane to be smooth, find:
(1) Force exerted by the jet on the vane in the direction of motion.
(2) Power exerted on the vane.
(3) Efficiency of the vane. [17.23; R. K. Bansal]
Solution
 Vr 1  V1  V1
 15  5
 10 m / s
u2  Vw 2
 cos  
Vr 2
5  Vw 2
cos45 
10
 Vw 2  2.071 m / s

 Fx  m Vw 1  Vw 2 
 ρAVr 1 V1  Vw 2 
π
 103  0.12  10 15  2.071
4
Fx  1340.75 N
WD
 Power   Fx  u
s
 1340.7  5
P  6.703 KW
WD / s Fx  u
 η 
KE / s 1 mV 2
1
2
F u
 x
1
ρAV1V12
2
6703.5

1 π
 103  0.12  15  152
2 4
η  50.5%

3
HYDRAULIC TURBINES
Course Contents
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Classification of Hydraulic
Turbines
3.3 Efficiencies & Head of
Hydraulic Turbines
3.4 Impulse Turbine (Pelton Wheel)
3.5 Reaction Turbine
3.6 Inward and Outward Flow
Reaction Turbine
3.7 Francis turbine
3.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine
3.9 Draft Tube Theory
3.10 Specific Speed
3.11 Unit Quantities
3.12 Performance Curves of
Hydraulic Turbines
3.13 Governing of Hydraulic
Turbines
3.14 Example

3. Hydraulic Turbines Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
3.1 Introduction
Hydraulic Machines
“It is defined as those machines which convert either hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy (i.e. turbines) or mechanical energy into hydraulic energy (i.e.
pumps).”
Turbines
“It is defined as the hydraulic machines which converts hydraulic energy into
mechanical energy.”
 This mechanical energy is used in running an electric generator which is directly
coupled to the shaft of the turbine. Thus the mechanical energy is converted into
electric energy.
 The electric power, which is obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as Hydro-
electric power.
3.2 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

A. According to the type of energy at inlet or the action of the water on
the blade
I. Impulse turbine
 In an Impulse turbine, all the available energy of the water is converted into
kinetic energy or velocity head by passing it through a convergent nozzle
provided at the end of penstock.
 So at the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available.
 Here the pressure of water flowing over the turbine blades remains constant.
(i.e. atmospheric pressure)
 Examples: Pelton wheel, Turgo-impulse turbine, Girard turbine, Banki
turbine, Jonval turbine, etc.
II. Reaction turbine

 In a reaction turbine, at the entrance to the runner, only a part of the
available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy and a substantial
part remains in the form of pressure energy.
 So at the inlet of the turbine, water possesses kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy.
 As the water flows through the turbine blades, the change from pressure
energy to kinetic energy takes place gradually.
 For this gradual change of pressure, the runner must be completely enclosed
in an air-tight casing and the passage should be full of water.

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 3. Hydraulic Turbines
 The difference of pressure between the inlet and outlet of the runner is
called reaction pressure, and hence these turbines are known as reaction
turbine.
 Examples: Francis turbine, Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine, Thomson
turbine, Fourneyron turbine, etc.
B. According to the direction of flow through runner

I. Tangential flow turbine
 In tangential flow, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent to
the path of rotation of runner. OR The water strikes the vane/bucket along
the tangent of the runner.
 Example: Pelton wheel
II. Radial flow turbine

 In radial flow, water flows through the turbine along the direction normal to
the axis of rotation (i.e. radial direction).
 A radial flow turbine is further classified as inward or outward flow
depending upon whether the flow is inward from the periphery to the center
or outward from center to periphery.
 Example: Old Francis turbine
III. Axial flow turbine

 In an axial flow, water flows along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of the runner.
 Here water flows parallel to the turbine shaft.
 Examples: Kaplan turbine, Propeller turbine
IV. Mixed flow turbine

 In mixed flow, water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in
the direction parallel to the axis of rotation (i.e. axial direction).
 Example: Modern Francis turbine.
C. According to the head at the inlet of the turbine

I. High head turbine
 High head turbines which operates under high head (above 250m) and
requires relatively less quantity of water.
 Example: Pelton wheel turbine

II. Medium head turbine

 Medium head turbines which operate under medium head (60m to 250m)
and require medium flow rate.
 Example: Modern Francis turbine
III. Low head turbine

 Low head turbines which operate under head up to 30m and require very
large quantity of water.
 Example: Kaplan and Propeller turbine
D. According to the specific speed of the turbine

The specific speed of a turbine is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine that
would develop 1KW power when working under a head of 1m.
All geometrically similar turbines (irrespective of the sizes) will have the same
specific speeds when operating under the same head.
√
⁄
Where,
Normal working speed
Power output of the turbine, and
Net or effective head in meter
Turbines with low specific speeds work under high head and low discharge
conditions, while high specific speed turbines work under low head and high
discharge conditions.
I. Low specific speed turbine

 For Pelton wheel turbine with single jet,
 For Pelton wheel turbine with double jet,
II. Medium specific speed turbine

 For Francis turbine,
III. High specific speed turbine

 Kaplan and other Propeller turbine,

3.3 Efficiencies & Head of Hydraulic Turbines

1. Gross Head ( )
 It is the difference between headrace level and tail race level when no water is
flowing.
 It is also known as total head of the turbine.
Fig. 3.1 Layout of hydroelectric power plant using an impulse turbine

2. Effective Head or Net Head ( )
 Net head or effective head is the actual head available at the inlet of the turbine.
 When water is flowing from head race to the turbine, a loss of head due to friction
between water and penstock occurs.
 Though there are other losses also such as loss due to bend, pipe fittings, loss at
entrance of the penstock, etc. These all having small magnitude as compared to
head loss due to friction.
So,
( )
Where,
Net head or Effective head
Gross head
Head loss due to friction between penstock and water and is given by,
( )
Coefficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of penstock

Total length of penstock
Mean velocity of water through the penstock
Diameter of penstock and
Acceleration due to gravity

3. Hydraulic Efficiency ( )
 It is the ratio of the power developed by the runner of a turbine to the power
supplied by the water at the inlet of a turbine.
 Since the power supplied is hydraulic, and the probable loss is between the striking
jet and vane it is rightly called hydraulic efficiency.
( )
Runner Power
 ̇, - Watt
 ̇, - Watt
Water Power
Where,
Weight of water striking the vanes per second ̇
Net available head on the turbine
4. Mechanical Efficiency ( )
 The power delivered by water to the runner of a turbine is transmitted to the shaft
of the turbine.
 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine to the power
developed by the runner of a turbine.
 This depends on the slips and other mechanical problems that will create a loss of
energy i.e. friction.
( )
5. Overall Efficiency ( )
 It is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power supplied by the water
at the inlet of a turbine.

( )
6. Volumetric Efficiency ( )
 The volume of the water striking the runner of a turbine is slightly less than the
volume of the water supplied to the turbine.
 Some of the volume of the water is discharged to the tail race without striking the
runner of the turbine.
 Thus the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner to the volume
of water supplied to the turbine is defined as volumetric efficiency.
( )
3.4 Pelton Wheel

 A Pelton wheel turbine is:
 Tangential Flow Turbine:
Water strikes the bucket/vane tangentially to the direction of the rotation.
 Impulse Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine, only kinetic energy is available. (Pressure will
remain constant at the inlet and outlet, i.e. Atmospheric pressure)
 Pelton wheel is generally used at a very high head and low discharge.
 Pelton wheel is named after an American engineer L. A. Pelton.
Components of Pelton Wheel

 The main components of Pelton wheel are:
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
2. Runner and Buckets
3. Casing and
4. Breaking Jet

Fig. 3.2 Components of a Pelton wheel
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)

 Depending on load fluctuations, the speed of the turbine is to be kept constant by
controlling the quantity of water flowing through the nozzle.
Fig. 3.3 Flow regulating Arrangement

 The amount of water striking the buckets of the runner is controlled by providing a
spear in the nozzle as shown in Fig. 3.3.
 The spear is a conical needle which is operated either by a hand wheel or
automatically by governor in an axial direction depending upon the size of the unit.
 Spear reciprocates in nozzle and hence changes the annular area through which
water can pass.

 When the spear is pushed forward into the nozzle, the amount of water striking the
runner is reduced. On the other hand, if the spear is pushed back, the amount of
water striking the runner increases.
2. Runner and Buckets
 It consists of a circular disc, on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly
spaced are fixed.
Fig. 3.4 Bucket of Pelton Wheel
 The shape of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is
divided into two symmetrical parts by a dividing wall which is known as splitter.
 The jet of water strikes on the splitter. The splitter divides the jet into two equal
parts and the jet comes out at the outer edge of the bucket.
 The buckets are shaped in such a way that the jet gets deflected through 160° or
170°. Maximum work is obtained if the jet is deflected through 180° i.e. the bucket is
semicircular.
 If semicircular bucket is used, an outgoing jet may strikes to the next incoming
bucket and hence opposes the motion of the rotor. Hence the angle of jet deflection
is generally kept 160° to 170°.
 Material of buckets: Cast iron, Cast steel, Bronze or S.S., depending upon the head
at inlet.
 The inner surface of the bucket is highly polished to minimize the frictional losses.
 As the splitter has to bear total impact of jet, it must be made very strong. Therefore
it is not practical to have a sharp edge with a zero inlet angle at the center of the
bucket.
 Usually this angle is made 3 to 6 degrees even though, for practical purpose the inlet
vane angle is assumed to be zero.

3. Casing
 The function of the casing is to prevent the splashing of the water and to discharge
water to the tailrace.
 It also acts as a safe-guard against accidents.
 Material: Cast iron or fabricated steel plates.
 The casing of the Pelton wheel does not perform any hydraulic function.
4. Breaking Jet
 When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction,
the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero.
 But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time.
 To stop the runner in a shorter time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet
of water on the back of the vanes as shown in Fig. 3.2. This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
Working of Pelton Wheel

 Pelton wheel works on Impulse-Momentum principle. (i.e. )
 The water from the reservoir (or head race) is conveyed to turbine house through a
penstock, at the outlet of which a nozzle is fitted.
 When water flows through a penstock and comes out of nozzle, all pressure energy
and potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
 Hence at the outlet of the nozzle, the water out in the form of jet (at atmospheric
pressure) and strikes the buckets/vanes of the runner.
 The impact of water on the bucket makes runner to rotate.
 Runner is mounted on the shaft and hence mechanical energy is available at the
shaft which is coupled with generator, which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy and produce electricity.
 After performing work on the buckets water is discharged into the tail race.
Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Pelton Wheel

 The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter, which splits up the
jet into two parts.
 These parts of the jet, glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge
of the bucket.
 The splitter is the inlet tip and outer edge of the bucket is the outlet tip of the
bucket.

Fig. 3.5 Velocity diagram of Pelton wheel

 Let,
Absolute velocity of water at the inlet, and is given by,
√
Where,
Net head acting on the Pelton wheel
Gross head
Head loss due to friction and is given by,
Diameter of penstock
Velocity of water in the penstock
Co-efficient of friction of penstock depending on the type of material of
penstock
Total length of penstock
Absolute velocity of water at the outlet
Relative velocity of jet and vane at inlet
Relative velocity of jet and vane at outlet
Peripheral velocity of a runner which has same value at inlet and outlet of the
runner at mean pitch ( )
Diameter of runner
Speed of the runner in RPM
Velocity of whirl at inlet
Velocity of whirl at outlet
Guide blade angle ( )
Vane angle at the inlet ( )

Vane angle at the outlet

 From inlet velocity triangle,
( )
So,
 From outlet velocity triangle,

( )
 Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by,
, -
( is taken instead of because of series of vanes)
Also for Pelton wheel is an acute angle i.e. sign should be
taken.
 Work done by the jet on runner per sec,
, - ( )
 Hydraulic efficiency,
, -
( )
, -
Now substituting values of in above equation, we get,

, * +-
But,
( )
So,
, ( ) -
( ), -

Condition for Maximum efficiency,

( )
( ), -
* +
, -
[ ( )]
( )
 Hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel will be maximum when the velocity of wheel is
half the velocity of the jet of water at inlet.
 Maximum efficiency,
. /, -
, -
( )
Design Aspects of Pelton Wheel

For design aspect following points should be considered:
1. The velocity of jet ( ) at inlet of the turbine,
√ ( )
Where,
2. The velocity of wheel ( ),
√ ( )
Where,
3. The angle of deflection of the jet through bucket is taken at 165° (average of 160° to
170°), if no angle of deflection is given.
4. The mean diameter or pitch diameter ( ) of the Pelton wheel is given by,

5. Jet ratio ( ): It is the ratio of pitch diameter (D) to diameter of jet (d).
( ) ( )
6. No. of buckets ( ) on a runner is given by,
( )
7. No. of jets: It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine ( ) by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet ( ).
( )
8. Working proportions for buckets:

1. Width of the bucket
2. Depth of the bucket
 Size of bucket means width and depth of the buckets.
Design of Pelton Wheel means……….

To determine,
a. Diameter of jet ( )
b. Diameter of wheel ( )
c. Size of the bucket (Width and Depth)
d. No. of buckets on the wheel ( )

Fig. 3.6 A close-up

view of a Pelton
wheel showing the
detailed design of
the buckets; the
electrical generator
is on the right.
Fig. 3.7 A view from

the bottom of an
operating Pelton
wheel illustrating
the splitting and
turning of the
water jet in the
bucket.
Fig. 3.8 The runner

of a Modern Francis
turbine. There are
17 runner blades of
outer diameter 20.3
ft. The turbine
rotates at 100 rpm
and produces 194
MW of power at a
volume flow rate of
375 m3/s from a
net head of 54.9 m.

3.5 Reaction Turbine

 In reaction turbine, water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy.
 As water flows through runner, a part of pressure energy goes on changing into
kinetic energy.
 Thus the water through runner is under pressure and the runner is completely
enclosed in an air-tight casing.
 Casing and the runner is always full of water.
 Different types of reaction turbine are:
A. Inward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from outward to inward)
B. Outward radial flow reaction turbine (Water flows from inward to outward)
C. Mixed flow or Francis turbine (Water enters radially but leaves axially)
D. Axial flow turbine (Water enters and leaves axially)
I. Kaplan turbine:- Runner blades are adjustable
II. Propeller turbine:- Runner blades are fixed
Main Components of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine

 There are many components used in radial flow reaction turbine but the main
components of radial flow reaction turbine are:
1. Casing
2. Guide Mechanism
3. Runner and
4. Draft tube
Fig. 3.9 Main components of radial flow reaction turbine

 Main parts of radial flow reaction turbine are shown in Fig. 3.10 and are discussed
below:

1. Casing
 In case of reaction turbine, casing and runner are always full of water.
 The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.
 Material: Concrete, Cast steel or Plate steel
2. Guide Mechanism or Guide Blades
 It is a stationary circular wheel. Guide vanes are fixed on guide mechanism between
two rings in form of wheel.
 The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without
shock at inlet.
 Material: Cast iron
 The quantity of water passing through the guide blades depends on the position of
the guide vanes.
3. Runner
 It is a circular wheel on which a series of radial curved vanes are fixed.
 Surface of the vanes are made very smooth.
 The radial curved vanes are so shaped that the water enters and leaves the runner
without shock.
 Material: Cast steel, Cast iron or Stainless steel.
 Runner is keyed to the shaft.
4. Draft Tube
 The pressure at the exit of the runner of a reaction turbine is generally less than
atmospheric pressure.
 Hence water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race.
 A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit
of the turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube.
3.6 Inward and Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine

Inward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine
Water enters at the outer periphery, flows Water enters at the inner periphery, flows
inward and towards the center of the turbine outward and discharges at the outer
and discharges at the inner periphery. periphery.
The outer diameter of the runner is inlet and The inner diameter of the runner is inlet

the inner diameter is the outlet. and the outer diameter is the outlet.
And hence, And hence,

(Work done and hydraulic efficiency are same for both inward and outward flow reaction
turbines)
Work done per sec,
⁄ , - ( )
Work done per unit weight,
⁄ , - ( )
Hydraulic efficiency,
̇ ( ) ( )
( )
( )
3.7 Francis turbine

 A Francis turbine is:
a. Mixed Flow Turbine:
Water enters radially and leaves axially to the direction of rotation of shaft.
b. Reaction Turbine:
At the inlet of the turbine both kinetic as well as pressure energy is available.
 It is generally operated under medium head and medium flow rate.
 It is designed by an American engineer J. B. Francis in 1849.
Components of Francis Turbine

 Different components of Francis turbine are:
A. Penstock D. Governing Mechanism
B. Spiral Casing E. Runner
C. Guide Blades F. Draft Tube
A. Penstock
 Penstock is a large diameter conduit, which carries water from a dam or a reservoir
to the turbine house.
 Since Francis turbine requires large volume of water than Pelton wheel, size of the
penstock is bigger in the case of Francis turbine.
 Material: Generally steel is used.
B. Spiral Casing
 Water from the penstock enters into the spiral casing which completely surrounds
the runner.
 This casing is also known as scroll casing or volute.

 The cross-section area of this casing decreases uniformly along the circumference to
keep the fluid velocity constant in magnitude along its path towards the guide vane.
 This is so because the rate of flow along the fluid path in the volute decreases due to
continuous entry of the fluid to the runner through the openings of the guide vanes.
 Material:
 For low head: Concrete
casing with steel plate
lining
 For medium head:
Welded rolled steel
plate casing
 For high head: Cast
steel
C. Guide Blades
 A series of airfoil shaped vanes
called the guide vanes or
wicket gates, are mounted on
the casing.
 Guide vanes are fixed between
the two rings in form of a
wheel; however they can
swing about their own axis.
 The basic purpose of the guide
vanes is to convert a part of
pressure energy at its entrance
in to the kinetic energy and to
direct the water or fluid on to Fig. 3.11 Components of Francis turbine
the runner blades at an angle
appropriate to the design.
 The quantity of water passing through the guide vanes depends on the position of
the guide vanes, which can be controlled either by means of a hand wheel or
automatically by a governor.
 Material: Cast steel
D. Governing Mechanism
 Turbine must rotate at constant speed irrespective of the load variation on
generator.
 Governing mechanism keeps the speed of the turbine constant by controlling the
quantity of water to the turbine.
 Guide blades can move on its pivot centers and hence can change the area of flow.

 Depending on load fluctuations, governing mechanism changes the position of guide

blades and hence the area of flow so that the turbine rotates with constant speed.
E. Runner
 It is the most important component of the Francis turbine.
 The runner of a Francis turbine consists of a series of curved vanes evenly arranged
around the circumference in the annular space between two plates.
 The runner vanes are so shaped that water enters the runner radially at the outer
periphery and leaves it axially at the inner periphery.
 Most of the portion of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy as water
flows through the runner.
 The driving force on the runner is both due to impulse (deviation in the direction of
flow) and reaction (change in kinetic and pressure energy) effects.
 The number of runner blades are usually varies between 16 to 24.
 The runner is keyed to the shaft which is usually of forged steel.
 Material:
 Cast iron or Cast steel
 Sometimes Stainless steel or Bronze is used to avoid corrosion.
F. Draft Tube
 It is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area towards its outlet
end. It connects the runner exit to the tail race.
 As the pressure of reaction turbine decreases continuously as water passes through
the guide vanes and the runner, it does below atmospheric pressure at the outlet of
the runner.
 Draft tube is used to discharge the water to the tail race by increasing pressure
above atmospheric.
 Draft tube must be submerged below the level of water in the tail race.
 Material: Steel plate
Working of a Francis Turbine

 Water through the penstock under pressure enters the spiral casing which
completely surrounds the runner.
 From casing water passes through a series of guide vanes, which directs the water to
the runner at a proper angle.
 The pressure energy of water reduces continuously as it passes over the guide vanes
and moving vanes.
 The difference in pressure at stationary guide vanes and moving runner is
responsible for the motion of the runner vanes.
 Finally water is discharged to the tail race through a draft tube.

Velocity Triangles, Work done and Efficiency of Francis Turbine
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12 Velocity Triangles for Francis turbine
 The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the Francis turbine are drawn as shown in
Fig. 3.12(a).
 General expression for work done by runner will be derived in the same manner as
in the case of series of radial curved vanes (illustrated earlier in chapter-2 Impact of
Jets, Fig. 2.11, Page No. 2.19)
⁄ ̇( )
⁄ ( ) ( )
 For maximum output, runner of the Francis turbine is so designed that there occurs
a radial discharge at the outlet tip of the blades.
 For radial discharge at the outlet, and , as shown in Fig. 3.14 (b).
⁄ ̇ ( ) ⁄ ( )
Hydraulic Efficiency

̇ ( ) ( )
( )
( )
Working Proportions for Francis Turbine

1. Flow Ratio ( )
 Ratio of flow velocity at the inlet ( ) to theoretical velocity (√ ) is called flow
ratio. Its value lies between 0.15 to 0.30.
( )
√
2. Speed Ratio ( )
 Ratio of the peripheral velocity at the inlet ( ) to theoretical velocity (√ ) is
called speed ratio. Its value lies between 0.6 to 0.9.
( )
√
3. Breadth Ratio ( )
 Ratio of width of the runner ( ) to outside diameter of the runner ( ) is called
breadth ratio. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.4.
( )
Total Discharge through Francis Turbine

Let,
Diameter of runner at inlet
Diameter of runner at outlet
Width of runner at inlet
Width of runner at outlet
Velocity of flow at outlet
Number of vanes on runner
Thickness of each vane
, total discharge through the Francis turbine is given by,
( )

 If the thickness of the vanes are taken into consideration, then the area through
which flow takes place is given by, ( )
Hence,
( ) ( ) ( )
Key Point for Reaction Turbine


 :
, - ( )
3.8 Axial Flow Reaction Turbine

 In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation
of the shaft.
 It is used under low head and high discharge conditions.
 For the axial flow reaction turbine the shaft of the turbine is vertical.
 The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as “Hub” or “Boss”.
 The vanes are fixed on the hub and hence hub acts as a runner for axial flow reaction
turbine.
Types of Axial Flow Reaction Turbine

1. Kaplan Turbine and
2. Propeller Turbine
 When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is
known as Propeller turbine.
 If the vanes on the hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine.
 The runner blades are adjusted automatically by servo-mechanism so that at all
loads the flow enters them without shock. This gives better part load efficiency for
Kaplan turbine.
 Components of Kaplan turbine and Propeller turbine are similar to that of the
Francis turbine, only the runner is different.
 Main parts of the Kaplan & Propeller turbine are:
A. Scroll casing
B. Guide vane mechanism
C. Hub with vanes or runner and
D. Draft tube

Fig. 3.13 Components of Kaplan turbine

 The water from penstock enters the casing and then moves to the guide vanes. From
the guide vanes, the water turns through 90° and flows axially through the runner as
shown in Fig. 3.13.
Work done, Efficiency and Power Developed

 Expressions for work done, efficiency and power developed by Kaplan & Propeller
turbine are similar to that of Francis turbine.
Discharge through Runner of Kaplan & Propeller Turbine

 The discharge through the runner is obtained by,
( ) ( )
Where,
Outer diameter of the runner
Diameter of the hub
Working Proportions of Kaplan and Propeller Turbine

1. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet are equal,
( )
2. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
√ ( )
3. Area of flow at inlet and outlet are equal,
( )

3.9 Draft Tube Theory

 Draft tube is an integral part of reaction turbine. It is an air tight diverging conduit
with cross-sectional area increasing along its length. One end of this diverging tube is
connected to runner exit and the other is located below the level of tail race.
 The function of the draft tube are:
 When water flows through the turbine it’s kinetic and pressure energy is
utilized to generate shaft power. Even though when water leaves the turbine
it possesses high kinetic energy and negative pressure head. If water is
discharged through a draft tube having gradually increasing cross sectional
area, the velocity is largely reduced at the outlet of the draft tube, and thus
resulting in a gain in kinetic head and also increases the negative pressure
head at the turbine exit so that net working head on the turbine increases. So
output of turbine and efficiency also increases.
 By providing a draft tube, a turbine can be installed above the tail race
without loss of any head. This helps to make inspection and maintenance of a
turbine easy.
 Different types of draft tubes used in reaction turbine are:
a) Straight divergent tube or Conical draft tube
b) Simple elbow tube
c) Moody spreading tube
d) Elbow tube with circular cross-section at inlet and rectangular at outlet
 Fig. 3.14 shows different types of draft tubes.
Fig. 3.14 Types of draft tubes

 Let,
Vertical height of draft
tube above the tail race
distance of bottom of
draft tube from tail race
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation
to the inlet (section 2-2) and
outlet (section 3-3) of the draft
tube as shown in Fig. 3.15.
Fig. 3.15 Draft tube theory
 Assuming section 3-3 as a datum line, we get,
( ) ( )
Where,
Loss of energy between section 2-2 and 3-3.
But,
( )
( ) ( )
 In Equation 3.31, is less than atmospheric pressure.
Efficiency of Draft Tube ( )

 It is defined as the ratio of actual conversion of kinetic head into pressure head in
the draft tube to the kinetic head at the inlet of the draft tube.
. /
( )

3.10 Specific Speed ( )

 It is defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in shape, geometrical
dimensions, blade angles, gate openings, etc. with the actual turbine but of such a
size that it will develop unit power when working under a unit head.
 The specific speed is used in comparing the different types of turbines as every type
of turbine has different specific speed.
In MKS system, In SI system,
Unit power → 1 Horse power Unit power → 1 KW
Unit head → 1 meter Unit head → 1 meter
Derivation of Specific Speed for Hydraulic Turbine

 The overall efficiency of any turbine is given by,
( ) ( )
 Let,
Diameter of actual turbine runner
Width of the actual turbine blade
Speed of actual turbine
Tangential velocity of the turbine wheel
Specific speed of the turbine
√
√ ( )
But,
( )
From Equation 3.34 and 3.35 we have,
√
√
( )
 The discharge through the turbine is given by,

But,
( )
And
√
√
√
( ) √ ( )
√
⁄
( )
 Substituting the value of Q in Equation 3.33 we get,

⁄
⁄
( )
Where, Constant of proportionality

 If,
and Then,
 Substituting these values in Equation (3.38) we get,
⁄
 So,
⁄
√
⁄
√
⁄
( )

Significance of Specific Speed

 Specific speed plays an important role for selecting the type of the turbine. Also the
performance of a turbine can be predicted by knowing the specific speed of the
turbine.
 The type of turbine for different specific speed are given in following table:
Specific Speed,
Sr. No. Type of Turbine
In MKS unit In SI unit
1 10 to 60 10 to 50 Pelton Wheel
2 60 to 300 51 to 225 Francis Turbine
3 300 to 1000 255 to 860 Kaplan turbine
3.11 Unit Quantities and Model Relationship

 A turbine operates most efficiently at its design point, i.e., at a particular
combination of head, discharge, speed and power output. But in actual practice
hardly any turbine operates at its designed parameters.
 In order to predict the behavior of turbine operating at varying conditions of head,
discharge, speed and power output, the results expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity (1m).
 The conditions of the turbine under unit head are such that the overall efficiency of
the turbine remains constant.
 Turbine can be compared with the help of the following common characteristics:
A. Unit Speed ( )
It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head (1 m).
√
√
But,
For a given turbine, the diameter ( ) is constant.

√
From definition of unit speed, if
Hence,
√
B. Unit Discharge ( )
It is defined as a discharge passing through a turbine, which is working under a unit
head (1m).
Total discharge, Q = Area of flow x Velocity of flow
But for a given turbine, area of flow is constant and,
√
√
From definition of unit discharge, if
Hence,
√
C. Unit Power ( )
It is defined as the power developed by a turbine, which is working under a unit head
(1m).
The overall efficiency,
( )
But,
√
√
⁄
From definition of unit power, if
Hence,

 Use of Unit Quantities ( )

 If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine can be
easily known from the values of the unit quantities.
 Let,
Different heads under which a turbine works,
Corresponding speeds,
Corresponding discharge, and
Corresponding power developed by the turbine
From the definition of unit quantities, we get
√ √
√ √
⁄ ⁄
 Hence, if the speed, discharge and power developed by a turbine under a head are
known, then by using above relations the speed, discharge and power developed by
the same turbine under a different head can be obtained easily.
3.12 Performance (Characteristic) Curves of Hydraulic Turbines

 The turbines are generally designed to work at particular designed conditions. But
often the turbines are required to work at different conditions. Therefore it is
essential to determine the exact behavior of the turbines under the varying
conditions.
 “Characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves, with the help of which
the exact behavior and performance of the turbine under different working
conditions can be known.”
 These curves are plotted from the results of the test performed on the actual turbine
or its model under different working conditions.
 The important parameters which are varied during a test on a turbine are:
(1) Speed (N), (2) Head (H), (3) Discharge (Q), (4) Power (P), (5) overall efficiency (ηo)
and (6) Gate opening (i.e. the percentage of the inlet passages provided for water to
enter the turbine)
 Out of these six parameters speed, head and discharge are independent parameters.
Different characteristic curves are obtained by keeping one independent parameter

constant and variation of any parameter with respect to remaining two independent
parameters.
 The following are the important characteristic curves for a hydraulic turbine:
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves
3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves
1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves

 Main characteristic curves are obtained by maintaining a constant head and a
constant gate opening on the turbine.
 The speed of the turbine is varied by admitting different rates of flow by adjusting
the percentage of gate opening. The power (P) developed is measured mechanically.
From each test the unit power Pu, the unit speed Nu, the unit discharge Qu and the
overall efficiency ηo are determined. The characteristic curves drawn are:
a) Unit discharge vs unit speed
b) Unit power vs unit speed
c) Overall efficiency vs unit speed
Fig. 3.16 (a) Main Characteristic curves for a Pelton wheel

 For Pelton wheel since Qu depends only on the gate opening and independent of Nu,
Qu vs Nu plots are horizontal straight lines.
 However for low specific speed Francis turbines Qu vs Nu are drooping curves,
thereby indicating that as the speed increases the discharge through the turbine
decreases. This is so because in these turbines a centrifugal head is developed which
retards the flow. On the other hand for high specific speed Francis turbine as well as

Kaplan turbine, since the flow is axial there is no such centrifugal head developed
which may cause the retardation of flow.
Fig. 3.16 (b) Main Characteristic curves for a Reaction turbine
2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves

 Operating characteristic curves are plotted when the speed on the turbine is
constant. In case of turbines the head is generally constant. Hence the variation of
power and efficiency w.r.t. discharge Q is plotted.
 The power curve for turbines shall not pass through the origin because certain
amount of discharge is needed to produce power to overcome initial friction. Fig.
3.17 shows the variation of power and efficiency with respect to discharge.
Fig. 3.17 Operating characteristic curves

3. Muschel Curves or Constant Efficiency Curves

 These curves are obtained from the speed vs. efficiency and speed vs. discharge
curves (main characteristic curves) for different gate openings.
 For a given efficiency there are two values of speeds and two values of discharge for
a given gate opening, these can be plotted as shown in Fig. 3.18.
 The procedure is repeated for different gate openings and the curves Q vs. N are
plotted. The curves having the same efficiencies are joined. The curves having same
efficiency are called iso-efficiency curves. These curves are helpful in determining the
zone of constant efficiency and for predicting the performance of the turbine at
various efficiencies.
Fig. 3.18 Constant efficiency curve
3.13 Governing of Hydraulic Turbines

 “The governing of a turbine is defined as the operation by which the speed of the
turbine is kept constant under all working conditions (irrespective of the load
variations).”
 Governing of a turbine is necessary as, a turbine is directly coupled to an electric
generator, which is required to run at constant speed under all fluctuating loads
conditions.
 It is done automatically by means of a governor, which regulates the rate of flow
through the turbines according to the changing load conditions on the turbine.
 The governor used in hydraulic turbines should be very strong as it has to deal with
the water coming at very large force and huge quantity.

 All type of turbines use oil pressure governor, which consists of the following parts:
 Oil sump
 Oil pump (Gear pump), which is driven by the power obtained from the
turbine. It supplies oil at high pressure.
 The servo motor, also known as a relay cylinder, which consists of a cylinder
in which piston reciprocates under the action of oil pressure. It is connected
at both the ends with the distributor valve through the pipe lines.
 The distributor valve or control valve or relay valve, which slides whenever
load changes and thereby allows the oil to go to either side of the
servomotor.
 The centrifugal governor or actuator, which is connected the turbine main
shaft through belt or gears.
Governing of Pelton Wheel
 In Pelton wheel turbine, the quantity of water supplied by the nozzle can be
regulated by any one of the following methods:
a) Spear Regulation
b) Deflector Regulation
c) Double Regulation
All these methods are operated by oil pressure governor.
a) Spear Regulation
 It consists of a nozzle in which spear moves to and fro by the action of the
servomotor piston and controls the quantity of water at changing demands.
 This movement is useful when the fluctuations in load are small. But when the load
changes suddenly, sudden change in the nozzle area causes water hammer in the
penstock. Therefore simple regulation system is not used in modern turbines where
fluctuations in the load are sudden.
b) Deflector Regulation
 It is a plate, pivoted outside the nozzle and is connected to oil pressure governor
through levers.
 When the load drops it deflects a part of the jet and thus controls the quantity of
water striking the buckets.
 In this system large amount of water goes into waste but there are no chances of
water hammer in penstock.
 This system is also not widely used due to wastage of large amount of water.
c) Double Regulation
 This method is widely used by all modern Pelton wheels because it has the
advantages of both spear as well as deflector regulation system.

 If load on the turbine drops suddenly, then deflector comes into action immediately
and obstructs a part of water reaching to the buckets. In the mean time, spear
gradually comes forward to its new position and thus the risk of water hammer is
avoided.
 As this type of governing controls the speed of turbine and pressure (i.e. water
hammer) in the penstock by the combination of spear and jet deflector, this system
is known as “Double Regulation”.
Fig. 3.19 Governing of Pelton wheel (Spear regulation)

Working:
 When the load on the generator decreases, the speed of the generator increases.
Hence speed of the turbine also increases beyond the normal speed.
 The centrifugal governor which is connected to the turbine main shaft will be
rotating at an increased speed and hence centrifugal force on the fly ball increases
and it moves upward. Sleeve of the governor will also moves upward.
 As the sleeve moves upward, a horizontal lever turns about the fulcrum and the
piston rod of the control valve moves downward. This closes the valve V 1 and opens
the valve V2 as shown in Fig. 3.19.
 The oil pumped from the oil pump to the control valve under pressure will flow
through the valve V2 to the servomotor and will exert force on the face A of the
piston of the relay cylinder.
 Piston along with piston rod and spear will move towards right. This will decrease
the area of flow of water at the outlet of the nozzle and it will reduce the rate of flow
to the turbine which consequently reduces the speed of the turbine.

 Mean while bell crank lever moves downward, the jet deflector will operate and
divert whole or part of the jet away from the buckets.
 As soon as speed becomes normal, the fly balls, sleeves, lever and piston rod come
to its normal position. (Refer Figure 4.45 in R.N. Patel for double regulation)
Governing of Francis Turbine

 The guide blades of the Francis turbine are pivoted and connected by levers and links
to the regulating ring. The regulating ring is attached with two regulating rods
connected to the regulating lever. Thus regulating lever in turn is connected with
regulating shaft, which is operated by the piston of servomotor.
Fig. 3.20 Governing of Francis turbine

 When load on the turbine decreases, speed tends to increase, which moves fly balls
upwards and thus raises sleeves. Main lever on the other side of the fulcrum pushes
down the control valve rod and opens port V 1. Oil under pressure enters the
servomotor from left and pushes the piston to moves towards right.
 When the piston of the servomotor moves towards right, regulating ring is rotated to
decrease the passage between the guide vanes by changing guide vane angles. Thus
quantity of water reaching the runner blades reduces and speed decreases to the
normal speed.
 Sudden reduction in passage between the guide blades may cause water hammer
which can be prevented by providing a relief valve near the turbine which diverts the
water directly to the tail race. Thus it functions similar to that of jet deflector as in
Pelton wheel. Thus double regulation is also well performed in Francis turbine.

Example
3.1. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following specifications:
Shaft power = 11,772 KW; Head = 380 meters; Speed = 750 rpm; Overall efficiency =
86%; Jet diameter is not to exceed one-sixth of the wheel diameter. Determine:
a) The wheel diameter,
b) The number of jets required, and
c) Diameter of the jet.
Take Kv1 = 0.985 and Ku1 = 0.45. [18.2; R. K. Bansal]
Solution:
Given data Find

Shaft power S.P.  11772 kW D ?
Head H  380 m d?
Speed N  750 rpm No. of Jet  ?
Overall efficiency o  86%  0.86
Co  efficient of velocity C v  0.985
Speedratio   0.45
1
d D
6
DN
 Velocity of wheel u (1)
60
u   2gH
 0.45  2  9.81  380
 38.85 m / s putting this value in eq. (1)
 D  750
 38.85   D  0.989 m
60
D
 d
6
0.989
d 
6
d  0.165m

Total discharge Q
 No. of jet   (2)
Dischargea of one jet q
S.P. 11772
o  
W.P gQH
1000
11772  1000
 0.86 
1000  9.81  Q  380
3
Q  3.672 m (a)
sec
Discharge of one jet , q  Area ofjet  velocity of jet

 d2  V1
4

 (0.165)2  85.05
4
3
 1.818 m (b)
sec
Putting these value in eq. (2)
3.672
No. of jet 
1.818
No. of jet  2
3.2.A Kaplan turbine develops 24647.6kW power at an average head of 39m. Assuming a
speed ratio of 2, flow ratio of 0.6, diameter of the boss equals to 0.35 times the
diameter of the runner and an overall efficiency of 90%. Calculate the diameter,
speed and specific speed of the turbine.
Solution:
Given data
Shaft power S.P.  24647.6 kW
Head H  39 m
Speedratio 2
Flow ratio  0.6
Diameter of boss  0.35 Diameter of runner  Db  0.35  Do
Overall efficiency o  0.9
Find:
Db and Do  ?
N?
Ns  ?

S.P.
 o 
W.P.
S.P.

 g  Q  H
1000
24647.6  1000
 0.9 
1000  9.81  Q  39
Q  71.58 m3 / s

 Discharge Q  D2o  Db2   v f1
4
 v f1 
Flow ratio   0.6 
 2gH 
71.58 
4

 2 2

Do   0.35Do   16.59 

 v f1  0.6  2gH 

  v f1  0.6  2  9.81  39 
 
  v f1  16.59 m / s 
Do  2.5 m
and Db  0.35Do  0.35  2.5
Db  0.875 m
DoN
 u1 
60
 u1 
 Speedratio  2gH  2 
 
 2.5  N  
 55.32  u1  2  2gH
60  
 u1  2  2  9.81  39 
 
 u1  55.32 m / s 
N  422.61 rpm
N S.P.
 Specific speed Ns  5
H 4
422.61  24647.6
 5
39 4
Ns  680.76 rpm

4
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Course Contents
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Components and Working of a
Centrifugal Pump
4.3 Velocity Diagram and Work
Done of a Centrifugal Pump
4.4 Definitions of Heads &
Efficiencies of Pumps
4.5 Specific Speed
4.6 Minimum Starting Speed
4.7 Maximum Suction Lift
4.8 Net Positive Suction Head
4.9 Priming of Centrifugal Pump
4.10 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump
4.11 Characteristic Curves of
Hydraulic Pumps
4.12 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine
4.13 Solved Numerical
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Ketan C. Agola

4. Hydraulic Pumps Fluid Power Engineering (151903)
4.1 Introduction
 “The hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
are called pumps.”
 It increases pressure energy or kinetic energy or both by using mechanical energy.
The energy level of the fluid can be increased by either rotodynamic action or by
positive displacement of the fluid.
 “If the mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy or kinetic energy by
means of centrifugal force acting on the fluid, the hydraulic machine is called
Centrifugal pump.”
 They work on the same principle of a reaction turbine. The basic difference between
pump and a turbine is that in a turbine, flow takes place from the high pressure side
to low pressure side while in a pump flow takes place from low pressure side to high
pressure side.
Classification of Pumps on the Basis of Transfer of Mechanical Energy:
Centrifugal
Rotodynamic Propeller
Turbine
Piston
Pumps
Reciprocating Plunger
Diaphram
Positive
Displacement Gear
Vane
Rotory
Lobe
Screw
Applications of Hydraulic Pumps:

 Agriculture and irrigation work
 Municipal water works and drainage system
 Condensate, boiler feed, sump drain and such other services in a steam
power plant
 Hydraulic control system
 Oil pumping
Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power Engineering (151903) 4. Hydraulic Pumps
 Transfer of material in industry.

4.2 Components and Working of a Centrifugal Pump
Components:
 Main parts of a centrifugal pump (refer Fig. 4.1) are:
1. Impeller
2. Casing
3. Suction pipe
4. Delivery pipe
Fig. 4.1 Main parts of a centrifugal pump
1. Impeller
 It is a wheel or rotor which is provided with a series of backward curves vanes or
blades. It is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an external source of energy
(electric motor), which imparts required energy to the impeller.
 It gets mechanical energy and converts it to kinetic and pressure energy of the fluid.
 Liquid enters the impeller through an eye of the impeller, high energy liquid than
enters the pump casing.
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Bhavin J. Vegada

2. Casing
 It is an air tight passage surrounding the impeller, designed in such a way that kinetic
energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller is converted into
pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and enters the delivery pipe.
 Material of the casing is generally cast iron or cast steel.
 The efficiency of the pump depends on the type of casing used. The following three
types of casings are commonly used:
A. Volute Casing
B. Vortex Casing and
C. Casing with Guide Blades
A. Volute Casing
 It is of spiral type in which area of flow increases gradually. [ ( ) ( )
( )]
 It is observed that in case of volute casing, large amount of kinetic energy is lost
due to eddy formation and hence lower overall efficiency.
 These pumps hence give comparatively low head.
B. Vortex Casing
 In this type of casing, a circular chamber is provided in between the casing and
the impeller, which is known as vortex or whirlpool chamber (refer Fig. 4.2 (a)).
 By introducing the circular chamber, the loss of energy due to the formation of
eddies is reduced to a considerable extent.
 Thus the efficiency of the pump is more than the efficiency when only volute
casing is provided.
Fig. 4.2 Types of casing

C. Casing with Guide Blades

 Most efficient casing.
 In this impeller is surrounded by a series of guide blades mounted on a ring
which is known as diffuser (refer Fig. 4.2 (b)).
 The guide vanes are designed in such a way that the water from the impeller
enters the guide vanes without shock which avoids hydraulic losses.
 Also the area of guide vanes increases, thus reducing velocity of flow and
consequently increases the pressure of water.
 Used for developing high heads and hence mostly used as vertical pumps and
very suitable for installations in deep wells, mines, etc.
 Casing is in most of the cases concentric with the impeller.
3. Suction Pipe
 It carries liquid from the sump to the pump.
 Its lower end is dipped into the sump and upper end is connected with the eye of the
pump (i.e. inlet of the pump).
 A strainer and foot-valve are connected with the lower end.
 Strainer keeps the debris away from entering into suction pipe and hence only clear
water enters the impeller.
 Foot-valve is a kind of non-return valve which does not allow the liquid to go back
into sump.
 Cavitation may be caused due to negative pressure at the suction of the pump and
hence losses in the inlet pipe must be minimized.
 To keep low velocity in suction pipe, normally diameter of the suction pipe is kept
more than that of the delivery pipe.
4. Delivery Pipe
 A pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end delivers
the water at a required height is known as delivery pipe.
 The velocity of liquid in delivery pipe is kept slightly higher than that in suction pipe.
 A valve is provided just near the pump outlet to regulate the flow of liquid in the
delivery pipe.
Working:
 “A centrifugal pump works on a principle that when the liquid is rotated by an
external prime mover, it is thrown away from the axis of rotation and a centrifugal
head is imparted which makes it possible to raise to the higher elevation.”

 Before starting a centrifugal pump, liquid is filled in the suction pipe, impeller, casing
and a delivery pipe up to a delivery valve. This is known as priming. During priming
delivery valve is kept close.
 After priming, prime mover (electric motor) is started; delivery valve is still kept
closed.
 Energy given to the impeller by external source (i.e. prime mover) is transferred to
working fluid which increases the kinetic energy and pressure energy of the fluid.
 The rotation of the impeller causes strong suction at the eye of the pump.
 After the impeller attains its normal speed, the delivery valve is opened and liquid is
allowed to flow through the impeller vanes and it attains higher velocity at the outer
periphery.
 Liquid enters into casing, due to special design of casing the velocity of liquid
decreases and pressure energy hence increases.
 With high pressure energy and negligible kinetic energy liquid enters into delivery
pipe and is lifted to the required height.
 At that instant partial vacuum is created at the eye of pump due to centrifugal action
of impeller on liquid.
 This helps liquid to rush through the suction pipe towards the impeller eye, to take
place of liquid which has left the impeller vanes.
 When the pump is to be stopped the delivery valve should be first closed to stop the
back flow of liquid.
4.3 Velocity Diagram and Work Done of a Centrifugal Pump

 In case of the centrifugal pump,
work is done by the impeller on the
water. The expression for the work
done by the impeller on the liquid is
obtained by drawing velocity
triangles at the inlet and outlet of
the impeller in the same way as for
a turbine.
 Fig. 4.3 shows the vane of impeller
and velocity triangles at the inlet
and outlet of the impeller.
Fig. 4.3 Velocity triangles of
centrifugal Pump

 The water enters the impeller radially at inlet for the best efficiency of the pump,
which means the absolute velocity of water at inlet makes an angle of 90° with the
direction of motion of the impeller at inlet. Hence .
Assumptions:
 No energy losses due to friction and eddy formation
 No loss due to shock at entry
 Liquid enters the impeller eye in radial direction
 Uniform velocity distribution in the passage between two adjacent vanes.
 Let,
Speed of the impeller in rpm.
Diameter of impeller at the inlet
Diameter of impeller at the outlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at the inlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at the outlet
Absolute velocity of water at the inlet
Relative velocity of water at the inlet
Angle made by absolute velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane
Angle made by relative velocity at inlet with the direction of motion of vane and
are corresponding values at outlet.
 A centrifugal pump is the reverse of a radially inward flow reaction turbine. But in
case of a radially inward flow reaction turbine, the work done by the water on the
runner per sec per unit weight is given by,
( )
 Therefore, work done by the impeller on the water per sec per unit weight,
[ ]
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
 Work done by the impeller on water per sec,

̇( )
( ) ( )
 Discharge,

( )
Where,
are the width of the impeller at the inlet and outlet respectively.
 Equation (4.1) gives the head imparted to the water by the impeller or energy given
by impeller to water per sec per unit weight.
4.4 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump
Heads:
1. Suction Head or Suction Lift ( )
 It is the vertical height of the center line of the pump shaft above the liquid surface
in the sump from which the liquid is being lifted. (refer Fig. 4.1)
2. Delivery Head ( )
 The vertical distance between the center line of the pump shaft and the liquid
surface in the tank to which liquid is delivered. (refer Fig. 4.1)
3. Static Head or Static Lift ( )
 As shown in Fig. 4.1 the static head is the vertical distance between the liquid
surface in the sump and the tank to which the liquid is delivered by the pump.
 Thus the static head may be expressed as,
( )
 Thus static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by
the pump.
4. Manometric Head ( )
 It is defined as the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
Or
It is the total head that must be produced by the pump to satisfy the external
requirements.
 It is given by the following expressions:
a) If there are no losses in the impeller and casing of the pump, then the
manometric head will be equals to the energy given to the liquid by the
impeller.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

b) Manometric head is the difference of total head at the outlet and total head
at the inlet of the pump.
( ) ( ) ( )
c) Whole of the manometric head is not used to lift the liquid against the static
lift; a part of it is used to overcome the losses in the pipes and fittings and to
provide the kinetic energy at delivery outlet.
Manometric head = static head + head losses in suction and delivery pipes +
velocity head in delivery pipe
( ) ( ) ( )
Efficiencies:
 In case of a centrifugal pump, the power is transmitted from the shaft of the electric
motor to the shaft of the pump and then to the impeller. From the impeller, the
power is given to the water.
 The followings are the important efficiencies of a centrifugal pump:
1. Manometric Efficiency
2. Mechanical Efficiency and
3. Overall Efficiency
1. Manometric Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of the manometric head developed by the pump to the head
imparted by the impeller to the liquid.
( )
( )
 The power at the impeller of the pump is more than that the power given to the
liquid at outlet of the pump.
( )

2. Mechanical Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of the power actually delivered by the impeller to the power
at the shaft of the centrifugal pump.
̇( )⁄
( )
3. Overall Efficiency ( )
 It is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the
pump.
( )
( )
4.5 Specific Speed

 “The specific speed of a centrifugal pump is defined as the speed of a geometrically
similar pump which delivers unit quantity against a unit head.”
 It is used to compare the performance of different pumps.
 For a centrifugal pump,
( )
Where,
Diameter of the impeller of the pump
Width of the impeller
We know that,
( )
 Tangential velocity is given by,
( )

 Now tangential velocity ( ) and velocity of flow ( ) are related to the manometric
head ( ) as,
√ ( )
 Substituting value of in equation (4.13), we get,
 Substituting value of D in equation (4.12), we get,
( )
Where, K = Constant of proportionality.

 By definition, if and ⁄ , becomes
Substituting these values in equation (4.15), we get,
 Substituting value of in equation (4.15), we get,
√
( )
4.6 Minimum Starting Speed

 When a pump is started, water will not flow until the pressure developed by the
impeller is sufficient to overcome the manometric head.
 The water will start flowing only if the centrifugal head or pressure head raised by
the impeller be at least equals to or more than manometric head.

Centrifugal head or head raised by the impeller,
Where,
Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet
 The flow of water commence only if,
 For minimum speed,
( )
But,
Substitute these values of in equation (4.17), we get,
But,
( ) ( )
By dividing with , we get,
[ ]
( )
[ ]
 Equation (4.18) gives minimum starting speed of a centrifugal pump.

4.7 Maximum Suction Lift or Suction Height

 Fig. 4.4 shows a centrifugal pump that lifts a liquid from a sump. The free surface of
the liquid is at a depth of below the pump axis. The liquid is flowing with a
velocity of in the suction pipe.
Section - I
Fig. 4.4 Suction lift

 Let, is the suction height or suction lift.
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at the free surface of liquid in the sump and section - I
in the suction pipe just at the inlet of the pump.
 Take free surface of liquid as datum line, we get,
Where,
Atmospheric pressure on the free surface of liquid
Velocity of liquid at the free surface
Height of free surface from datum line
Absolute pressure at the inlet of the pump
Velocity of liquid through suction pipe
Height of inlet of pump from datum line
Loss of head in foot valve, strainer and suction pipe
( ) ( )

 For finding the maximum suction lift the pressure at the inlet of the pump should not
be less than vapor pressure of the liquid.
 Hence taking minimum pressure at the inlet of the pump equal to vapor pressure of
the liquid.
 We get,
Where,
Vapor pressure of the liquid in absolute unit.
( )
 Now taking,
Atmospheric pressure head
Vapor pressure head
( )
 Equation 4.20 gives value of maximum suction lift (or suction height) for a centrifugal
pump.
 Hence if the suction height of the pump is more, then vaporization of liquid at the
inlet of pump will take place and there will be a possibility of Cavitation.
4.8 Net Positive Suction Head

 “It is defined as the total head developed at the pump inlet above the vapor
pressure of the liquid.”
 It is also defined as the absolute pressure head at the inlet to the pump minus the
vapor pressure head plus the velocity head. Thus,
 Introducing the value of from equation 4.19 in the above expression, we get,
( )
( ) ( )

 In other words, NPSH may also be defined as the total head required to make the
liquid to flow through the suction pipe to the impeller.
 For any pump installation a distinction is made between the required NPSH and the
available NPSH.
Required NPSH
 The value of required NPSH is given by the pump manufacturer.
 The value of required NPSH varies with the pump design, the speed of the pump,
and the capacity of the pump.
 The value of required NPSH can be calculated experimentally. For determining its
value, the pump is tested with different suction lifts and minimum value of is
obtained at which the pump gives maximum efficiency without any objectional noise
(i.e. Cavitation free).
Available NPSH
 When the pump is installed the available NPSH can be determined from the equation
4.21.
 In order to have Cavitation free operation of centrifugal pump, the available NPSH
should be greater than the required NPSH.
[Note: NPSH is a measure of how much spare pull you have before the bubbles form]
4.9 Priming of Centrifugal Pump

 Before starting a centrifugal pump, the suction pipe, casing and portion of the
delivery pipe up to delivery valve is completely filled with water by external source
of water to remove the air from the suction pipe and casing. This is known as priming
of a pump.
 The work done by the impeller per unit weight of liquid per sec is known as the head
developed by an impeller.
 Head developed by the impeller is given by meter. Since this equation is

independent of the density of the liquid, the head developed will be in terms of
meters of air when pump is running in the air.
 If the pump is primed with water, the head generated is same meter of water. But as
the density of air is very low, the generated head of air is negligible compared to
meter of water head. Hence the water may not be sucked from the pump. To avoid
this difficulty, priming is necessary.

4.10 Multi-stage Centrifugal Pump

 If a centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers, the pump is called a multi-
stage centrifugal pump.
 The impellers may be mounted on the same shaft or different shaft.
 A multi-stage pump is having the two important functions:
I. To produce a high head and
II. To discharge a large quantity of water.
 For high head, impellers are connected in series (on same shaft) as shown in Fig.4.5.
Fig. 4.5 Pump in series

 For high discharge, the impellers are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.6.
Fig. 4.6 Pumps in parallel

4.11 Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Pumps

 Characteristic curves of centrifugal pumps are defined those curves which are
plotted from the results of a number of tests on the centrifugal pump. These curves
are necessary to predict the behavior and performance of the pump when the pump
is working under different flow rate, head and speed. The followings are the
important characteristic curves for pumps:
1. Main Characteristic Curves,
2. Operating Characteristic Curves and
3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves.
1. Main Characteristic Curves
 The main characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump consists of variation of head
( ), power and discharge with respect to speed.
 For plotting curves of manometric head versus speed, discharge is kept constant. For
plotting curves of discharge versus speed, manometric head is kept constant and for
plotting curves of power versus speed, the manometric head and discharge are kept
constant.
 Fig. 4.7 shows main characteristic curves of a pump.
Fig. 4.7 Main characteristic curves of a pump

2. Operating Characteristic Curves
 If the speed is kept constant, the variation of manometric head, power and efficiency
with respect to discharge gives the operating characteristics of the pump. Fig. 4.8
shows the operating characteristic curves of a pump.

Fig. 4.8 Operating characteristic curves of a pump

 The input power curve for pumps shall not pass through the origin. It will be slightly
away from the origin on the y-axis, as even at zero discharge some power is needed
to overcome mechanical losses.
 The head curve will have maximum value of head when discharge is zero.
 The output power curve will start from origin as at , output power ( )
will be zero.
 The efficiency curve will start from origin as at .
3. Constant Efficiency or Muschel Curves
 For obtaining constant efficiency curves (iso-efficiency curves) for a pump, the head
versus discharge curves and efficiency versus discharge curves for different speeds
are used.
 Fig. 4.9(a) shows the head versus discharge curves for different speeds. The
efficiency versus discharge curves for the different speeds are as shown in Fig. 4.9(b).
 By combining these curves ( ), constant efficiency
curves are obtained as shown in Fig. 4.9(a).
 For obtaining constant efficiency curves, horizontal lines representing constant
efficiencies are drawn on the curves.
 The points at which these lines cut the efficiency curves at various speeds, are
transferred to the corresponding curves.
 The points having the same efficiency are then joined by smooth curves. These
smooth curves represents the iso-efficiency or constant efficiency curves.

Fig. 4.9 Constant efficiency curves of a pump
4.12 Cavitation of Pump & Turbine

 Cavitation is defined as the phenomenon of formation of vapor bubbles of a flowing
liquid in a region where the pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure and
the sudden collapsing of these vapor bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
 When the vapor bubble collapse, a very high pressure is created. The metallic
surfaces, above which these vapor bubbles collapse, is subjected to these high
pressures, which cause pitting action on the surface. Thus cavities are formed on the
metallic surface and also considerable noise and vibrations are produced.
 Cavitation includes formation of vapor bubbles of the flowing liquid and collapsing of
the vapor bubbles.
Precaution against Cavitation: The following precautions should be taken against
Cavitation:
1) The pressure of the flowing liquid in any part of the hydraulic system should
not be allowed to fall below its vapor pressure.
2) The special materials or coatings such as aluminum-bronze and stainless
steel, which are cavitation resistant materials, should be used.
Effects of Cavitation: The following are the effects of cavitation:
1) The metallic surfaces are damaged and cavities are formed on the surfaces.

2) Due to sudden collapse of vapor bubble, considerable noise and vibrations

are produced.
3) The efficiency of a turbine decreases due to cavitation. Due to pitting action,
the surface of the turbine blades becomes rough and the force exerted by
water on the turbine blade decreases. Hence the work done by water or
output horse power becomes less and thus efficiency decreases.
Cavitation in Turbines:
 In turbines, only reaction turbines are subjected to cavitation.
 In reaction turbines, the cavitation may occur at the outlet of the runner or at the
inlet of the draft tube, where the pressure is considerably reduced (i.e. , which may
be below the vapor pressure of the liquid flowing through the turbine).
 Due to cavitation, the metal of the runner vanes and draft tube is gradually eaten
away, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine.
 Hence the cavitation in a reaction turbine can be noted by a sudden drop in
efficiency.
 In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of a reaction
turbine, the critical value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is calculated (Equation
4.22).
( )
( )
Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:

 In centrifugal pumps the cavitation may occur at the inlet of the impeller of the
pump, or at the suction side of the pumps, where the pressure is considerably
reduced.
 Hence if the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapor
pressure of the liquid then the cavitation may occur.
 The cavitation in a pump can be noted bay a sudden drop in efficiency and head.
 In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the suction side
of the pump, the critical value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is calculated
(Equation 4.23).
( )
( )
 If the value of Thoma’s cavitation factor ( ) is greater than critical cavitation factor
( ), the cavitation will not occur in that turbine or pump. The critical cavitation
factor ( ) may be obtained from tables or empirical relationships.


Example 4.1 A centrifugal pump has the following dimensions: inlet radius = 80 mm, outer
radius = 160 mm, width of impeller at the outlet = 50 mm, β1 = 0.45 radians, β2 = 0.25
radians, width of the impeller at the outlet = 50 mm. Assuming shockless entry determine
(1) the discharge, (2) the head developed by the pump when the impeller rotates at 90
radians/second.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
R1 = 80 mm = 0.8 m Q
R2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m Hm
B1 = 50 mm =0.05 m
B2 = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Vane angle at inlet,  = 1  0.45 radians
Vane angle at outlet,  = 2  0.25 radians, = 90 rad/sec
tangential velocity of impeller at the inlet and outlet are,

D N
u1  1   R1  90  0.08  7.2 m/s
60
u2   R2  90  0.16  14.4 m/s
V
From inlet velocity triangle, tan = f1
u1
Vf1  u1 tan  7.2  tan  0.45 radians   3.478 m/s
(1) Dishcharge  Q 
Q  D1B1Vf1   2R1   B1  Vf1
  2  0.08  0.05  3.478 =0.0874 m3 / s
(2) Head developed Hm
For the shochless entry, the losses of the pump will be zero.Hence,
the head developed will be given by,
V u
Hm  w2 2
g
Example 4.2 A centrifugal pump with 1.2 m outlet diameter and 0.6 m inner diameter runs
at 200 rpm and pumps 1880 Liters/s, the average lift being 6 m. the angle which the vanes
make at exit with the tangent to the impeller is 26ᵒ and the radial velocity of flow is 2.5 m/s.
determine the (i) manometric efficiency and (ii) the least speed to start pumping against
head of 6 m.

Solution:
Given data: Find:
D2  1.2 m man
N  200 rpm Nmin
Q  1880 ltr / sec  1.88 m3 / s
Hm  0.6 m
  260
Vf2  2.5 m / s
D1  0.6 m
Manometric efficiency
gHm
man 
Vw2u2
D N  1.2  200
But u2  2   12.56 m / s
60 60
Vf2 V 2.5
tan   or u2  Vw2  f2   5.13 m/s
u2  Vw2 tan  tan260
Vw2  7.43 m/s

Thus,
9.81  6
man   63%
7.43  12.56
Least speed to start the pump
u22 u12
  Hm
2g 2g
But u2   r2 and u2   r1
Thus,
  r2    r1 
2 2
  Hm  6
2g 2g
  0.6    0.3 
2 2
 6
2g 2g
2N
  20.88 m 
60
N  200 rpm
Example 4.3 The axis of centrifugal pump is 2.5 m above the water level in the sump and the
static lift from the pump centre is 32.5 m. The friction losses in the suction and delivery
pipes are 1 m and 8 m respectively; suction and delivery pipes are each 12 cm diameter at
outlet, the diameter and width of the impeller are 30 cm and 1.8 cm respectively and the

vanes are set back at an angle of 30ᵒ with tangent to the wheel. For a speed of 1800 rpm,
mechanical efficiency 75% and manometric efficiency 80%. Make calculation for the
discharge and the power required to drive the pump. Assume radial entry.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
hs  2.5 m Q
hd  32.5 m P
hfs  1 m,hfd  8 m
dS  dD  12 cm
D  30 cm,B  1.8 cm
2  300
N  1800 rpm
m  75%, man  80%
Tangential velocity of impeller at outlet,
D N  0.3  1800
u2  2   2827 m / s
60 60
Neglecting the velocity head at outlet, the net head against which the pump has to work,
H  hs  hfs   hd  hfd   2.5  1   32.5  8   44 m
Manometric efficiency is given by,
gHm 9.81  44
man  ; 0.8 
Vw2u2 Vw2  28.77
Vw2  19.08 m / s
From the outlet velocity triangle,
Vw2  u2  Vf2 cot 2
19.08  28.27  Vf2 cot30
Vf2  5.30 m / s
Dishcharge is given by,
Q  D2B2 Vf2   0.30  0.018  5.30  0.0899m3 / sPower required
Hydraulic power  gQH  1000  9.81  0.0899  44  38800 W  38.8 kW
Neglecting volumetric loss and hydraulic loss in the impeller flow passage,
the hydraulic power equal to impeller power. Now,
Impeller power
Mechanical efficiency 
shaft power
38.8
0.75 
Shaft power
Shaft power  51.74 kW

Example 4.4 The following requirements are to be satisfied by a centrifugal pump whose
impeller has internal and external diameters are 20 cm and 40 cm respectively. Suction
and delivery heads = 5 m and 20 m, diameter of suction and delivery pipes = 12 cm and 8
cm, discharge = 0.035 m3/s while running at 950 rpm. If the vane outlet angle is 45ᵒ, the
flow velocity is constant and equal to 1.8 m/s and power required to drive the pump is
15 kW, make calculations for (i) the vane angle of impeller at inlet, (ii) the overall and
manometric efficiency of the pump.
Solution:
Given data: Find:
D1  20 cm  0.2 m,D2  40 cm  0.4 m 1
hS  5 m,hD  25 m o and man
dS  12 cm,dD  8 cm
Q  0.035 m3 / s,N  950 rpm
2  450 ,Vf 1  Vf2  1.8 m / s,P  15 kW
Tangential velocity of impeller at inlet and outlet are,
D N  0.2  950
u1  1   9.94 m/s
60 60
D N  0.4  950
u2  2   19.88 m / s
60 60
Vf1  Vf2  1.8 m/s
V 1.8
From the inlet velocity triangle, tan1  f1   0.1811
u1 9.94
Vane angle at inlet,1  10.260
Flow veleocities in the suction and dishcharge pipelines are,
0.035
Vs   3.096 m/s

 0.12 2
4
0.035
Vd   6.966 m/s

 0.08 2
4
Manometric head,
p V2  p V2 
Hm   d  d  h    s  s 
 g 2g   g 2g 
 pd Vd2   ps Vs2 
Hm      
 g 2g   g 2g 
 6.9662   3.0962 
  25  
  5  
 2  9.81   2  9.81 
 26.984 m

The overall efficiency 0 is given by,

gQH 9810  0.035  26.984
0    0.6176  61.76%
S.P 15  103
From the outlet velocity triangle,
Vw2  u2  Vf2 cot 2  19.88  1.8cot450  18.08 m/s
Manometric efficiency is given by,
gHm 9.81  26.984
man    0.7365  73.65%
Vw2u2 18.08  19.88

5
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Course Contents
5.1 Construction and Working of a

Reciprocating Pump
5.2 Discharge, Work Done & Power
of Reciprocating Pump
5.3 Slip of Reciprocating Pump
5.4 Indicator Diagram
5.5 Air Vessels
5.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and
Reciprocating Pumps
5.7 Miscellaneous Pumps

5. Reciprocating Pumps Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
5.1 Construction and Working of a Reciprocating Pump

Reciprocating Pump:
 “If the mechanical energy is converted into hydraulic energy, by sucking the liquid
into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating, which exerts the thrust on the liquid
and increases its hydraulic energy, the pump is known as reciprocating pump.”
Components:
 The following are the main parts of a reciprocating pump:
1) A cylinder with a piston or plunger:
A piston or plunger reciprocates in a closely fitted cylinder.
2) Crank and connecting rod:
Crank and connecting rod mechanism is operated by a power source, which gives
rotary motion to the crank. That rotary motion is to be converted into the
reciprocating motion of the piston with the help of connecting rod.
3) Suction pipe:
One end of suction pipe remains dip in the liquid and other end attached to the
inlet of the cylinder.
4) Delivery pipe:
One end of the delivery pipe is attached with the outlet of the cylinder and other
end at discharge point.
5) Suction and delivery valves:
Suction and delivery valves are provided at the suction end and the delivery end
of the cylinder respectively. These valves are non-return valves.
Working of a single acting reciprocating pump:

 Fig. 5.1 shows a single acting reciprocating pump, which consists of a piston which
reciprocates in a close fitting cylinder.
 The movement of the piston is obtained by connecting the piston rod to crank by
means of a connecting rod.
 The crank is rotated by means of an electric motor.
 Suction and delivery pipes with suction valve and delivery valve are connected to the
cylinder.
 The suction and delivery valves are one way valves or non-return valves, which allow
the water to flow in one direction only.
Prepared By: Ketan C. Agola Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 5. Reciprocating Pumps
Fig. 5.1 Schematic view of single acting reciprocating pump

 When crank shaft rotating, piston moves to and fro in the cylinder. When crank is at
A; the piston is at the extreme left position in the cylinder.
 As the crank is rotating from A to C ( ), the piston is moving
towards right in the cylinder.
 The movement of the piston towards right creates a partial vacuum in the cylinder.
But atmospheric pressure is acting on the liquid in the sump, which is more than the
pressure inside the cylinder.
 Thus the liquid is forced in the suction pipe from the sump due to this pressure
difference. This liquid opens the suction valve and enters the cylinder.
 When crank is rotating from C to A ( ), the piston moves from
its extreme right position towards left in the cylinder.
 The movement of the piston towards left increases the pressure of the liquid inside
the cylinder.
 Hence delivery valve opens and the liquid is forced into the delivery pipe and is
raised to a required height.
Double acting reciprocating pump:

 In case of double acting pump, the water is acting on both sides of the piston as
shown in Fig. 5.2.
 Thus two suction pipes and two delivery pipes are required for double acting pump.

Fig. 5.2 Double acting reciprocating pump

 When there is a suction stroke on one side of the piston, there is a delivery stroke on
the other side of the piston at the same time.
 Thus for one complete revolution of the crank shaft there are two delivery strokes.
5.2 Discharge, Work Done & Power of Reciprocating Pump

 Discharge of a single acting reciprocating pump,
( ) ( )
 Weight of water lifted per second,
 Work Done by a single acting reciprocating pump,
( )
̇ ( )
( )
( ) ( )
 Power required to drive the pump (in kW) for a single acting reciprocating pump,
( )

( )
( )
Where,
Cross-sectional area of the piston or cylinder
Diameter of the cylinder
Radius of crank
Crank revolutions per minute
Stroke length
Suction head or Height of the axis of cylinder from water surface in the sump
Delivery head or Height of delivery outlet above the cylinder axis
 Discharge of a double acting reciprocating pump,
In double acting reciprocating pump for one complete revolution of the crank shaft
there are two delivery strokes.
( )
 Power required to drive the double acting pump,

( )
( )
5.3 Slip of Reciprocating Pump

 “Slip of a pump is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual
discharge of the pump”.
 The actual discharge of a pump is less than the theoretical discharge due to leakage.
And,
( )
( )
Where,
Co-efficient of discharge
Negative slip of the reciprocating pump:

 If actual discharge is more than theoretical discharge, the slip of the pump will
become negative. In that case, the slip of the pump is known as negative slip.
 Negative slip occurs when delivery pipe is short, suction pipe is long and pump is
running at high speed.

5.4 Indicator Diagram

 “The indicator diagram for a reciprocating pump is defined as the graph between the
pressure head in the cylinder and the distance travelled by piston from inner dead
center for one complete revolution of the crank.”
 As the maximum distance travelled by the piston is equal to the stroke length and
hence the indicator diagram is a graph between pressure head and stroke length.
( )
5.5 Air Vessels

 An air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and
liquid at the bottom of the chamber.
 At the base of the chamber there is an opening through which the liquid may flow
into the vessel or out of the vessel.
 When the liquid enters the air vessel, the air gets compressed further and when the
liquid flows out the vessel, the air will expand in the chamber.
 An air vessel is fitted to the suction pipe and to the delivery pipe at a point close to
the cylinder of a single-acting reciprocating pump:
i. To obtain a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate,
ii. To save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance
in the suction and delivery pipes, and
iii. To run the pump at a high speed without separation.
 Fig. 5.3 shows the single-acting reciprocating pump to which air vessels are fitted to
the suction and delivery pipes. The air vessels act like an intermediate reservoir.
 During the first half of the suction stroke, the piston moves with acceleration, which
means the velocity of water in the suction pipe is more than the mean velocity and
hence the discharge of water entering the cylinder will be more than the mean
discharge. This excess quantity of water will be supplied from the air vessel to the
cylinder in such a way that the velocity in the suction pipe below the air vessel is
equal to mean velocity of flow.
 During the second half of the suction stroke, the piston moves with retardation and
hence velocity of flow in the suction pipe is less than the mean velocity of flow. Thus,
the discharge entering the cylinder will be less than the mean discharge. The velocity
of water in the suction pipe due to air vessel is equal to mean velocity of flow and
discharge required in cylinder is less than the mean discharge. Thus the excess water
flowing in the suction pipe will be stored into the air vessel, which will be supplied
during the first half of the next suction stroke.

Fig. 5.3 Single acting reciprocating pump with air vessels

 When the air vessel is fitted to the delivery pipe, during the first half of delivery
stroke, the piston moves with acceleration and forces the water into the delivery
pipe with a velocity more than the mean velocity. The quantity of water in excess of
the mean discharge will flow into the air vessel. This will compress the air inside the
vessel.
 During the second half of the delivery stroke, the piston moves with retardation and
the velocity of water in the delivery pipe will be less than the mean velocity. The
water already stored into the air vessel will start flowing into the delivery pipe and
the velocity of flow in the delivery pipe beyond the point to which air vessel is fitted
will become equal to the mean velocity. Hence the rate of flow of water in the
delivery pipe will be uniform.
5.6 Comparison of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Pumps

Sr. No. Centrifugal Pump Reciprocating Pump
The discharge is continuous and The discharge is fluctuating and
1
smooth. pulsating.
It can handle large quantity of It handles small quantity of liquid.
2
liquid.

It can be used for lifting highly It is used only for lifting pure water or
3
viscous liquids. less viscous fluids.
It is used for large discharge and It is used for small discharge and high
4
small head. head.
Cost is less as compared to Cost is high compared to centrifugal
5
reciprocating pump. pump.
It runs at high speed and can be It runs at low speed.
6
coupled to electric motor.
Less noise and low maintenance Much noise and high maintenance
7
cost. cost.
Smaller floor are and low Large floor area and high installation
8
installation cost. cost.
9 Efficiency is high. Efficiency is low.
5.7 Miscellaneous Pumps

1) Deep-well Pump
 It is also known as a turbine pump. It is generally used for pumping water from
depths more than 8m.
 It is normally a multi-stage pump in which
all impellers are connected in series.
Depending on the head to be pumped,
numbers of stages are selected.
 These pumps consist of the following main
parts:
 Bowl assembly and strainer
 Long column and
 A prime mover.
 As shown in Fig. 5.4 it consists of a large
diameter pipe from the bottom of the well
up to the top.
 A foot valve is located at the bottom of the
pipe. Bowl assembly, which consists the
suction case and all impellers, is connected
to the strainer with suction pipe.
Fig. 5.4 Deep-well Pump
 Generally all the impellers are submerged

in the water. Water enters the first impeller through foot valve and suction pipe and
subsequently passes through all the impellers and hence, gains head one after the
other.
 All these impellers are connected to a common shaft which is extended right up to
the top of the well, where it is connected to the electric motor or any type of prime
mover.
 Motor is generally placed on the ground level. Motor is directly coupled with the
long vertical shaft of impellers. Motor is protected against water.
 The main disadvantage of this type of pump is long vertical shaft. It is to be
supported by thrust bearings to take the load of all the impellers. The bearings are
lubricated by the water passing through the rising main.
2) Submersible Pump
 As the name indicates the pump and electric motor both are submerged in water in
this type of pump as shown in Fig. 5.5.
 In deep-well pump main difficulty lies in long shaft which connects the pump and
motor as the pump is submerged and motor rests on the ground. It is also required
to provide intermediate bearings in the discharge pipe while in case of submersible
pipe the motor and the pump are directly coupled without any intermediate long
shaft.
 The entire unit works below the water level
and hence the suction lift is zero.
 The main problem lies with the protection
of motor windings as it lies in the water. It is
protected by either of the two options given
below:
 By providing “Dry motor” type
system in which normal motor is
used but to prevent water contact, it
is placed in water tight shield.
 By providing special type of
protection with suitable insulation to
electric windings, so that even if
there is direct contact of water with
it, it will not fused off. This
arrangement is known as “Wet Fig.5.5 Submersible Pump
motor” type system.

 Submersible pump is a multi stage centrifugal pump. Generally radial or mixed flow
impellers are used.
 All the bearings used in this type of pump is water lubricated and specially designed
against sand erosion.
 Pump is fitted with a non return valve. The suction housing of the pump is provided
between a pump and electric motor with a strainer.
 Thrust bearings are provided to take axial thrust. Pump shaft and motor shaft is
connected by a muff coupling. Few low capacity pumps may have common shaft for
motor and a pump.
 Before installation of submersible pump, motor is always filled with non-acid water
free of sand for priming purpose.
 Discharge must always be checked for sand concentration as excessive sand
concentration is very harmful for a pump. It can cause fast erosion of the impellers.
 Submersible pumps are generally used to provide drinking water facility in multi
stored building. It is also used extensively for irrigation purposes.
Advantages:
 Running cost is less due to high overall efficiency.
 Priming of the pump is not required (after once it is installed) due to submerged
installation.
 Noise level is less
 Compare to deep-well pumps they are economical as they do not require long
shaft to couple motor and pump which also reduces the cost of bearings and
their subsequent lubrication.
 They can be installed easily.
 It does not require large floor area for installation.
3) Ejector Pump (Jet Pump)
 As we know that the reciprocating or centrifugal pump is installed at ground level
(except submersible pump), the maximum suction head permissible for the
reciprocating pump or centrifugal pump is less than 8 m of water.
 The jet pump helps to increase the suction lift beyond the normal limit of about 8 m
of water head. With the use of ejector assembly it is possible to increase the suction
lifts up to 60 m of water. Jet pump can be installed at the ground level even if the
water level is about 15 to 20 m below the ground.
 The jet pump consists of pipe having a convergent nozzle at its end. An other pipe of
smaller diameter has a nozzle at its end, this nozzle is put in the throat of convergent
portion of larger pipe as shown in Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 Jet pump (Ejector pump)

 Steam, compressed air or water forced through the smaller diameter pipe toward
nozzle, the high pressure flows through the nozzle where the pressure energy
converted into kinetic energy, which high velocity jet creates a vaccum in the throat.
 Therefore water gets sucked up to the large diameter pipe from sump or well. The
incoming moves along the jet through diffuser where the kinetic energy is converted
into pressure. Head and water forced into delivery pipe.
4) Mud Pump
 A mud pump is a reciprocating pumps designed for circulation of drilling fluid down
the drill string and back up the annulus.
 The normal mud pump consists of two sub assemblies, the fluid end and the power
end. The fluid end produces the pumping process with valves, pistons and liners. The
power end converts the rotation of the drive shaft to the reciprocating motion of the
pistons. In most cases a cross-head crank gear is used for this.
Applications of mud pumps:
1) Public utilities: For pumping muddy water, sewage, polluted liquids, solid and
in swimming pool.
2) Industries: For transferring dirty neutral, acid or alkali liquids containing sand,
mud or solid in suspension; clean or dirty low viscosity petroleum products or
solvents; caustic soda, washing, cooling circulation; smoke scrubbing.

3) For flood drainage, sewage pumping, firefighting, recovery of dangerous

liquids.
4) Agriculture: Surface irrigation, liquid manure oxygenation, transfer and
spraying liquid manure or fertilizers
5) Chemical Pump
 The chemical pumps are used for transferring different types of liquids. These liquids
may be inert or highly corrosive and reactive, liquids.
 These pumps can used to transport the liquid which may be highly volatile,
inflammable, explosive and poisonous.
 This pump also pumps liquids at very low and very high pressure and temperature.
 The positive displacement and rotodynamic both pumps can be used for these
purposes. But special types of pump materials are require to handles typical liquids.
 A large number of vertically split casing chemical pumps are used today for a wide
variety of routine chemical process applications.
 The materials used in construction of the major parts of these pumps include bronze,
iron, carbon or alloys steels, glass, plastic, graphite, hard rubber, stoneware,
stainless steel and a number of other corrosion and erosion resistant metals and
synthetics.
 The entire aim in the design of these pumps is to have complete corrosion/erosion
resistance when handling acids, alkalies and other liquids.

Example 5.1 The cylinder bore diameter of a single acting reciprocating pump is 150 mm
and its stroke is 300 mm. The pump runs at 50 rpm and lifts water through a height of 25 m.
The delivery pipe is 22 m long and 100 mm in diameter. Find the theoretical discharge and
theoretical power required to run the pump. If the actual discharge is 4.2 litres/sec. Find the
% slip and acceleration head at the beginning and middle of the delivery stroke.
Solution:
Data given Find:
D  150 mm  0.15 m Q

 0.15  0.01767 m2
2
A Pt
4
L  300 mm  0.3 m % slip
N  50 rpm had at begining and middle of delivery stroke
H  25 m
ld  22 m
dd  100 mm  0.1 m
Q act  4.2 litres / sec  0.0042 m3 / s
(1) Theoritical Dishcharge (Q th )
A  L  N 0.01767  0.3  50
Q th    0.0044 m3 / s
60 60
(2) Theoritical power (Pt )
 g  Q th  H 1000  9.81  0.0044  25
  1.0833 kW
1000 1000
(3) % Slip
 Q  Q act 
% Slip   th   100  4.92%
 Q th 
(4) Acceleration head at the beginning of delivery stroke
l A
had  d  2r  cos 
g ad

where,ad    0.1  0.007854 m2
2
4
2N 2 50
   5.236
60 60
L 0.3
Crank radius    0.15 m
2 2
22 0.01767
had    5.2362  0.15  cos   20.75cos 
9.81 0.007854
at the begining of delivery stroke,   00 and hence cos   1
had  20.75 m

(5) Acceleration head at the middle of delivery stroke

at the begining of delivery stroke,   900 and hence cos   0
had  20.75  0  0
Example 5.2 The length and diameter of a suction pipe of a single acting reciprocating pump
are 5 m and 10 cm respectively. The pump has a plunger of diameter a5 cm and a stroke
length of 35 cm. the Centre of the pump is 3 m above the water surface in the pump. The
atmospheric pressure head is running at 35 rpm. Determine: (1) Pressure head due to
acceleration at the beginning of the suction stroke, (2) Maximum pressure head due to
acceleration and (3) Pressure head in the cylinder at the beginning and at the end of the
stroke.
Solution
Given data: Find:
ls  5 m has
ds  10 cm  0.10 me has(max)

as  ds 2  0.007854 m2 Pressure head at the begining & end of suction stroke
4
D (Plunger)  15 cm  0.15 m

A (Plunger)  D2  0.01767 m2
4
L  35 cm  0.35 m
L 0.35
r   0.175 m
2 2
hs  3 m
Hatm  10.3 m of water
2N 2 35
N  35 rpm,     3.665 rad / s
60 60
The pressure head due to accereration in the suction pipe is,
l A
has  s   2rcos 
g as
at the beginning of the stroke,   0 and hence cos   1
5 0.01767
has    3.6652  0.175  2.695 m
9.81 0.007854
Maximum pressure head due to accereration in the suction pipe is,
has  2.695 m
Pressure head in cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke
 hs  has  3  2.695  5.695
This pressure head in cylinder is below the atmoshpheric pressure head.
Absolute pressure head in cylinder at the beginning of the suction stroke
 Hm  5.695  10.3  5.695  4.605 m of water(Abs)

Similarly, pressure head in cylinder at the end of the suction stroke

 hs  has  3  2.695  0.305 m below atmoshpheric pressure head
 10.3 - 0.305  9.995 m of water(Abs)

6
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Course Contents
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Classification of Compressors
6.3 Applications of Compressed air, Gases and Vapours
6.4 Working principle of Reciprocating Compressor
6.5 Work Done for Operating Single Stage Reciprocating
Compressor Neglecting Clearance Volume
6.6 Necessity of Clearance Volume and Work Done
Equation for Operating Single Stage Reciprocating
Compressor Considering Clearance Volume
6.7 Volumetric Efficiency
6.8 Need of Multi Stage Compression
6.9 Advantages of Multi Stage Compressors
6.10 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor
with Intercooler Neglecting Clearance
6.11 Condition for Minimum work or maximum efficiency
for Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor
6.12 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor
Considering Clearance volume
6.13 Optimum Intermediate Pressure required in a Two
Stage Compression but with Incomplete Intercooling
6.14 Methods of Controlling the Output of Reciprocating
Compressor (Capacity Control of Compressors)

6. Reciprocating Compressor Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
6.1 Introduction
A compressor is a power absorbing machine used to increase the pressure of fluid (air, gas
or vapour) above that at which it is available. Compressor may be of the reciprocating
piston-cylinder type or of the rotary type. Since the process of compressing fluid requires
that the work should be done on it, a compressor has to be driven by a prime mover, such
as electric motor or engine.
A machine which takes in air during suction stroke at low pressure and compresses it to high
pressure in a piston cylinder arrangement and then delivers it to some storage vessel
(receiver) is known as reciprocating air compressor. The high pressure air from the receiver
may be supplied by a pipe line to wherever it is required.
6.2 Classification of Compressors

Compressors are classified on the basis of:
(1) According to design and principle of operation:
(i) Positive Displacement type compressor (ii) Roto Dynamic type compressors
(i) Positive displacement type: In positive displacement type compressors, the pressure of
air is increased by decreasing its volume. They further divided in two types as below:
 In positive displacement reciprocating compressors the air is compressed due to the
action of reciprocating piston moving axially in the cylinders.
 In positive displacement rotary compressors the air is trapped in between two sets of
engaging surfaces and the pressure rise is either by the back flow of air (roots
blower) or by both squeezing action and back flow of air (vane blower).
(ii) Dynamic compressors: In dynamic compressors the air is not trapped in specified
boundaries but it flows continuously and steadily through the machine and the kinetic
energy imparted to the air by the rotor is changed into pressure energy partly in the rotor
and the rest in the diffuser i.e. the rise in pressure is carried by the dynamic action of air
(due to change in angular momentum of air passing through the rotor). They further divided
in two types as below:
 In centrifugal compressors, the flow of air is more or less radial. The kinetic energy
imparted to the air is partly changed into pressure energy due to centrifugal and
diffusion action in the rotor and the rest in diffuser due to diffusion action.
 In axial flow compressors the flow is axial and there is no centrifugal action. Dynamic
compressors are characterized by large volumetric capacity and relatively low
pressures.
(2) According to the delivery pressure limit:
(i) Low pressure compressors: delivery pressure up to 10 bar
(ii) Medium pressure compressors: delivery pressure 10 to 80 bar
(iii) High pressure compressors: delivery pressure 80 to 100 bar
(iv) Super high pressure compressors: delivery pressure above 100 bar
(3) According to pressure limit:

(i) Fan: pressure ratio 1 to 1.1 (ii) Blower: pressure ratio 1.1 to 2.5 (iii) Compressors:
pressure ratio above 2.5.
(4) According to the number of stages:
(i) Single Stage: delivery pressure up to 10 bar (ii) Multistage: delivery pressure above 10 bar
(5) According to the capacity:
(i) Low capacity: volume of air delivered 9 m3/min or less
(ii) Medium capacity: volume of air delivered from 9 to 300 m3/min
(iii) High capacity: volume of air delivered above 300 m3/min
(6) According to the action of piston:
(i) Single acting compressor (ii) Double acting compressor
(7) According to the method of cooling:
(i) Air cooled compressor (ii) Water cooled compressor
(8) According to the method of drive:
(i) Electric motor driven (ii) I. C Engine driven (iii) Turbine driven
(9) According to the arrangement of cylinders
(i) Vertical (ii) Horizontal (iii) Radial (iv) V type (v) W type
6.3 Applications of Compressed air, Gases and Vapours

Compressed air is a precious commodity in which a considerable amount of energy can be
stored and later released as and when required. The power available from compressed air
can used profitably in most industrial fields as a substitute for steam, electricity or other
force. Industry relies heavily on versatile compressed air power to perform almost limitless
number of tasks. Some typical uses of compressed air and gases are discussed below.
(1) In mining
In mines due to danger of explosion-fire, no electrical or fuel motors can be used and the of
the machinery such as air motors, drills, haulage, coal cutters, mine locomotives are driven
by compressed air. Air lift pumps to pump water are very common with mines. Leakage
improves ventilation.
(2) In I. C. Engines
Compressed air is used for starting I.C engines, fuel injection in diesel engines,
supercharging scavenging purposes.
(3) In Automobiles
ln automobile industry compressed, air is used for spray painting, servicing cars, car lifts,
filling air in tyres, pneumatic brakes, pneumatic steering in heavy vehicles.
(4) In Civil engineering
In constructional works compressed air is used for pneumatic drilling of hard rocks for
blasting, tunnelling, driving vibrators for even mixing of cement, concrete and water.
(5) Pneumatic appliances
Compressed air is used for operating pneumatic appliances such as hammers, hoists, drills,
sand blasters, chuck pile drivers.
(6) In workshops

Compressed air is used to operate blast furnace, forged hammers, presses, pneumatic
riveting and cleaning purposes.
(7) Acid and Chemical Industries
Compressed air plays an important role in the manufacture of soda, in hydrogenation of
coal with pressure up to 300 bar, in manufacture of synthetic ammonia using pressure up to
1000 bar and polymerization of ethylene with pressure 2500 bar.
(8) Refrigeration and Air conditioning
Compressed air and vapours are used in refrigeration plants, such as freezers, cold storage
and air conditioners.
(9) Conveying Purpose
Compressed air is used for conveying solid and powder materials in pipe lines or though
ducts.
(10) Operation of Gas turbines
Compressed air is used for gas turbine system, where rotary compressor is a vital
component.
(11) Agriculture
Compressed air is used in processing of food farm maintenance by spraying of insecticides.
(12) Ammunition Depots
The safety of compressed air as well as its versatility makes it a desirable form of powder for
many operations in ammunition deposits and self locating plants. Air operated ammunition
hoists are spark free and quick acting.
6.4 Working Principle of Single Stage Single Acting Reciprocating Compressor

A single stage, single acting reciprocating air compressor is shown in Fig. 6.1. It consists of a
piston cylinder assembly fitted with inlet and delivery valves. The piston reciprocates in a
cylinder and derives its motion through a connecting rod and crank mounted in a crank case,
the inlet and delivery valves are provided are mostly of thin steel plates provided with light
springs because of pressure difference across them.
Forward Stroke (or Suction Stroke)
As shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) the piston is moving down the cylinder and any residual compressed
air left in the cylinder after the previous compression will expand. The pressure of this air
will drop below the atmospheric pressure. The inlet valve will open due to difference of
pressure and fresh air will enter into the cylinder. Admission of air goes on until the piston
reaches the end of the downward stroke. During admission of air the delivery valve remains
closed because the receiver pressure on the outside of this valve is much higher than the
suction pressure.
Reversed Stroke (or Compression & delivery stroke)
As shown in Fig. 6.2 (b), the piston is now moving upwards. At the beginning of this upward
stroke, a slight increase in cylinder pressure will close the inlet valve. Since both the inlet
and delivery valves are closed, the pressure of air will rapidly rise at the expense of its
volume. Eventually a pressure will be reached which is slightly of the compressed air
pressure on the outside of the delivery valve and hence the delivery valve will open.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.1 Single stage single acting reciprocating compressor
The compressed air is now delivered from the cylinder to the receiver until the piston
reaches the end of its upward stroke.
At the end of compression stroke piston once again begin to move down the cylinder, the
delivery valve closes, the inlet valve eventually opens and the cycle is repeated.
In double acting compressor the same action takes place on each side of the piston. The
delivery from the compressor is intermittent. To smooth out pulsation the compressed air is
stored in a receiver from where continuous flow of compressed air can be supplied.
6.5 Work Done for Operating Single Stage Reciprocating Compressor
Neglecting Clearance Volume
Fig. 6.2 shows a theoretical P-V and T-S diagrams for a reciprocating air compressor
neglecting clearance volume.
The sequences of operations as represented on the diagrams are as follows:
Suction Process 4-1: in suction process, the volume in the cylinder increases from zero at 4
to that required to fill the cylinder at 1 and volume of air V1, inducted into the compressor
at constant pressure P1, and temperature T1.
Compression Process 1-2: in compression process, air is compressed according to the law
PVn = constant from pressure P1 to pressure P2, volume decreases from V1 to V2 and
temperature increases from T1 to T2.
 The compression process 1-2 may take place isentropically, polytropically or
isothermally. In the absence of heat transfer, the compression process: 1-2" will be
isentropic with its equation pvϒ = constant, where ϒ is the ratio of specific heats.
 If the heat transfer during compression is controlled in such a way that temperature
during compression process remains constant. The process 1 -2' will be isothermal
represented by, PV = constant.

 ln practice the compression process 1-2 is neither isentropic nor isothermal. It lies
between isentropic and isothermal processes and may be regarded as polytropic
process with equation PVn = constant.
Fig. 6.2 P-V and T-S diagrams for a reciprocating air compressor neglecting clearance volume
Delivery Process 2-3: in delivery process, compressed air at volume V2, at pressure P2, and
temperature T2, is delivered from the compressor to the receiver.
Case: (A) Work Done During Polytropic Compression (PVn = Constant)
The net work done in the cycle is given by the area of the P-V diagram and is the work done
on the air as shown in Fig. 6.2.
Let, P1 = Pressure of the air at the beginning of the compression, N/m2
V1 = Volume of the air at the beginning of the compression, m3
T1 = Absolute temperature of the air at the beginning of the compression, K
P2, V2, T2 = Corresponding value at the end of the compression
Indicated work done on the air per cycle,
W  area 1-2-3-4-1
 area 2-3-5-6-2 + area 1-2-6-7-1 – area 1-4-5-7-1
 area under 2-3 + area under 1-2 – area under 1-4
2 2  PV
PV
 PV2 2 
1 1
 PV
n 1
1 1
2 2  PV
PV
  PV
2 2  PV1 1
1 1
n 1
 1 
  PV
2 2  PV1 1  1  
 n 1 
n
  PV
2 2  PV 1 1
n 1
n  PV 
 PV1 1
2 2
 1
n 1  PV
1 1 
Now for polytropic process 1-2,

1 1  PV
n n
PV 2 2
1/ n 1/ n
V P P 
 2  1   2 
V1  P2   P1 
V
Substituting the value of 2 in equation, we get
V1
n  P  P 1/ n 
W 1 1   2   1
2
PV
n 1  P1  P1  
 n 1

n   P2  n 
W = 1 1 
PV
   1 J/cycle (6.1)
n 1
 1 
P

n 1
P  n
T2
Also, for polytropic process,  2   1 1  mRT1 in above equation
and substitute PV
 P1  T1
(6.1),
n  T  
W mRT1  2   1
n 1  T1  
n
W mR T2  T1  J/cycle
n 1
Where ‘m’ is the mass of air inducted and delivered per cycle.
Work input per kg of air is,
 n 1

 
RT1    1 J/kg

n P2 n
W (6.2)
n 1  P1  
 
Case: (B) Work Done During Isentropic Compression (PVϒ = Constant)

The work required per cycle when the air is compressed isentropically is obtained by
substituting ϒ in place of n in above equations.
 1
 
   
PV    1
 P
W 2
(6.3)
  1 1 1  P1  
 
 1
 
   
mRT1    1
 P
W 2
 1  P1  
 

W mR T2  T1  J/cycle
 1
CP
But the ratio of specific heats,   and CP  CV  R
CV
Substitute these values in above equation we get,

CP
CV
W m  CP  CV T2  T1 
CP
1
CV
W  mCP T2  T1  J/cycle (6.4)
Case: (C) Work Done During Isothermal Compression (PV = Constant)

Isothermal compression follows the law of PV= constant. In isothermal compression, P 1V1=
P2V2 and the temperature remains constant, thus by the law of conservation of energy the
entire work of compression is discharged to the cooling media, thus no energy is wasted in
heating the air or increasing the internal energy. Thus less energy will be required to be
done per kg of air to raise its pressure from P1 to P2.
Work done on air per cycle,
W = area 1-2-3-4-1
= area 2-3-0-V2-2 + area 1-2-V2-V1-1 – area 1-4-0-V1-1
= area under 2-3 + area under 1-2 – area under 4-1
V1
 PV2 2  PV
2 2 ln  PV
1 1
V2
V1 P2
1 1  PV
But for isothermal process, PV 2 2 and 
V2 P1
V1 V1 P2
W  PV
2 2 ln  PV
1 1 ln  PV
1 1 ln
V2 V2 P1
P2
W  mRT1 ln J/cycle
P1
P2
W  RT1 ln J/kg (6.5)
P1
Condition for Minimum Work
Fig. 6.3 Possible compression processes on P-V diagram

Conclusions made from below Fig. 6.3 are below:

 The work done on the air is given by the area of the indicator diagram and the work
done will be minimum when the area of the diagram is minimum.
 For a given compressor, height of th P-V diagram is fixed by the required pressure
ratio P2/P1 when P1 is fixed and the length of line 4-1 is fixed by the cylinder volume
i.e. stroke length. The only process which can influence the area of the diagram is
the compression process 1-2. The position taken by this curve decided by the value
of the compression index n.
 The work done on air is least when the compression is isothermal (n = 1) and
maximum when it is adiabatic (n = ϒ), because the isothermal compression curve has
least slope than an adiabatic compression.
 Work required for isothermal compression = area 4-1-2’-3-4
Work required for adiabatic compression = area 4-1-2”-3-4
Hence work saved if air is compressed isothermally = area 1-2”-2’-1.
 Thus least desirable form of compression in reciprocating compressor is isentropic
compression process.
Methods to Achieve Approximation of Isothermal Compression
Isothermal compression is achieved by the following methods even running at higher speed.
(1) Cold water spray (Injection):
In this method, the increasing temperature of the air is reduced by spraying cold water
while air being compressed.
Fig. 6.4 Approximation to isothermal compression

Without the cold water spray the compression will be adiabatic 1-2”. With cold water spray
the compression curve 1-2 will be approximately of the form of PV1.2, this bring the
compression near the isothermal and saving in work shown by shaded area. (Refer Fig. 6.4)
(2) Suitable cylinder dimension:

The cooling can be done more effectively if the surface area is increased by using a cylinder
of large diameter and shorter stroke length. However this increases clearance volume which
is not desirable.
(3) Water jacketing:
The cooling water is circulating around the cylinder through the water jacket which helps to
cool air during compression.
(4) External fins:
Effective cooling can be achieved with the use of fins on the external surface of the cylinder.
(5) Multistage compression:
Compression process can be approximated to that of isothermal compression by using
multistage with Intercooling between two stages.
6.6 Necessity of Clearance Volume and Work Done Equation for Operating
Single Stage Reciprocating Compressor Considering (with) Clearance Volume
Fig. 6.5 P-V diagram of single stage reciprocating compressor considering clearance volume
Work Done Equation:
Net work required per cycle,
W = area 1-2-3-4-1
W = work required on air for compression without clearance volume
–
work done by clearance air in expanding from volume V3 to V4
= area 1-2-6-5-1 – area 4-3-6-5-4
Assuming polytropic index n to be same for both compression and expansion, then

 n 1
  n 1

      
 1
n P n
n P n
W 1 1  1 
 P1   n  1 4 4  P4 
2 3
PV PV
n 1 
   
But P4  P1 and P3  P2
 n 1

 
P1 V1  V4     1

n
n P
W 2
(6.6)
n 1  P1  
 
 n 1

n   P  n

W 1 as 
PV 2
  1 J/cycle
n 1   P1 
 
Where, Vas  V1  V4 = actual or effective swept volume
Now substitute PV
1 as = ma RT1 in above equation,
 n 1

 
ma RT1    1

n P2 n
W
n 1  P1  
 
n 1
n T  P  n
T2
W ma RT1  2  1 but  2  
n 1  T1   P1  T1
n
W ma R T2  T1  J/cycle
n 1
n
W R T2  T1  J/kg (6.7)
n 1
[Note FYI: This equation independent of clearance volume. Thus clearance volume does not
affect the theoretical work required to compress and deliver the air, this is because work
required to compress the mass air held in clearance space is returned when the same mass
of air expands during the expansion 3-4.]
6.7 Volumetric Efficiency

6.7.1 Volumetric Efficiency Referred to Suction Conditions
“It is defined as the ratio of actual volume sucked by per cycle OR it is the ratio of effective
swept volume to the swept volume.”
Effective swept volume
V 
Swept volume
V V
V  1 4 but V1  VC  VS
VS
V 
VC  VS   V4
VS

VC V4
V  1   (6.8)
VS VS
For polytropic expansion process 3-4 we can write,
3 3  PV
n n
PV 4 4
1/ n
P 
V4  V3  3  But P4  P1 and P3  P2 and V3  VC
 P4 
1/ n
P 
V4  VC  2 
 P1 
Substitute the value of V4 in the above equation (6.8),
1/ n
V V P 
V  1  C  C  2 
VS VS  P1 
 P 1/ n 
V  1  C  2   1 (6.9)
 P1  
V P
Where C  clearance ratio  C and r  2 = pressure ratio
VS P1
6.7.2 Volumetric Efficiency Referred to Ambient Conditions
“Volumetric efficiency referred to ambient or free conditions is the ratio of effective swept
volume reduced to ambient condition to the swept volume.”
Effective swept volume reduced to ambient condition
V  amb 
Swept volume
Va
V  amb   (6.10)
VS
Let,
Pa = Pressure of ambient air
Ta = Temperature of ambient air
Va = Effective swept volume reduced to ambient condition
P1 = Intake pressure of air
T1 = Intake temperature of air
PaVa P1 V1  V4 

Ta T1
P1 Ta
Va    V1  V4 
Pa T1
Substitute the value of Va in equation (6.10)
P1 Ta V1  V4
V ( amb )   
Pa T1 VS
But from volumetric efficiency referred to suction condition is given by,

V1  V4   

1/ n
 P2 
 1  C    1
VS   1 
 P



Thus,
P1 Ta   

1/ n
 P2 
V ( amb )   1  C    1 (6.11)
Pa T1   P1  
  
1.7.3 Factor Affecting the Volumetric Efficiency

Following are the factors affecting the volumetric efficiency:
(1) Increase in delivery pressure
By increasing the delivery pressure, the actual volume of air inducted during the suction
stroke is decreased where as the swept volume of the piston remains the same, thus the
volumetric efficiency decreases. (Refer Fig. 6.6 and 6.7 and Eq. 6.9)
(2) Very high speed
It is because at very high speeds, the air does not get enough time to fill the cylinder fully
during suction stroke, thus the volumetric efficiency of a given compressor decreases.
Fig. 6.6 Volumetric efficiency variation

(3) Leakage past the piston
During compression and delivery, some air leaks past the piston, thus decreasing the
amount of air delivered, thus the volumetric efficiency decreases. This tendency increases
with the increase of delivery pressure.
(4) Too large clearance volume
The volumetric efficiency of the compressor is decreased with the increase of its clearance
volume. (Refer Eq. 6.9)
(5) Over heating of the air
When air enters in to the compressor during the suction stroke, it is heated and expanded
due to the temperature of the cylinder walls and thus the expanded clearance air is higher
than that of incoming air. So the volume of air taken in during the suction stroke is
decreased considerably. This lowers the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
(6) Turbulence in air passage

The pressure inside the cylinder during the suction stroke is decreased due to the frictional
effects in the air itself and turbulence in air passages. This decreases the actual quantity of
air taken in during the induction. Thus, the volumetric efficiency is decreased.
6.8 Need of the Multi Stage Compression
 P 1/ n 
(Refer Fig. 6.7) As the Volumetric efficiency is given by, V  1  C  2   1 . This
 P1  
equation shows that the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor with fixed
clearance volume is decreases with the increase in pressure ratio as shown in Fig. 6.7.
 For compression ratio from P1 to P2, the cycle is 1 -2-3-4- 1 and the effective swept
volume per cycle is (V1 – V4). For compression ratio P1 to P2’ the cycle is 1 - 2' - 3' - 4'- 1
and the effective swept volume is (V1 – V4') which is less than (V1 – V4).
Fig. 6.7 The effect on the volumetric efficiency of increasing the delivery pressure
 In the limit, if the compression ratio is increased from P1 to P2", the compression
Iine intersects the line of clearance volume at point 2" and the re-expansion-follows
the same path as compression, the effective swept volume is zero and there is no
delivery of air. The attempt made to deliver the air at a higher pressure of P 2" would
result in compression and re-expansion of the same air again and again without any
delivery of high pressure air. Therefore, the maximum pressure ratio attainable with
a single stage compressor is limited by the clearance volume.
 An intercooler is used between two stages, so that the compressed air from the first
stage cools down before it enters second stage with low temperature. Air cooling
between stages provides the means of an appreciable reduction in the compressor

work and maintaining air temperature within safe operating limits. By cooling the air
between stages the compression is made to approach isothermal.
6.9 Advantages of Multi Stage Compressors

(1) Less Power: less power is required to run a multistage compressor as compared to a
single stage compression for the same delivery pressure and the same quantity of free air
due to intercooler. For a high pressure range the saving may be about 20%.
(2) Better Mechanical Balance: when the air is being compressed in one cylinder, there is
suction in the other cylinder. Thus due to phasing of operation more uniform torque and
hence better mechanical balance for the machine is attained. This require smaller flywheel
due to uniform torque.
(3) Increased Volumetric Efficiency: volumetric efficiency increases due to the reduction of
pressure and hence the temperatures range in each cylinder.
(4) Better Lubrication: due to lower temperature encountered better lubrication is possible.
(5) Less Leakage: due to better lubrication and reduced pressure difference across the two
sides of the piston and valve, there is less leakage loss past the piston.
(6) Size of cylinders: Size and strength of cylinders can be adjusted to suit volume and
pressure of air.
(7) Lighter Cylinders-Lighter Construction: due to lower pressure range in low pressure
stages Iight6r cylinders are used where as in high pressure stages robust but less
voluminous are used. This makes the construction lighter.
(8) Disadvantages: a multistage compressor needs more than one cylinder, intercoolers with
water pipes and a continuous supply of water. The multistage unit becomes more
complicated and expansive in initial cost.
6.10 Work Done in Two Stage Reciprocating Air Compressor with Intercooler
Fig. 6.8 shows the schematic diagram of a two stage reciprocating compressor and P-V and
T-S diagrams of the compression cycle.
First Stage Compression (L.P Stage)
 In the two stage compressor with intercooler, the air is first drawn into the low
pressure (L.P) cylinder at point 1 with pressure P1, and volume V1. The air is
compressed polytropically to some intermediate pressure P2, as shown by process 1-
2'.
 The compressed air at pressure P2 and temperature T2 is then cooled at constant
pressure P2, by passing the air through intercooler. This is represented by a constant
pressure process 2’-2.
Second Stage Compression (H.P Stage)
 The air then enters the high pressure (H.P) cylinder, where it is further compressed
polytropically along 2 - 3. Pressure of air increases from P2 to P3, and finally
discharged to the receiver at pressure P3. Thus in each stage pressure of the air is
successively increased and the initial temperature is maintained at the end. During
the whole process the compression is approximated isothermal process.

Fig. 6.8 Schematic of two stage compressor with intercooler and P-V & T-S diagram
 If the compression had taken place in a single stage, the compression curve would
have followed the polytropic curve 1 - 3". The saving in work input by the use of
multi stage compression with intercooling is shown by shaded area 2 - 2' -3" -3 - 2.
Both the LP and H.P cylinders are mounted on the same crank shaft and are driven by an
electric motor or prime mover.
Assumptions:
1. The effect of clearance is neglected.
2. The index 'n' in the polytropic compression law PVn = C is same for each cylinder.
3. The intercooling in each stage is at constant pressure and there is no pressure drop
between two stages i.e. delivery pressure of one stage equals the suction pressure of
the next stage.
4. The mass of air handled by the L.P and H.P cylinders is the same.
5. Suction and delivery pressures remain constant during each stage.
Consider a two stage reciprocating air compressor with intercooler. Then,
Let P1 = pressure of air entering the L.P cylinder
V1 = volume of L.P cylinder = stroke volume of L.P cylinder
P2 = Pressure of air leaving the L.P cylinder or entering the H.P cylinder
V2 = Volume of the H.P cylinder = stroke volume of the H.P cylinder.
P3 = Pressure of air leaving the H.P cylinder

Case-I When the Intercooling is Imperfect or Incomplete:
Fig. 6.9 Incomplete intercooling of air

If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler, T2 is greater than the original atmospheric
air temperature T1 the intercooling is called imperfect or incomplete cooling. In this case
point 2 lies on the right side of isothermal curve as shown in Fig. 6.9.
Work done required per cycle in the L.P cylinder,
 n 1

  
 1
n
n P
 1 1 
 P1 
2
WLP PV
n 1 
 
Work done required per cycle in the H.P cylinder,
 n 1

n   P  n

WHP  2 2 
PV 3
  1
n 1   P2 
 
Total work done required per cycle in both the cylinders is,
W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

n   P2  n
 n   P3  n 
W 1 1 
PV   1  2 2 
PV   1 (6.12)
n 1  n 1 
 1   2 
P P
 
Case-II When the Intercooling is Perfect or Complete:

If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler T2, is equal to the original atmospheric air
temperature T1, the intercooling is called complete or perfect In this case point 2 lies on
isothermal curves shown in Fig. 6.10. The work saved due to intercooling is shown by the
shaded area 2'-3'-3-2-2' in both the cases. The amount of work saved with incomplete
intercooling is less than that in case of complete intercooling.

Fig. 6.10 Complete intercooling of air

 n 1
  n 1

      
 1
n P n
n P n
W 1 1  1 
 P1   n  1 2 2  P2 
2 3
PV PV
n 1 
   
1 1  PV
But for perfect intercooling, PV 2 2
1 1  PV
Substituting PV 2 2 in above equation,
 n 1 n 1

n   P  n  P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
     2
3
(6.13)
n 1   P1   P2 
 
6.11 Condition for Minimum Work or Maximum Efficiency for a Two Stage
Reciprocating Compressor
The total work required per cycle by two stage reciprocating compressor with complete
Intercooling is given by,
 n 1 n 1

    
    2
n P n P n
W 1 1 
 P1 
2 3
PV
n 1  P4  
 
n
Let, y
n 1
 P  y  P  y 
W  Constant  2    3   2 
 P1   P4  
 1 
 Constant  P2 y  y  P3 y  P2  y  2 
 P1 
For minimum work,

dW  yP y 1 
 Constant  2 y  yP3 y  P2  y 1  0  0
dP2  P1 
yP2 y 1 yP3 y
  y 1
P1 y P2
P2 y 1  P2 y 1  P1 y P3 y
P2 2 y   PP
1 3
y
P2 P3
P2  PP
1 3 or  (6.14)
P1 P2
Above equation shows that for minimum work required, the intercooler pressure is
geometric mean of the initial and final pressures or pressure ratio in each stage is the same.
P P
Substitute the 2 for 3 in equation of work done,
P1 P2
Total minimum work required per cycle,
 n 1 n 1

n   P2  n  
P2 n 
W 1 1 
PV      2 (6.15)
n 1 
 1   P1 
P

 n 1

2n   P2  n 
W 1 1 
PV   1
n 1 
 1 
P

2 1
P P P  P P P P P  2
Since 2  3 , then  2   2  3  3 , thus 2   3 
P1 P2  P1  P1 P2 P1 P1  P1 
1
P P  2
Substitute the 2   3  in above equation of work done,
P1  P1 
 n 1

  
 1
2n P 2n
Wmin  1 1 
 P1 
3
PV
n 1 
 
For x number of stages, the pressure ratio is,
1 1
P2 P3 P4 Px Px 1  Px 1  x  Final pressure  No. of stages
       
P1 P2 P3 Px 1 Px  P1   Initial pressure 
Minimum work for X number of stages with perfect intercooling at all stages is given by,
 n 1

  
 1
xn P xn
W 1 1 
x 1
 P1 
PV (6.16)
n 1 
 
Where Px 1 = final delivery pressure and P1 = initial or suction pressure
The following conclusions are drawn for the minimum work required to compress and
deliver air in a multistage compressor:
(1) The air is cooled to the initial temperature after each stage of compression.
(2) The pressure ratio in each stage is the same.
(3) Work done in all stages is equal.
(4) The temperature ratios and maximum temperature are same in each stage.
6.12 Work Done in a Two Stage Reciprocating Compressor Considering

Clearance
Consider a two stage reciprocating compressor with clearance. The P-V diagram of a two
stage compressor with clearance is shown in Fig. 6.11. It is assumed that the intercooling is
perfect. Areas 1-2-3-4-1 and 5-6-7-8-5 represent respectively the P-V diagram of L.P stage
and H.P stage.
Let, V3 = clearance volume of L.P stage
V7 = clearance volume of H.P stage
Fig. 6.11 P-V diagram for two stage compressor with clearance
W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

     
P2 V5  V8     1

n P3 n
n P2 n
W P1 V1  V4     1 
n 1   n 1  P2  
 1 
P
  
For perfect intercooling, T1  T5 therefore, P1 V1  V4   P2 V5  V8 
 n 1 n 1

   
P1 V1  V4        2

n P n P n
W 2 3
(6.17)
n 1  P1   P2  
 

6.13 Optimum Intermediate Pressure Required in a Two Stage Compression

with Incomplete Intercooling
Irrespective of the temperature T2’ attained in the first stage, T2 is the temperature to which
the air at the intermediate pressure P2, can be cooled is fixed. Here T2 > T1 as shown in Fig.
6.12.
Work done required per cycle in the L.P cylinder,
 n 1

n   P2  n 
WLP  1 1 
PV   1
n 1 
 1 
P

Fig. 6.12 Two stage compressor with incomplete intercooling

Work done required per cycle in the H.P cylinder,
 n 1

n   P  n

WLP  2 2 
PV 3
  1
n 1   P2 
 
W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

n   P  n
 n   P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
  1  2 2 
PV 3
  1
n 1   P1  n 1   P2 
   
 n 1
  n 1

     
mRT2    1

n P n
n P n
W mRT1    1 
2 3
n 1   P1   n 1  P2  
   
n n
Let, mR  A and  B and substitute in above equation,
n 1 n 1
 P  B   P  B 
W  AT1    1  AT2  3   1
2
 P1    P2  
W  AT1  P2 B P1 B  1  AT2  P3 B P2  B  1

For minimum work input,

dW
 0  AT1 BP2 B 1  AT2 P3 B BP2  B 1
dP2
AT1 BP2 B 1 AT2 BP3 B

P1B P2 B 1
T2 B B
P2 B 1  P2 B 1  P1 P3
T1
T2
 P1P3 
B
P2 2 B 
T1
1 n
T  B
T  n 1
P2   2 
2
  P1 P3    2    P1 P3 
 T1   T1 
1
n
 n
 2
 T2  n 1
P2  P3  T2  n 1 
P2  PP
1 3   or    (6.18)
 T1  P1  P1  T1  
 
The minimum work required for a two stage compressor with incomplete intercooling is
obtained by substituting the value of P2 in equation of work done then,
 
 
 n 1
  
 n
 2n
   
n  T2  n 1  1 n 
n 1
1
Wmin  mRT1   P1 P3       1  mRT2 P3 
n
 1
n 1   1 
T n  1  n  1  n 1

  P1
   n
 2n 
 n    T2  
n 1
  P1 P3     
   T1   
   
 n 1
  n 1

     
mR T1T2    T2 

n P 2n
n P 2n
 mR T1T2    T1 
3 3
n 1   1
P  n  1   P1  
   
 n 1

 
mR 2 T1T2    T1  T2  

n P 2n
Wmin  3
(6.19)
n 1   P1  
 
6.13 Optimum Intermediate Pressure required in a Two Stage Compression

with Pressure Drop between Stages but Incomplete Intercooling
Let P2'  CP2  intake pressure to the H.P cylinder
P2  discharge pressure from L.P cylinder
Total work done,

W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

     
P2 V2    1
' '  P3
n n
n P2 n
W 1 1 
PV   1 
n 1  n 1  P2  
 1 
P
  
Fig. 6.13 Two stage compressor with perfect intercooling pressure drop in the intercooler
For perfect intercooling P2'V2'  PV
1 1 and P2  CP2
'
W  WLP  WHP
 n 1
  n 1

     
P2 V2    1
' ' 
n P n
n P n
W 1 1 
PV 2
  1 
3
n 1   P1  n 1  P2  
   
 n 1 n 1

n   P  n  P  n

W 1 1 
PV 2
 
3
  2
n 1   P1   CP2 
 
n n
Let, mR  A and  B and substitute in above equation, then
n 1 n 1
 P  A  P  B 
W  A  2    3   2 
 P1   CP2  
 A  P1 B P2 B  P3 B C  B P2  B  2 
For minimum work required,
dW
 0  A  P1 B BP2 B 1  P3 B C  B P2  B 1 
dP2
P2 B 1 P3 B P2  B 1 P3 B
 
P1B CB C B P2 B 1
B
 PP 
P2   1 3 
2B
 C 
PP
P2 2  1 3
C

P2 P P
 3  3' (6.20)
P1 CP2 P2
If C = 1, the pressure ratio reduces to the same pressure ratio in both the stages. The work
done will be larger compared to the condition of zero pressure drop. Though work done in
each case will be equal, it will be larger than when there is no pressure drop. This is a
practical situation as some pressure drop will occur in flow through the heat exchanger.
6.14 Actual Indicator Diagram

In Fig. 6.14 shows an actual indicator diagram for a single stage reciprocating compressor. 1-
2-3-4-1 is the theoretical P-V diagram.
 At point 4, when the clearance air has reached to atmospheric pressure, the inlet
valve in practice will not open. There are two main reasons for this (i) There must be
finite pressure difference between the atmosphere and the cylinder interior so that
the spring may be pushed down to open the inlet valve, (ii) The valves are spring
loaded and they do not open instantaneously because of the inertia effect. Thus, the
pressure drops away until the valve is forced off its seat and some valve bounce will
then set in, as shown by wavy line and eventually intake will become near enough
steady at some pressure below atmospheric pressure. The negative pressure
difference, called the intake depression settles naturally. The atmospheric air forces
its way into the cylinder against a reduced pressure.
Fig. 6.14 Actual compressor P-V diagram

 Similar situation occurs at 2, at the beginning of compressed delivery. The delivery
valve opens only when the pressure in the cylinder becomes higher than that of
receiver pressure. Thus there is a pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and the
pressure then settles at some pressure above receiver pressure. Other small effects
at inlet and delivery would be air inertia and turbulence.

 The practical effects discussed above are responsible for the addition of the two
small shaded negative work areas shown in Fig. 6.14. These are in addition to the
theoretical area 1-2-3-4-1.
Actual P-V Diagram for Two Stage Compressor
The actual indicator diagram for a two stage compressor is shown in Fig. 6.15.
 The wavy curves during suction and delivery strokes are due to valve flutter,
resulting in fluctuation in intake and delivery pressure. The H.P and L.P diagrams
overlap due to pressure drop in intercooler.
 The inertia and friction effects result in valve flutter increase the area of the diagram
slightly. The overall effect of this is to increase the total work of compression.
Fig. 6.15 Actual indicator diagram for a two stage compressor

6.14 Methods of Controlling the Output of Reciprocating Compressor
(Capacity Control of Compressors)
 Generally the compressors are not required to run continuously at their maximum rated
capacity but also required to supply at a fraction of their rated or maximum capacity
according to requirement. As the requirements may continuously vary it is necessary to
incorporate some methods to control the amount of air delivered.
 Capacity control comprises the adjustment for the quantity of air to be supplied by
reciprocating compressor to meet the fluctuating demand, so that the discharge
pressure varies within acceptable limits.
There are two main methods of control: (1) Variable speed and (2) Constant speed
(1) Variable speed
Capacity control by speed variation is the simplest method of controlling the amount of air
delivered. It is best suited for compressors that are driven by steam engine or internal
combustion engines or electric, commutator motor. But these are rarely used due to their
high price and sensitivity.

(2) Capacity control at constant speed

Where the drive is by means of electric synchronous motor, capacity control by speed
variation is not possible. The different methods used to control the capacity at constant
speed are:
1. Throttling the suction line
2. Increasing the clearance volume by clearance pocket
3. Blowing off to waste
4. By passing air from delivery to suction inlet
5. Temporary unloading of suction valve
6. Automatic stop-start control
1. Throttling the suction line
(Refer Fig. 6.16) When the demand is less, the pressure in the receiver increases and the
high pressure air from the receiver is led to piston cylinder at point A. The movement of the
piston is resisted by spring.
Fig. 6.16 Throttling the suction line

With excessive pressure the piston depresses the spring, thus closing partly the suction
valve B, till the supply and demands are balanced. The reversed action takes place when the
pressure in the receiver falls due to increased demand.
2. Clearance control
(Refer Fig. 6.17) shows typical arrangement for increasing or reducing clearance by
providing clearance pockets. The volumetric efficiency is reduced in proper proportion to
control the output. When the receiver pressure exceeds the desired amount, a dead weight
is raised by the diaphragm releases air to pressure chamber A. Thus the spring 1 lifts the
valve 2 and clearance space is put in communication with the cylinder.
If the pressure still continues to rise, a second valve B puts another pocket of clearance
space in communication till the supply and demand are balanced. The use of clearance
pockets results in a reduction of power in proportion to load reduction because the work is
recovered by re-expansion.

Fig. 6.17 Clearance control

3. Cylinder ports
The stroke of the compressor decreases by the use of ports in the cylinder. The ports are
connected back to the compressor intake and the air is allowed to escape from the cylinder
at the beginning of the compression stroke. There is loss of power by the use of ports. The
ports may be controlled manually or automatically.
4. By passing air from delivery to suction line
Fig. 6.18 By passing control

The output is controlled by passing the air from delivery line to suction line as shown in Fig.
6.18. The stop valve on the bypass line is actuated by an automatic air governor which is
connected to the receiver. In some cases the delivery line is connected by a throttle valve to
the suction line.
5. Blowing off to waste
Fig. 6.19 shows the device in which there is a bypass valve from the high pressure cylinder
delivering air direct to atmosphere when the receiver pressure exceeds a predetermined
value due to decrease in demand. The high pressure air forces the relay piston upwards
against the resistance of a dead weight until the port through which B is connected is
uncovered. Thus the high pressure air forces the piston downward and the air is released to
atmosphere. The check valve prevents the receiver air escaping to atmosphere. When the
pressure in the receiver falls, the relay piston moves down by the dead weight and closes
the communication between relay cylinder and cylinder B.
Fig. 6.19 Blowing off to waste


Example 6.1 A single stage, single acting reciprocating air compressor takes in air 5 m3/min
at 1 bar and 27°C and compresses to a delivery pressure of 7 bar. Determine each of the
below neglecting clearance with the help of P-V and T-S diagram, when compression takes
place (a) polytropically (PV1.3 = constant), (b) adiabatically (PV1.4 = constant), and (c)
isothermally (PV = constant). Take ambient conditions 1.013 bar and 15°C.
(a) Temperature and volume of air at the end of compression
(b) Work done by air during suction, work done on air during compression, work
done on air during delivery and net work done on air (I.P)
(c) Heat transfer during compression
(d) Brake power of compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 80%.
Solution:
Given data: Find:
V1  5 m3 / min T2
P1  1 bar = 100 Kpa Ws ,Wc ,Wd ,Wnet
T1  27  273  300 K Q
P2  7 bar B.P
Case  (a) Polytropic compression,n = 1.3
Temperature of air at the end of compression
n1 1.31
P  n
7 1.3
T2  T1  2   300    470 K
 P1  1
100  5
Work done by air during suction  P1V1   8.333 kW
60
P1 V1
Mass of air, m   5.807 kg/min
RT1
P2 V2  P1 V1 mR  T2  T1 
Work done by air during compression  
n1 n1
5.807  0.287   470  300 

1.3  1
 15.74 kW
Work done by air during delivery  P2V2  mRT2
5.807  0.287  470

60
 13.055 kW

Net work done on air

 n1

 
P1 V1    1

n P n
W 2
n1  P1  
 
 0.3

1.3 5  7  1.3
  100     1
0.3 60  1  
 
 20.468 kW
Heat transfer during compression
 n
Q  Work done during compression
 1
1.4  1.3
  15.74
1.4  1
 3.935 kW
Brake power
I.P 20.468
B.P    20.585 kW
m 0.8
Case  (b) Adiabatic compression, = 1.4
1 1.4 1
P  
7 1.4
T2  T1  2   300    523.1 K
 P1  1
100  5
Work done by air during suction  P1V1   8.333 kW
60
P V  P V mR  T2  T1 
Work done by air during compression  2 2 1 1 
 1  1
5.807  0.287   523.1  300 

1.4  1
 15.492 kW
5.807  0.287  523.1
Work done by air during delivery  P2 V2  mRT2   14.53 kW
60
 
1

  P  
W P1 V1  2   1
 1  P1  
 
 
1.4 1
1.4
1.3 5  7  
  100     1
0.3 60  1 
 
 21.69 kW

Heat transfer during compression

Since the process is adibatic,the heat transfer is zero
Brake power
I.P 21.69
B.P    27.11 kW
m 0.8
Case  (c) Isothermal compression,n = 1
T2  T1  300 K
100  5
Work done by air during suction  P1 V1   8.333 kW
60
P
Work done by air during compression  P1V1 ln 2
P1
5 7
 1  105   ln
60 1
 16.215 kW
Work done by air during delivery  P2V2  P1V1  8.333 kW
P2
Wnet  P1 V1 ln
P1
5 7
 1  105   ln
60 1
 16.215 kW
During Isothermal compression, temperature remains constant. Therefore heat transfer
is equal to work done during the compression
Q 1-2  16.215 kW
Brake power
I.P 16.215
B.P    20.268 kW
m 0.8
Example 6.2 The diameter of reciprocating air compressor cylinder is 140 mm and stroke
length of the piston is 180 mm and the clearance volume is 77 cm3. The pressure and
temperature at the end of suction and at beginning of compression is 0.97 bar and 13°C. The
delivery pressure is constant at 4 bar. Taking the law of compression and expansion as PV 1.3
= constant. Calculate,
1. For what length of stroke air is delivered
2. The volume of air delivered per stroke in liters
3. The temperature of the compressed air
Solution:

Data given: Find:

Vc  V3  77  10 6 m3 Stroke lenght when air is delivered
d  140 mm  0.140 m V1  V4
L  180 mm  0.18 m T2
P1  0.97 bar  P4
T1  13  273  286 K
P2  P3  4 bar
n  1.3
 
Swept volume Vs  d2L  0.142  0.14  2.77  10 3 m3
4 4
Cylinder volume V1  Vc  Vs  2.847  10 3 m3
From polytropic compression 1 - 2,
P1 V1n  P2 V2n
1
 P n
V2  V1  1   9.574  10 4 m3
 P2 
Volume of air delivered at delivery pressure
V2  V3  8.804  10 4 m3  0.8804 m3
(1) For what length of stroke air is delivered

V2  V3 9.574  104  77  106
  0.0572 m
Area of piston  2
0.14
4
(2) The volume of air delivered per stroke in liters
1 1
 P n  4  1.3
V4  V3  3   77  106     2.2897  10 m
4 3
 P4   0.97 
V1  V4  2.847  10 3  2.2897  104  2.618  10 3 m3
(3) The temperature of the compressed air
n1 0.3
P  n
 4  1.3
T2  T1  2   286     396.6 K
 P1   0.97 
Example 6.3 In a two stage single acting reciprocating compressor, intake pressure and
temperature are 1 bar and 20°C respectively. Air is taken into the compressor at the rate of
6 m3/min and compressed to a final pressure of 9 bar. The law of compression in both the
cylinders is PV1.3 = C. If the intermediate pressure is ideal and intercooling is perfect and
the compressor runs at 600 rpm. Neglecting the clearance and determine,
(1) Intermediate pressure
(2) Volume of L.P. and H.P cylinder
(3) Power required to drive the compressor if mechanical efficiency is 80%.
(4) The rate of heat rejected in the intercooler
(5) Rise in temperature of cooling water if the mass flow rate of water through the
intercooler is 8 kg/min. Take Cpa = 1 kJ/kg k for air and Cpw = 4.2 kJ/kg k for
water.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
V1  6 m3 / min P2
P1  1 bar  100 Kpa VLP ,VHP
T1  20  273  293 K B.P
P3  9 bar Q IC
N  600 rpm dTw
Cpa  1 kJ / kg K Cpw  4.187 kJ / kg K
m  0.8
mw  8 kg / min
(1) For perfect intercooling, the intermediate pressure,
P2  P1P3  1  9  3 bar
(2) Volume of L.P and H.P cylinder
Volume of L.P cylinder / cycle is,
V1 6
V LP    0.01 m3 / cycle
N 600
For perfect intercooling,
P1 VLP  P2 VHP
PV 1  0.01
VHP  1 LP   0.0033m3 / cycle
P2 3
(3) For perfect intercooling work required to compressed air in two stage is,
 n1

 
P1 V1    1

2n P 2n
W 3
n1  P1  
 
 1.31

2  1.3 6  9  21.3 
  100     1
1.3  1 60  1  
 
 25 kW
Brake power required to drieve the compressor,
I.P 25
B.P    31.25 kW
m 0.8
(4) The rate of heat rejected in the intercooler
Mass flow rate of air per minute,
PV 100  6
m 1 1   7.135 kg / min
RT1 0.287  293
Now, temperature of air entering the intercooler

n1 1.31
P  n  3  0.3
T2'  T1  2   293     377.55 K
 P1  1
Heat rejected by the air in the intercooler,
mCpa  T2'  T2   mCpa  T2'  T1 
7.135  1   377.55  293   603.26 kJ / min
(4) Rise in temperature of cooling water in intercooler
Heat gained by intercooler water  Heat lost by air  Heat rejected by the air
mwCpwdTw  maCpa  T2'  T1 
4  4.2  dTw  603.26
dTw  17.954 0C
Example 6.4 A single acting, two stage reciprocating air compressor has to deals with 3
m3/min of air under atmospheric conditions 1 bar, 25°C at 220 rpm and delivers it at 80 bar,
assuming perfect intercooling between stages. Find out,
(1) Minimum power to drive the compressor
(2) Diameter of L.P and H.P cylinder and common stroke length
(3) % saving in minimum power if compression is assumed as three stage
Take piston speed is 154 m/min, mechanical efficiency of compressor is 80%, volumetric
efficiency is 85% same for each stage, law of compression in both the cylinders is PV1.3 = C.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
V1  V4  V a  3 m3 / min B.Pmin
N  220 rpm dLP ,dHP
Px 1  80 bar % saving in power
P1  1 bar
T1  250 C  273  298 K
Vp  2LN  150 m / min
m  0.8,n  1.3
For two stage compression, with perfect intercooling the minimum I.P
 n1

 
P1  V1  V4     1 

2n P 2n
N
I.P  3
n1  P1   60
 
 0.3

2  1.3 3  80  21.3  220
  100     1 
0.3 220  1   60
 
 28.513 kw
I.P 28.513
B.P    35.64 kW
m 0.8

154 154
Piston speed  2LN  154 L    0.35 m
2N 2  220
Volumetric effciency of LP cylinder,
V1  V4
vL   0.85
VSLP
V1  V4 3 1
Swept volume of LP cylinder  VSLP     0.016 m3 / stroke
0.85 220 0.85
But swept volume,

VSLP  dLP2  L  0.016
4
dLP  0.24 m
3 3
Actual volume of air inducted by L.P cylinder / cycle,V1  V4  m
220
For perfect intercooling,
P1  V1  V4  P2  V5  V8 
 and since T5  T1
T1 T5
P1  V1  V4  3 1
V5  V8   1   1.525  10 3 m3
P2 220 8.94
Swept volume of HP cylinder 

 V5  V8 
v
3
1.525  10
VSHP   1.794  10-3 m3
0.85

But VSHP  dHP2  L  0.016 dHP  0.08 m
4
For three stage compression, minimum power is given by,
 n1

  Px 1  xn
 1
xn
I.P  P1 Va 
n1  P1  
 
 0.3

3  1.3 3  80  31.3  220
  100    1 
0.3 220  1   60
 
 26.5 kW
28.513  26.5
% saving in power   100  8.638%
28.513

7
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT ROTARY
COMPRESSORS
Course Contents
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Roots Blower
7.3 Vane Compressor or blower
7.4 Screw Compressors
7.5 Scroll Compressors
7.6 Comparison between Scroll and
Reciprocating Compressor
7.7 Comparison between Reciprocating
and Rotary compressor

Fluid Power Engineering (2151903) 7. Positive Displacement Rotary Compressors
7.1 Introduction
 The reciprocating motion of the piston performs the compression in a reciprocating
compressor. In rotary compressor, a rotating component (rotor) performs the
compression. The rotary compressors find their applications where a large quantity of
gas is required at a relative low pressure. In rotary compressors, the flow is continuous
and consequently, the size is small relative to reciprocating machine for a given flow.
Owing to their high speeds, they can be directly coupled to steam or gas turbines,
electric motors and high speed I.C. engines without gearing.
 In positive displacement compressors the air is trapped in between two sets of engaging
surfaces and the pressure rise takes place either by back flow of air (roots blower) from
receiver or both by squeezing action and back flow of air (vane blower).
7.2 Roots Blower

Construction & Working
 The two lobe type roots blower is shown in Fig. 7.1. One of the rotor is connected to an
external drive and the second rotor is driven from the first. In this way the rotors rotate
in phase. The lobes of the rotors are of cycloid or involute form giving correct mating to
seal the delivery side from the inlet side.
 The high pressure delivery side is sealed from the low pressure suction side at all angular
positions. This sealing continues until delivery commences. To reduce wear, a small
clearance (0.01cm to 0.02 cm) is provided between the lobes and casing. The clearance
however forms a leakage path and has an increasingly adverse effect on efficiency as the
pressure ratio increases.
Fig. 7.1 Roots blower with two lobe rotor
Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared By: Ketan Agola

 During rotation, volume of air V at atmospheric pressure P, is trapped between the left
hand rotor and the casing- This air is positively displaced at constant pressure without
change in volume until the space opens to high pressure region.
 Theoretically there should be no pressure rise because flow area does not decrease from
inlet to exit. But when tire outlet port opens, the high pressure air in the receiver offers
resistance to the delivery of blower discharge causing in instantaneous irreversible
pressure rise.
 The air in space A and C is at atmospheric pressure. The air in the space B increases in
pressure to the value of receiver pressure P2 . The irreversible pressure rise from P1 to
P2 at constant volume is shown in p-V diagram. Assuming the receiver to be of infinite
size the equalized pressure would be the receiver pressure P2 .
Fig. 7.2 P-V diagram for roots blower

Efficiency of Roots blower
Work done per cycle W   P2  P1  V
Where V is the volume between a lobe face and casing.
The free air delivery for a two lobe rotor will be 4V per revolution. Three and four lobe
rotors are used for higher pressure ratio.
For a two lobe rotor, Work done per revolution of rotor,
W  4  P2  P1  V
If VS is the volume deal per minute at pressure P1 , and temperature T1 , the work done
per minute,
W   P2  P1 VS
Work input for reversible adiabatic compression process form P1 to P2 ,

 1
 
   
PV    1
 P
W 2
  1 1 S  P1  
 
Comparison of the performance of roots blower is made on the basis of roots efficiency. It is
defined as the ratio of isentropic work done to actual work done.
Roots efficiency,
 1  1
   
    
     
 1
P P
PV    1    1

   1  P1 
2 2
  1 1 S  P1  
  r   1

Isentropic Work       1  P

 Root    
Actual Work  P2  P1 VS P2
1 rP  1
P1
P2  Cp
Where, rP  and 
P1  1 R
Cp   1

  rP   1

R  
 Root 
rP  1
This equation shows that the roots efficiency decreases with the increase in pressure ratio.
 Roots blowers have been designed for delivery capacities ranging from 0.14 m 3/min to
1400 m3/min and the pressure ratios are 2:1 for a single stage and 3:1 for a two stage.
Applications
1. Scavenging and super charging of I.C. Engines.
Advantages
1. A root blower has only two moving parts, the two rotors, which are normally identical
in shape and size.
2. Operation is entirely rotary.
3. As the rotors are symmetric about their centre of rotation, the operation is dynamical
balanced.
4. Discharge of the compressed gas is complete and there is no clearance volume.
5. The operation is positive displacement as the gas is drawn in, trapped and discharged
by movement of rotors.
7.3 Vane Compressor or Blower

 It consists of a rotor mounted eccentrically in a circular casing. This rotor is supported by
ball and roller bearings in the end cover of the body. A set of spring loaded vanes are
mounted in slots on the rotor. The vanes are of non metallic material usually fiber or
carbon. (Fig. 7.3)
 When the rotor rotates centrifugal force acts on the vanes which throws the vanes out
to make contact with the casing for all angular positions of the rotor. These vanes divide

the space between the rotor and casing in to a number of compartments. Two
consecutive vanes form one compartment. Due to eccentric motion of the rotor the
volume of each compartment keeps on changing.
 The construction of the vane blower is such that the suction side opens to the large area
of vanes and the delivery opens to a much smaller.
Fig. 7.3 Vane Compressor

 As the rotor rotates the volume of air V1 at pressure P1 is trapped between the vanes
rotor and casing. The space between the rotor and casing reduces and air has reduced
volume V2 and increased pressure P2 .
 The unit is so design that about the half of the total pressure rise takes place by internal
reversible compression before the entrapped air is open to the delivery port. The air is
further compressed in irreversible manner due to momentarily back flow of high
pressure air from the receiver. The P-V diagram for the compression process of a vane
compressor is shown in Fig. 7.4.
Fig. 7.4 P-V diagram for vane compressor

 For a given air flow and given pressure ratio the vane blower requires less work input
than a roots blower. The vane compressor, are commonly used for capacities up to 150
m3/min and for pressure ratios up to 9 bar. The speed is limited to 3000 rpm.
 The compression process 1 - 2 in which the volume is reduced from V1 to V2 , and
pressure is increased from P1 to P2 , is assumed to be according to the law PV   C .
The compression process 2 - 3, due to the back pressure from the already compressed
air from the receiver is assumed to be at constant volume.
Work done due to compression 1 – 2,
 1
 
   P2   
W12  1 1 
PV   1
 1 
 1 
P

For the compression process 2-3,
W23  V2  P3  P2 
Total work for X number of vanes then,
   1
 
    

PV    1  V2  P3  P2 
P
W13 X 2
  1 1 1  P1  
   
Advantages
The only moving parts in sliding vane compressor are the rotor and the vanes.
1. No valves are required.
2. Discharge is complete and there is no clearance volume.
3. The operation is positive displacement as the gas is drawn in, trapped and positively
displaced by the movement of the vanes.
Disadvantages
1. The pressure involved in forcing the vanes back into the rotor will cause some
vibration.
7.4 Screw Compressors

Construction
 Screw compressor is a positive displacement compressor in which compression is
accomplished by the enmeshing of two mating helically grooved rotors suitably housed
in a cylinder appropriate equipped with inlet and discharge ports.
 The male rotor is normally the driving rotor and consists of a series of lobes (usually
four) along the length of the rotor that mesh with similarly formed corresponding helical
flutes (usually six) on the female (driven) rotor. There is very small clearance.
 The entrapped gas is progressively compressed as it moves through the narrowing
passage ways formed by the lobes. The inlet and outlet from the compressors are
neither radial as in the case of roots blower, nor axial, but oblique as shown in Fig. 7.5.
 Casing: The casing is made of high grade cast iron and is ribbed for extra strength precise
automotive boring standardises radial, axial and angle accuracy.

 Rotors: Rotors are forged from normal carbon steel and require precision machining.
Rotors are dynamically balanced after machining.
 Bearings: Main bearings are sleeve bearings. Bearings also work as shaft seals within the
compressor.
Fig. 7.5 Screw compressor

Working
The working cycle of the screw compressor has three distinct phases as follows:
(1) Suction: As the rotors rotate, air is drawn through the inlet opening to fill the space
between the male lobe and the female flute. As the rotor continues to rotate, the air is
moved past the suction port and sealed in the interlobe space. As the main rotor turns, the
air trapped in the ineterlobe space of the compressor progressively reduce the flute volume
and compression occurs.
(2) Discharge: At fixed point where the leading edge of the flute and the edge of the
discharge port co-inside, compression ceases and the air is discharged into the delivery line,
until the flute volume has been reduce to zero.
The screw compressors have a range of air flow from 200 to 20000 m3/hr with discharge
pressure less than 3 bar in one stage and up to 12 to 14 bar in two stages.
Advantages
1. It has simplicity, versatility, durability, and reliability thus, its usage in industrial
refrigeration.
2. Can not suffer from surging.
3. Compressors are fully sealed and there is no leakage problem.
4. Capable of high compression efficiency and having very good mechanical efficiency.
Disadvantage
1. The noise which is of high frequency caused by the discontinuous suction and
discharge of the air.

7.5 Scroll Compressors

Construction:
 Scroll compressors are rotary, orbital motion, a positive displacement compressor with
hermetic motor which has two inter fitting spiral shaped scroll configuration to perform
the gas compression. To function effectively, the scroll compressors require close
tolerance machining of the scroll members.
 A scroll is an involute spiral open on one end of the vane and bound by a base plate on
the other. The compressor unit is made up of two matching scrolls, assembled 180 0 out
of phase. The motor shaft bearings and the orbiting scroll journal bearings are lubricated
by oil supplied by a centrifugal pump which is submerged in the oil sump.
 When the two scrolls are placed together form a series of gas pockets between the two
mating spirals. One of the two scrolls, the fixed scroll, is held stationary, while the other,
the orbiting scroll is made to orbit, but not rotate, around a fixed point on the stationary
scroll.
Fig. 7.6 Arrangement of fixed and orbiting scroll
 The flanks of the scroll remain in contact, although the contact locations move
progressively inwards. Relative motion between the pair is prevented by interconnecting
couplings. An alternate approach creates relative orbital motion via two scrolls
synchronously rotating about non-coincident axes. As in the former case,
interconnecting couplings maintains a relative angle between the pair of scrolls.
 The scroll tips are fitted with seals that ride on the surface of the opposing scroll. They
act like piston rings, providing a gas seal at the mating surface.

Fig. 6.7 Sequence of operation in scroll compressor

 The upper scroll is the stationary scroll that contains the gas discharge port. The lower
scroll is the driven scroll. The intake of the suction gas occurs at the outer edge of the
scroll assembly and discharge occurs through the port at the centre of stationary scroll.
 The centre of the scroll journal bearing and the centre of the motor shaft of the drive
assembly are offset. This offset imparts an eccentric or orbiting motion to the driven
scroll.
Working:
 Compression is accomplished by sealing suction gas in pockets of given volume at the
outer periphery of the scrolls and progressively reducing the size of these pockets as the
scroll relative motion moves them inwards towards the discharge port.
 The dome of this compressor acts as a hot gas muffler which dampers the pulsations
before the gas enters the discharge line.
 The orbiting motion causes the mated scrolls to form gas pockets. As the orbiting
continues, the relative movement between the orbiting scroll and the fixed scroll causes
the scroll to move towards the discharge port at the centre of the assembly with
constantly decreasing and increasing the pressure of the gas.
 During the first shaft revolution, or intake phase, the scroll lateral surfaces part, allowing
suction gas to enter. At the completion of the revolution, the scroll lateral surfaces again
meet; forming gas pockets. (Refer Fig. 6.7).

 During the second shaft revolution, or compression phase, the volume of the gas is
progressively reduced. Completion of the second revolution produces maximum
compression.
 During the third revolution or discharge phase, the scroll ends part, releasing the gas
through the discharge port. The check valve at the discharge port is provided to prevent
the back flow of pressurised gas when the compressor of is turned off or in emergency
like power failure or shut down due to failure of any component.
 Finally at the completion of the revolution, the volume of the pockets is reduced to zero,
squeezing the remaining gas from the scrolls.
In the complete cycle, the three phases intake, compression and discharge occur
simultaneously in an ongoing sequence.
Advantages
1. It has very high compression, mechanical as well as volumetric efficiency and hence
higher energy efficiency ratio.
2. It has fewer moving parts and hence lower mechanical losses.
3. It can handle liquid refrigerant flooding back from evaporator during fluctuating
operating condition.
4. Does not require crank case heater and/or suction line accumulator.
5. Almost laminar/uniform/continuous flow of refrigerant and hence lower noise level
as well as no need of discharge muffler.
6. Suction, compression, and discharge processes take place simultaneously. Also the
smooth flow of gas reduces gas pulsations and flow losses to a very low level.
7. Performance improves as scroll sets wear in.
8. No metal to metal contact as well as elimination of suction and discharge valves.
Hence lower noise level as well as chances of compressor ceasing and compressor
motor failure.
9. Compact in size and weight hence easy to handle and maintain.
10. The system is perfectly balanced and having extremely low vibrations and noise.
11. Designed to start even at full load.
Applications
1. In residential and commercial air conditioning refrigeration, heat pump and
automotive air-conditioning.
7.6 Comparison between Scroll and Reciprocating Compressor

Sr. No. Parameter Scroll Reciprocating
1. Volumetric efficiency Excellent Poor clearance volume
2. Derating Low-Flat High-steep
3. Technology latest Conventional
4. Energy efficiency ratio Very high Low
5. Power consumption Low 100% High 125-130%
6. Initial cost High 130% Low 100%

7. Operating cost Low 100% High 125-130%

8. Controls In Built External
9. Pay back 1 year -
10. Voltage withstand capability Very good Poor
11. Locked rotor current Low 100% High 130%
12. Vibration Negligible Noticeable
13. Liquid handling capacity Very good Extremely poor
14. Accumulator Not required Mandatory
15. Valve & valve plates Absent Mandatory
16. Metal to metal contact Almost nil Very high
17. Refrigerant flow pattern Continuous Intermittent
18. Discharge muffler Not required Mandatory to smoothen flow
19. Direction of rotation One direction Both directions
20. Crank case heater Not required Mandatory
21. Chances of motor failure Almost nil High due to compression ceasing
22. Overall size and weight Compact and light Bulky and heavy
23. Loaded start No problem Not possible
24. Oil carry over Almost nil Very high
25. No. of Moving parts Very less- 02 nos. Very high > 10
7.7 Comparison between Reciprocating and Rotary compressor

Sr. No. Reciprocating Rotary
1. The discharge pressure is very high i.e. The discharge pressure is very low i.e. 10
1000 bar bar
2. The maximum free air delivery is about The maximum free air delivery is as high
300 m3/min. as 3000 m3/min.
3. The air supply is intermittent. The air supply is continuous.
4. Balancing problem is major. No major balancing problem.
5. It cannot be run at high speed. Hence it It can be run at high speed. Hence it can
cannot be directly coupled with the shaft be directly coupled with the shaft of prime
of prime mover. mover.
6. Lubrication system is complicated. Lubrication method is simple.
7. The air delivered is not clean as it large The air delivered is clean as it does not
for a given discharge rate. come in contact with lubricating oil.
8. Size of the compressor is large for a Size of the compressor is small for the
given discharge rate. same discharge.
9. Isothermal efficiency is used as standard Isothermal efficiency is used as standard
for reciprocating compressor. in rotary compressor.
10. Suitable for low discharge of air at very Suitable for large discharge of air at low
high pressure. pressure.

8
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
Course Contents
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Essential Parts of Centrifugal Compressor
8.3 Principle of Operation
8.4 Static and Total Head (Stagnation) Properties
8.5 Theoretical Analysis of Centrifugal
Compressor
8.6 Velocity Diagrams and Work done equations
for Centrifugal Compressor
8.7 Work done & pressure ratio equations
8.8 Effect of Impeller Shape on Performance
8.9 Surging and Choking in Centrifugal
Compressor
8.10 Losses in Centrifugal Compressor

8. Centrifugal Compressor Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
8.1 Introduction
Centrifugal compressors are turbo-machines employing centrifugal effects to increase the
pressure of fluid. In centrifugal compressors energy is transferred by dynamic meals from a
rotating impeller to the continuously flowing fluid. The main feature of the centrifugal
compressors is that the angular momentum of the fluid flowing through the impeller is
increased partly by virtue of the impeller outlet diameter being significantly larger than its
inlet diameter. A pressure ratio of the order of 4:1 can be obtained from a single stage
compressor manufactured using conventional materials.
Characteristics Features of Centrifugal Compressors
 It occupies a smaller length than an equivalent axial flow compressor and it has been
superseded by the axial flow compressor in jet air crafts engines, where a short
overall engine length is required.
 It has better resistance to foreign object damage.
 Because of the relatively short passage length, loss of performance due to build-up
deposits on blade surfaces will not be as great as the axial flow compressors.
 It can work reasonably well in a contaminated atmosphere as compared to axial flow
compressor.
 It has ability to operate over a wide range of mass flow rate at any particular
rotational speed.
 Its efficiency under the most favourable circumstances, are less than those of axial
compressors designed for the same duty, by as much as 3 or 4 %. However, at very
low mass flows the axial flow compressor efficiency drops, blading is small and
difficult to make accurately, and the advantage appear to lie with the centrifugal
compressor in its relative simplicity and cost.
 The advent of titanium alloys, permitting much higher tip speeds, combined with
advances in aerodynamics now permit pressure ratios of greater than 8:1 to be
achieved in a single stage.
 It is widely used in gas pumping in long distance pipe line, petro-chemical industries,
large scale refrigeration plants, big central air conditioning plants, fertilizer industry,
supercharging of I. C. Engines etc.
8.2 Essential Parts of a Centrifugal Compressor

The principal components of a centrifugal compressor are shown in Fig. 8.1. Detail of each
part is given below.
1. Inlet casing with accelerating (converging) nozzle
2. Inlet guide vanes (IGV)
3. Impeller
4. Diffuser
5. Scroll or volute
6. Inducer section

Fig. 8.1 Centrifugal compressor

1. Inlet casing with accelerating nozzle
The function of inlet casing is to accelerate the fluid from its initial condition to the entry of
inlet guide vanes and to provide uniform velocity at the eye. The inlet flange is axisymmetric
and the inlet duct takes the form of a simple converging nozzle. The outlet of the inlet
casing is known as the eye.
2. Inlet guide vanes
The function of inlet guide vanes is to direct the flow in the desired direction at the entry of
the impeller. The inlet guide vanes should be chosen so as to obtain a minimum relative
Mach number at the eye tip.
3. Impeller
The function of the impeller is to increase the energy level of fluid by whirling it outwards by
increasing the angular momentum of the fluid. Both static pressure and velocity of fluid are
increased in the impeller. The various impeller components are shown in Fig. 8.2. The
impeller vanes help to transfer the energy from the impeller to the fluid.
The hub is the curved surface of revolution of the impeller A-B. The shroud is the curved
surface C-D forming the outer boundary to the flow of fluid. Impellers may be enclosed by
having the shroud attached to the vane ends (called shrouded impellers) or unenclosed with
small clearance gap between the vane ends and the stationary wall. Whether or not the
impeller is enclosed the surface C-D is generally called the shroud. Shrouding an impeller
has the merit of eliminating tip leakage losses but at the same time increases friction losses.

8.2 Essential components of centrifugal compressor stage
Fig. 8.3 Single - sided and double sided impellers

The impeller may be a single sided or double sided as shown in Fig. 8.3. In a single sided
impeller, air enters in to the compressors from one side only. In double sided impeller, there
is an eye on either side of the impeller and air enters from both the sides. The double sided
impeller has tire advantage that the impeller is subjected to approximately equal stresses in
the axial direction.

4. Diffuser
The function of the diffuser is to convert the high kinetic energy of the fluid at impeller
outlet into static pressure. Impeller imparts energy to the air by increasing its velocity. The
diffuser converts this imparted kinetic energy into static pressure rise. Diffuser is housed in
a radial portion of the casing. It may be vaneless or vaned diffuser.
5. Scroll or volute
The air leaving the diffuser is collected in a spiral passage known as volute or scroll. The
volute discharges the air through delivery pipe.
6. Inducer section
At entry to the impeller the relative flow has a velocity Cr1, at angle α1 to the axis of
rotation. This relative flow is turned into the axial direction by the inducer section or
rotating guide vanes. The inducer starts at the eye and usually finishes in the region where
the flow is beginning to turn into the radial direction. Some compressors of advanced design
extend the inducer well into the radial flow region apparently to reduce the amount of
relative diffusion.
8.3 Principle of Operation

 When the impeller rotates at high speed, suction is created at the impeller eye and the
air is drawn in through an accelerating nozzle. Due to flow acceleration in the
compressor inlet part, the velocity of air is increased from C0 to C1, and thus pressure
and temperature decrease. This acceleration is not isentropic but accompanied with
friction. Thus P1, and T1, are the pressure and temperature at the inlet of the impeller.
 Due to energy supplied on the compressor shaft, the impeller is rotated at speeds of
20000 to 30000 rpm and thus each particle of air passing through the impeller is
accelerated i.e. the kinetic energy of fluid is increased. The impeller vanes are such that
the cross-sectional area between two vanes increases from inlet to outlet of the
Cr12  Cr2 2
impeller. This gives rise to diffusion action addition to this air enters the
2
impeller at smaller diameter and comes out at larger diameter. This gives rise to
u2 2  u12
centrifugal action, Thus due to diffusion and centrifugal action, a part of the
2
kinetic energy imparted to the air is converted into static pressure and temperature rise.
 The absolute velocity C2 of air at the impeller outlet is very high and it has to be
converted into pressure energy. This conversion is achieved in the vaneless and vaned
diffusers. The vaneless diffuser converts some part of kinetic energy into pressure
energy and velocity reduces from C2 to C3. The vaneless diffuser also stabilizes the flow
coming out from the impeller so that the entry to the vaned diffuser is without shock.
The rest of the kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy in the vaned diffuser and
the velocity reduces from C3 to C4. The air leaving the vaned diffuser is collected in spiral
passage (scroll or volute) from which it is discharged from the compressor.

Fig. 8.4 Pressure and velocity variation across centrifugal compressor

Fig. 8.4 shows the pressure and velocity variation across a centrifugal compressor.
 Air enters the compressor at mean radius with a low velocity C1, and atmospheric
pressure P1. It is then accelerated to a high velocity C2, and pressure P2, depending upon
the centrifugal action of the impeller. The air now enters the diffuser where its velocity
is reduced to some value C3, and pressure increases to P3.
In practice, about half of the total pressure rise per stage is achieved in the impeller and the
remaining half in the diffuser.
8.4 Static and Total Head Properties

 In rotary compressors high fluid velocities are encountered and therefore total head
quantities which take into account the kinetic energy have to be considered.
 If the moving air is brought to rest isentropically without external work transfer then
resulting state is known as total head or stagnation state and corresponding values of
the properties describing this state are called stagnation properties.
Consider a horizontal passage of varying area with no external heat transfer and work
transfer.
8.4.1 Static and Stagnation Temperature (T0)
 “It is the actual temperature of the air that would be registered by a thermometer
moving with air with the same speed of the air is called static temperature (T).”
 “If the moving air is brought to rest isentropically without external work transfer then
the kinetic energy of the air is converted in to heat energy increasing the temperature of
the air, the resulting temperature of the air is called stagnation temperature (T0).”
Apply steady flow energy equation for 1 kg of air flow diverging passage (Fig. 8.5) with no
heat and work transfer is given by,
C12 C2 2
u1  PV
1 1  u2  PV
2 2 
2 2
But u  PV  h

C12 C2
h1   h2  2
2 2
For specific heat h  C pT
C12 C2
C pT1   C pT2  2
2 2
2
C
C pT   C pT0  h0  Constant
2
Where T0 is known as stagnation temperature
C2
T  T0
2C p
C2
T  T0 
2C p
C2
T0  T  (8.1)
2C p
C2
Where T is static temperature and is called dynamic temperature.
2C p
8.4.2 Stagnation Pressure (P0)
the kinetic energy of the air is converted in to pressure of the air, the resulting pressure
of the air is called stagnation pressure (P0).”
Stagnation pressure can be found by using following relation between pressure and
temperature is,

P0  T0   1

P  T 
8.4.3 Stagnation Enthalpy (h0)
resulting enthalpy is known as stagnation enthalpy.” The stagnation enthalpy remains
constant in a moving stream in the absence of heat and work transfer.
Stagnation enthalpy can be found by using following relation is given by,
C2
h0  h 
2
8.4.4 Stagnation Density (⍴0)
resulting density is known as stagnation density.”
Stagnation density can be found by using following perfect gas relation is given by,
P
0  0
RT0

1
  T   1
Also for isentropic process 0   0 
 T 
8.5 Theoretical Analysis of Centrifugal Compressor

Since we are dealing with a gas and since the rise in temperature and pressure causes the
density to change, it is convenient to examine the performance of the machine in terms of
the thermodynamic properties of the gas and this is done through the enthalpy entropy
diagram of the Fig. 8.5.
8.5.1 Inlet casing
The air is being drawn from the atmosphere into the inducer section and accelerated from
atmosphere in to the inducer section and accelerate from velocity C 0 to C1. The static
pressure falls from P0 to P1. Since the stagnation enthalpy is constant in steady, adiabatic
flow without shaft work then,
h0o  h01
C0 2 C2
h0   h1  1
2 2
8.5.2 Impeller
From section 1 to 2 the fluid moves through the impeller where work is done on it to
increase its static pressure from P1 to P2. The specific work done on the fluid is equal to the
stagnation enthalpy rise. The work done equation per unit mass of the fluid in terms of
enthalpy,
W  h02  h01
From Euler’s equation,
W  u2Cw2  u1Cw1
Equation above two equations we get,
u2Cw2  u1Cw1  h02  h01
h01  u1Cw1  h02  u2Cw2
C2
Substituting h0  h 
2
C12 C2
h1   u1Cw1  h2  2  u2Cw2  I
2 2
Where the I is the impeller constant and it has same value at inlet and outlet of the
impeller.

C2
I  h  uCw
2
1
 h  C f 2  Cw 2   uCw
2
1
 h  Cr 2  Crw 2  Cw 2   uCw
2
1 2
 h  Cr   u  Cw   Cw2   uCw
2
2 
1
 h  Cr 2  u 2  2uCw  Cw 2  Cw 2   uCw
2
1 1
 h  Cr 2  u 2  uCw  uCw
2 2
2 2
C u
 h r 
2 2
u2
I  h0 rel 
2
Since I1  I 2 across the impeller
Cr12 u12 Cr 2 2 u2 2
h1    h2  
2 2 2 2
h2  h1   u2 2  u12    Cr12  Cr 2 2 
1 1
(8.2)
2 2
Conclusion from above equation:
 Main contribution to the static enthalpy rise is form the first term
2

1 2
u2  u12  due to
centrifugal action of blade velocity is and second term

1
2
 
Cr12  Cr 2 2 represents
contribution from the diffusing action of relative velocity.

 In preliminary design calculations it is usual to assume Cw1 = 0, although this is not
always the case. From the actual energy transfer equation, the work done on the fluid
per unit mass becomes, h02  h01  u2Cw2
8.5.3 Diffuser
 The fluid is decelerated adiabatically from velocity C2, to a velocity C3, the static pressure
rising from P2 to P3 as shown in enthalpy-entropy diagram. If the total kinetic energy of
C2 2
the air leaving the impeller is converted to pressure, the delivery pressure could
2
be P02 .
 Since the diffusion process is not accomplished isentropically, and some kinetic energy
remains at diffuser exit velocity (velocity C3) the static delivery pressure at point 3 is P3.
C 2 
The final state in the collector has static pressure P3, low kinetic energy  3  and
 2 
stagnation pressure P03. As the stagnation enthalpy in steady adiabatic flow without
shaft work is constant, h02  h03 or the stagnation pressure P03 is lower than P02
diffusion process is incomplete as well as irreversible.
Fig. 8.5 Enthalpy-entropy diagram of a centrifugal compressor

8.6 Velocity Diagram of Centrifugal Compressor
The velocity diagram at inlet and outlet of the impeller of a centrifugal compressor is shown
in Fig. 8.6.
The following are the notations used in the analysis of a centrifugal compressor.
1 = Exit angle from the guide vanes at entrance = absolute angle at inlet
1 = Inlet angle to the rotor or impeller
2 = Outlet angle from the rotor or impeller
2 = Inlet angle to the diffuser or the stator
u1 = Mean blade velocity at inlet
u2 = Mean blade velocity at exit
C1 = Absolute velocity of air at inlet to the rotor
C2 = Absolute velocity of air at exit to the rotor
Cr1 = Relative velocity of air at inlet to the rotor blade l
Cr 2 = Relative velocity of air at exit to the rotor blade
Cw1 = Velocity of whirl at inlet (tangential component of absolute velocity C1 )
Cw2 = Velocity of whirl at exit (tangential component of absolute velocity C2 )

C f 1 Velocity of flow at inlet (Component of C1 perpendicular to the plane of rotation)

C f 2 = Velocity of flow at exit (Component of C2 perpendicular to the plane of
rotation)
.
m  Mass flow rate, kg/sec
Fig. 8.6 Velocity diagrams of centrifugal compressor

In the analysis of centrifugal compressor the following assumptions are made:
(i) The flow phenomenon is steady and uniform throughout
(ii) There is no separation of flow.
(iii) The flow through the impeller is frictionless.
(iv) There are no shock waves occurring any where
8.7 Work done and Pressure ratio Equations for Centrifugal Compressor
8.7.1 Work Done Equations
(1) Euler’s Work done Equation for Impeller
According to the Newton’s second law of motion, force applied is equal to the rate of
change of
Tangential force = mass of air x Rate of change of tangential velocity
 m   Cw2  Cw1  t
.
 m  Cw2  Cw1 
Torque T  Rate of change of angular momentum
.
 m  Cw2 r2  Cw1r1 

Where r1 and r2 are impeller radius at inlet and outlet

Theoretical work done or energy transfer,
.
W  E  m  Cw2 r2  Cw1r1  
But r1  u1 and r2  u2 then,
.
W  E  m  Cw2u2  Cw1u1  (8.3)
In a centrifugal compressor it is assumed that air enters the impeller eye in an axial direction
1  900 , and the whirl component Cw1 , of the inlet absolute velocity C1 is zero and the
flow component C f 1 , of the inlet absolute velocity equals the absolute velocity itself. Thus
Cw1 = 0 and C f 1  C1 .
.
W  E  mCw2u2 (8.4)
This work is known as Euler’s work
(2) Ideal Energy Transfer or Maximum Work Done Equation for Impeller
For an ideal case it is assumed that:
The impeller is radial vanned (  2  900 ) i.e. the air leaves the impeller with a tangential
velocity Cw2 equal to the blade velocity u2 at the impeller exit.
Cw2  u2 and C f 2  Cr 2
Thus, work done or energy transfer is,
. .
W  E  mCw2u2  mu2u2
.
W  mu2 2 (8.5)
Since the air cannot leave the impeller at a velocity greater than the impeller tip velocity,
the above equation gives the maximum work capacity of the impeller.
(3) Work Done Equation for Impeller in Terms of Slip Factor
 Under ideal conditions the air particles follow exactly the path of blades and the
absolute velocity C2 at outlet is such that its whirl component is equal to the blade tip
velocity (Cw 2'  u2 ) irrespective of mass flow rate, speed and other variables. Such an
ideal condition may be possible from an impeller having infinite number of blades of
negligible thickness. Fig. 8.9 shows the velocity triangles for radial blades, ideal
conditions shown by dotted lines in which Cw2'  u2 and  2'  900 .
 But in actual practice where the numbers of blades are finite, the air trapped between
impeller vanes to its inertia is reluctant to move round with the impeller. This result in a
difference if the vane, there being a high pressure on the leading face and a low
pressure on the trailing face. Because of this pressure variation a velocity gradient would
exit across the channel and relative eddies formed.

Fig. 8.7 Slip in an impeller
 On the high pressure side the air follows the blade contour and leaves the vane
tangentially. On the low pressure side, the air does not follow the blade contour but it
leaves the blade with a certain circumferential component across the channel from one
leading face to the other trailing face. The air will thus be discharged at a certain average
angle 2 , which is less than the geometric blade angle  2 ' shown in Fig. 8.8. Therefore
the air slips with respect to the impeller with respect to the impeller during its passage
through it.
 Due to this deviation in the flow path the tangential component get reduced from Cw2'
to Cw2 and the difference Cw2'  Cw2 is called slip.
 “Slip factor is defined as the ratio of actual outlet whirl velocity to the blade velocity at
the outlet “and is denoted by,
C C Actual outlet whirl velocity
  w 2'  w 2 
Cw 2 u2 Blade tip velocity
Fig. 8.8 Exit velocity triangle with and without slip (Radial vanes)

The work done equation in terms of slip factor is given by,

.
W  m u22 (8.7)
(4) Work Done Equation in Terms of Total Temperature

Considering steady flow isentropic equation at inlet and outlet of the impeller,
C12 C2
h1   W  h2  2
2 2
Fig. 8.9 Exit velocity triangle with and without slip

Work done per kg of air,
 C2 2   C12 
W   h2     h1  
 2   2 
 C2  C2
  C pT2  2    C pT1  1 
 2   2 
 C2   C2 
 C p  T2  2   C p  T1  1 
 2C p   2C p
  
 C pT02  C pT01  C p T02  T01 
.
For mass flow rate m kg/sec, then work done equation in terms of total temperature is,
.
W  mC p T02  T01  (8.8)
(5) Work Done Equation in Terms of Slip factor and Power Input Factor
 The actual work required by the compressor is always greater than the theoretical
.
work given by the equation, W  m u22 due to following factors:
(i) Friction between air and walls of the flow passages.
(ii) Windage losses - due to leakage and finite clearance between impeller and casing,
some air will be churned without contributing to useful work.
(iii) Disk friction, turbulence and shock losses due to flow separation.
 The extra work required to drive the compressor over that of the theoretical work is
taken in to account by multiplying the theoretical work by an experimentally
determined factor called the done factor or power input factor p .
.
 Actual work done equation, W  m p u22
The value of power input factor is about 1.04. Since there is loss of mechanical energy,
the power input factor should be as low as possible.
8.7.2 Pressure Ratio Equations
Following are the various expressions for pressure ratio.
(1) Pressure Ratio in Terms of Isentropic Efficiency
Isentropic Efficiency:
 The compression process in a reciprocating compressor may approach isothermal
compression due to slow speed, cooling of cylinder and interstage cooling.
 But with rotary compressors running at high speed, there is a lot of friction between
molecules of air, between air and blade passages, eddies formation, shocks at inlet and
exit. These factors cause internal generation heat and consequently the maximum
temperature reached would be more than that for adiabatic compression.
 Therefore, the index of compression of uncooled rotary compression may be as high as
1.7. The high value of compression index demands a large amount of compression
work. The value of compression index may be reduced by surrounding the air passages
with cold water jackets and by the use of intercoolers. However, it is generally
impossible to provide sufficient cooling to bring the compression curve to the left of
isentropic line. It is because of this reason that the criterion of thermodynamic
efficiency of reciprocating compressor is isothermal while that for rotary compressors
is isentropic compression.
“Isentropic efficiency of a compressor is defined as the ratio of isentropic work required to
compress the air from P01, to P02 to the actual work required for the same pressure
ratio.”(Fig. 8.10)
Isentrpic Compression Work
Isentropic Efficiency,c 
Actual Compression Work
h02'  h01

h02  h01
Now, isentropic efficiency in terms of static temperature is given by,
c 

CP T2 '  T1 T2  T1 Isentropic static temperature rise
'

CP T2  T1  T2  T1 Actual static temperature rise
Assuming C2’=C2 and isentropic efficiency in terms of total head temperature is given by,

c 

CP T02 '  T01 T02  T01 Isentropic total temperature rise
'

CP T02  T01  T02  T01 Actual total temperature rise
Fig. 8.10 Total head and static quantities on T-s diagram

Actual temperature rise is,
T02 '  T01
T02  T01 
c
 1
T T '  T ' P  
T02  T01  01  02  1 since 02   02 
c  T01  T01  P01 
 1
 
T01  P02   
T02  T01     1
c  P01 
 
Actual work required is,
. .
W  m p u2 2  mC p T02  T01 
 1
 
. T01  P02   
 mC p    1

c  P01 
 
Pressure ratio in a centrifugal compressor,


P02  c p u2 2   1
 1  
P01  CPT01 
(2) Pressure Ratio in Terms of Pressure (loading) Co-efficient

 It is a performance parameter which is useful in comparing various centrifugal
compressors. Each impeller has a definite maximum work capacity limited by the
maximum tangential velocity at exit. If this maximum work is utilized to maximum
advantage, an isentropic compression will result and the delivery pressure of P02max will
be obtained.
 “Pressure co-efficient is defined as the ratio of isentropic work required to cause the
actually observed pressure rise to the work required to cause the maximum pressure
rise specified by the impeller tip speed.”
OR
It may also be defined as the ratio of isentropic work to the Euler work.
Isentropic work Isentropic work
Pressure Co-efficient  p  
Maximum work Euler work


C p T02'  T01 
Cw 2 u2
For radial vanned impeller Cw2  u2
p 

C p T02'  T01 
2
u2
But T02 '  T01  c T02  T01  then we can write,
C pc T02  T01 
p 
u2 2
but p u2 2  C p T02  T01  then,
c p u2 2
p   pc
u2 2
Now substituting the  p  pc in above equation

P02   p u2   1
2
 1  
P01  CPT01 
Pressure developed depends upon total inlet temperature ( T01 ), the square of the impeller
tip velocity ( u2 ) and independent of mass flow rate.
8.8 Effect of Impeller Shape on Performance of Centrifugal Compressor

Fig. 8.11 shows a generalised velocity diagram for the impeller. For the inlet velocity
diagram, it has been assumed that air enters the impeller eye in an axial direction i.e. the

whirl component Cw1 of the inlet absolute velocity is zero and the flow component C f 1 of
the inlet absolute velocity equals the absolute velocity itself  C f 1  C1 
Fig. 8.11 Velocity diagram for centrifugal compressor

The air leaves the impeller with relative velocity Cr 2 at an angle 2 which is the discharge
vane angle. C2 is the absolute discharge velocity and it can be resolved into two
components the tangential velocity Cw2 and radial velocity C f 2 . Cw2 is the component
responsible for energy transfer and C f 2 is the component for flow rate.
Euler energy equation per unit mass is,
E  Cw2u2  Cw1u1 Since Cw1  0
E  Cw2u2
From outlet velocity diagram,
u  Cw 2
Cot 2  2
Cf 2
Cw 2  u2  C f 2 Cot 2
From above two equations,
E  u2 u2  C f 2 Cot 2 
Q
The volume flow rate, Q  Flow velocity  Area of flow=C f 2  A2 thus C f 2 
A2

 Q 
E  u2 u2  Cot 2 
 A2 
For any particular impeller running at constant speed u2 , A2 and 2 are constant, the energy
equation can be written as,
u2 Cot 2
E  K1  K2Q where K1  u2 2 and K 2 
A2
The energy transfer per unit mass is called the change of head of fluid and is designated by
H.
H  E  K1  K2Q
Fig. 8.12 Effect of impeller shape on outlet velocity triangle

These impellers and their corresponding velocity diagrams for the same tip diameter and
rotational speed are shown in Fig. 8.12.
The value of K1 in equations is proportional to twice the kinetic energy of fluid at vane tip
u 2  u
speed i.e K1  2  2  while K 2  2 Cot  2 determines whether the slope of H  Q curve
 2  A2
is positive, zero or negative.
Case-(A) For Backward Curved Vanes:
 Backward curved vanes are inclined opposites to the direction of rotation.
 If  2  900  Cot 2 is positive  increase in Q  the Euler’s head falling 
H  Q characteristics will have negative slope.
 In Backward curved vanes, the tangential component Cw2 is much small and for a given
impeller speed u2 , the impeller will have a low energy transfer, then the pressure ratio
will be lower.
 Backward curved vanes are slightly better in efficiency and stable over a wide range of
flows than either radial or forward curved vanes.

Fig. 8.13 Characteristics of backward, radial and forwards curved vanes
Case-(B) Radial Curved Vanes:

 Radial vanes are normal to the motion.
 If  2  900  Cot  2  00  Euler’s head remains constant with variation of Q.
 Radial vaned impellers are usually preferred because:
(i) Ease of manufacturing
(ii) Lowest risk stress due to vane mass loading for a given diameter and rotational
speed (hence lightest weight)
(iii) Equal energy conversion in impeller and diffuser giving high pressure ratios with
good efficiency.
 Due to these advantages the radial vaned impellers are used in aircraft centrifugal
compressors.
Case-(C) Forward Curved Vanes
 Forward curved vanes are inclined towards the direction of rotation
 If  2  900  Cot 2 is negative  decrease in Q  the Euler’s head rising 
H  Q characteristics will have positive slope.
 In case of forward curved vanes, Cw2 is increased and consequently the energy transfer
for forward curved vanes is maximum. However the absolute velocity at impeller outlet
C2 is also increased. Large value of 2 leads to a large value of C2 . The high valve of C2 is
not desirable as its conversion into static pressure cannot be very efficiently carried out
in the diffuser section. In the diffusion process, there is always a tendency for the air to
break away from the walls of the diverging passages. If the diffusion is too rapid, i.e. it is
carried out in a small diffuser section, the air may reverse its direction and flow back in
the direction of pressure gradient. The reversal results in the formation of eddies and

turbulence which cause conversion of some of kinetic energy into heat rather than
useful pressure energy.
 Thus the forward curved vanes have higher pressure ratios. But the following
disadvantages:
(i) Low efficiency due to large slip factor.
(ii) Operating range is closer to the surge line even under normal running conditions,
thus narrowing the stable operating range.
(iii) Centrifugal effects on the curved vanes create bending moment and produce
increased stress which reduces the maximum speed at which the impeller can run. The
radial vanes are reasonable compromise between high exit kinetic energy and high
energy transfer with high speeds.
(iv) The reason for the decrease in efficiency in forward bent vanes is that, as slip factor
increases, the energy conversion required in the diffuser increases as a result of which
diffuser inlet velocity is higher and diffuser efficiency falls rapidly. Hence it is very rare to
find compressor with forward curved vanes.
(v) The forward curved impeller can produce the higher pressure ratio for given blade tip
speed but is inherently less stable and has narrow operating range. It efficiencies are
lower than that are possible with the backward curved or radial curved vanes.
8.9 Surging and Choking of Compressors

8.9.1 Surging
 The theoretical pressure ratio versus mass flow rate for centrifugal compressor shown in
the Fig. 8.14 which delivering air through a flow control value situated after the diffuser.
The mass flow rate is zero when the discharge valve is fully closed and the pressure ratio
will have some value represented by point A.
 The pressure at this condition is equal to the centrifugal pressure head produced by the
action of the impeller on the air trapped between the vanes. As the discharge valve is
open slightly, mass flow commences and the diffuser becomes effective in increasing the
static pressure and the pressure ratio increases as shown at B. With further opening of
the discharge valve, the pressure ratio goes on increasing till the maximum pressure rise
is attained represented by the point C. This is the point of maximum efficiency for the
given speed, inlet pressure and temperature.
 With further opening of the discharge valve, the mass flow rate increases beyond the
point C, the efficiency of the compressor decreases with a corresponding decrease in
pressure ratio. For mass flows greatly in excess of the designed mass flow, the air angles
become widely different from the vane angles, causing break away of the air (flow
separation and shock occur) and the efficiency decreases rapidly.
 Finally when the discharge valve is fully opened, the pressure ratio approaches unity, the
mass flow rate would be maximum but the compression efficiency would be zero (all the
power is absorbed in overcoming internal frictional resistance).

Fig. 8.14 Idealised fixed speed characteristic of centrifugal compressor

 Let the compressor operate to the left of the point C, at some point B. At this point
decrease in mass flow rate is accompanied by decrease in pressure developed by the
compressor. If the static pressure in the discharge line does not decrease as rapidly as
the developed pressure, there is a natural tendency for the air to flow back into the
compressor in the direction of the pressure gradient. This will result momentarily in
the reversal of flow. After a lapse of time the fluid from the delivery pipe would leave,
the pressure downstream of the compressor falls, the pressure gradient is reversed
and again the air flow is back to its normal direction.
 The pressure therefore surges back and forth, if the downstream conditions are
unchanged. This phenomenon is known as surging or pumping. Thus, when, the
compressor has to operate at reduced mass flow rates, the air surges and pulsates
throughout the compressor and the compressor does not give a steady flow of air.
 The region between the points A and C is known as surge region and it is objectionable
to operate the compressor in this region. Surging does not take place in the region CF
as the reduction in mass flow is accompanied with increase in pressure and of tire flow
is not possible and the stability of the operation is maintained.
Effects of surging
 Surging, if severe enough could lead to failure of the compressor parts.
 Surging causes noise, vibration, overheating and stress reversal in the vanes and may
damage the compressor.
Remedies of surging
 Surging occurrence can be reduced by making the number of diffuser vanes an odd-
number multiple of the impeller vanes. In this way, a pair of diffuser passages will be
supplied with air from an odd number of vanes and pressure fluctuations are more likely
to be evened out around the circumference than if exact multiple of diffuser vanes are
employed.
8.9.2 Chocking

 “The maximum mass flow rate possible in a compressor is known as choking flow”. The
choking means fixed mass flow rate regardless of the pressure ratio.
Fig. 8.15 Compressor characteristic at a constant speed
 At constant rotor speed, the tangential velocity component at the impeller remains
constant. With the increase in mass flow rate, at the right of maximum pressure point,
the pressure ratio decreases and hence the density is decrease. These effects result in a
considerable increased redial velocity which increases the absolute velocity and the
incidence angle at the diffuser vane tip. Thus there is a rapid progression towards a
choking state. The slope of the characteristic steepens and finally vertical i.e. the mass
flow cannot be increased further the phenomena of choking puts an upper limit on the
mass flow. The point E on the characteristic curve is called the choking point. (Fig. 8.15)
 Choking indicates that at some point within the compressor sonic conditions have been
reached causing the limiting maximum mass flow rate to be set as in the case of
compressible flow through a converging – diverging nozzle.
8.10 Losses in Centrifugal Compressor

The total losses in a centrifugal compressor may be divided into:
1. Frictional losses
2. Inlet losses
3. Incident losses
4. Clearance and leakage losses
The power supplied to the centrifugal compressor stage is the power input at the coupling
less the mechanical losses on account of the bearing, seal and disc friction. The aerodynamic
losses occurring in the stage during the flow processes from its entry to exit are taken into
account by the stage efficiency. These losses result from fluid friction, separation,
circulatory motion and shock wave formation. These losses lead to an increase in enthalpy
and decrease in stagnation pressure. The actual temperature of air coming out from the
compressor is higher than the temperature of air if it is compressed isentropically. The
actual work required for the same case if pressure ratio is more due to irreversibility.

1. Frictional losses
 The major portion of the losses is due to fluid friction in stationary and rotating blade
passages. The flow, except in accelerating nozzle and inlet guide vanes is throughout
decelerating. Therefore the thickening boundary layer separates where the adverse
pressure gradient is too steep. This leads to additional losses on account of stalling and
wasteful expenditure of energy in vortices.
 Losses due to friction depend on friction factor, passage length and the square of fluid
velocity (C2) and hence proportional to m2. Therefore the stage with relatively larger
impeller, diffuser and volute passages and higher fluid velocity will have poor
performance.
2. Inlet Losses
 In centrifugal compressors fluid enters axially and turns radially in the vaneless space
before entering the impeller blades. In this process the fluid suffers losses and these
losses depend on velocities Ci and C1.
 Inlet losses increase due to change in mass flow designed conditions. When mass now
changes the ratio of axial velocity of flow to blade velocity also changes. Also
compressors are designed for a particular optimum value of this ratio.
3. Incident Losses
During the off design conditions the flow at the entry of the impeller and diffuser blades
approaches them with some degree of incidence. At the same rotational speed the reduced
flow rate introduces positive incidence where as negative incidence results from increased
flow rate. Large positive incidences lead to flow separation, stalling and surge. Shock losses
are found to increase rapidly at large value of incidence. Incidence losses in terms of drag
coefficient CD are proportional to CD C2. Shock losses also occur in the diffuser and volute.


Example 8.1 Following data refers to the Centrifugal compressor.
Speed = 16000 RPM
Isentropic efficiency = 0.82
Inducing temperature of air = 17⁰C
Impeller mean eye diameter = 200 mm
Work done by impeller = 175 kJ/kg
Absolute velocity at inlet = 120 m/s
Slip factor = 0.78
If guide vanes at inlet give the air a prewhirl of 20⁰. Determine (1) the total pressure
ratio, (2) impeller tip diameter.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
P02
c  0.82
P01
N  16000 rpm D2
T1  10  273  373 K
D1  200 mm  0.2 m
  200
C1  120 m / s
W  175 kJ / kg
Stagnation temperature at inlet,
C12 1202
T01  T1   293   297.16 K
2Cp 2  1.005
Impeller tip speed at inlet
D N  0.2  16000
u1  1   167.55 m / s
60 60
C
sin   w1 then Cw1  C1 sin   120sin200  41.04 m / s
C1
Work input per kg of air,
W = u2Cw2  u1Cw1
175  103  u2Cw2  167.55  41.04
u2Cw2  181876.6
Cw2
Slip factor 
u2
Cw2  u2

u2Cw2  u2  Cw2  181876.6

181876.6 181876.6
u22  
 0.78
D2N
u2  482.88 m / s 
60
60u2 60  482.88
Impeller tip diameter    0.576 m
N  16000
Work input per kg,
W  Cp  T02  T01   175  10 3
actual stagnation temperature rise,
175  10 3 175  10 3
T02  T01    174.130 C
Cp 1005
Isentropic temperature
Isentropic efficiency, C 
Actual temperature rise
T02 ' T01 T02 ' T01
C    0.82
T02  T01 174.13
Isentropic temperature rise,
T02 ' T01  142.78 K
T02 '  142.78  297.16  439.94 K
 1.4
P  T '  1  439.94  0.4
Pressure ratio, 02   02      3.95
P01  T01   297.16 
Example 8.2 A single sided Centrifugal compressor is required to deal with following data.
Mass flow rate = 10 kg/s
Total head pressure ratio = 4.5
Speed = 270 rps
Ambient air conditions at entry = 1 bar, 30⁰C
Isentropic efficiency = 0.8
Slip factor = 0.94
Absolute velocity at inlet = 150 m/s
Specific heat of air = 1005 J/kg K
If the air enters without prewhirl. Calculate, (1) rise in total temperature, (2) tip diameter of
impeller, (3) inlet eye annulus area, (4) impeller tip speed, (5) power required to drive the
compressor.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
m  10 kg/s T02  T01
P02
 4.5 D2
P01

m  10 kg/s T02  T01

P02
 4.5 D2
P01
N  270  60  16200 rpm Ae
P01  1 bar,T01  30  273  373 K u2
c  0.8,   0.94 P
C1  C f1  150 m/s
Cp  1.005 kJ/kg K
(1) Actual rise in total temperature
 1

T01  P02   
T02  T01     1
c  P01 
 
303  0.4

   4.5  1.4  1

0.8  
 203.3 K
T02  203.3  303  506.3 K
Energy input per kr of air,
W = Cp  T02  T01   pu22
Cp  T02  T01  1005  203.3
Impeller tip speed,u2    466.2 m/s
1  0.94 1  0.94
D2N
Now u2 
60
60u2 60  466.2
Impeller tip diameter =   0.55 m
N  16200
Static temperature at inlet,
C12 1502
T1  T01   303   291.8 K
2Cp 2  1.005
 1.4
P01  T01  1  303  0.4
     1.141
P1  T1   291.8 
Static pressure at inlet,
P 1
P1  01   0.8765 bar
1.141 1.141

Density of air at inlet

P1 0.8765  105
1    1.0466 kg/m3
RT1 287  291.8
Mass flow rate, m = 1A eC f1
Inlet eye annulus area
m 10
Ae    0.0637 m2
1C f1 1.0466  150
Power required to drive the compressor,
P = Cp  T02  T01   10  1.005  203.3  2043.16 kW
Example 8.3 Following operating conditions are relates to the centrifugal compressor.
Mass flow rate = 8 kg/s
Diameter at inlet = 450 mm
Diameter at outlet = 800 mm
Radial component of velocity at impeller exit = 52 m/s
Slip factor = 0.9
Impeller speed = 10000 RPM
Static pressure at impeller exit = 2.2 bar
Stagnation pressure and temp. at inlet = 1.013 bar, 288 K
If the air leaving the guide vanes has a velocity of 90 m/s at 75⁰ to the tangential
direction. Determine (1) the relative Mach number assuming frictionless flow through
the guide vane, (2) impeller total head isentropic efficiency and (3) power required to
drive the compressor.
Solution:
Data given: Find:
C1  90m / s M1r
  90  75  150 c
D1  450 mm  4.5 m P
D2  800 mm  0.8 m
C f2 = 52 m/s
N = 10000 rpm
  0.9,P2  2.2 bar
P01  1.013 bar,T01  288 K
From inlet velocity triangle,
Cw1  C1 sin 1  90sin250  23.3 m / s
C f1  C1 cos 1  90cos150  86.93 m / s
D N  0.45  10000
u1  1   235.6 m / s
60 60
Crw1  u1  Cw1  235.6  23.3  212.3 m / s
Cr12  Crw12  C f12  52628.1 m / s

Cr1  229.4 m / s
C12 902
T1  T01   288   283.97 K
2Cp 2  1005
Cr1 229.4
Inlet relative Mack number M1r    0.679
RT1 1.4  287  283.97
D2N  0.80  10000
u1    418.9 m / s
60 60
Cp  T02  T01   u2Cw2  u1Cw1
u22  u1Cw1 0.9  418.92  235.6  23.3
T02  T01    151.6 K
Cp 1005
T02  151.6  288  439.6 K
From outlet velocity triangle,
C w2  u2  0.9  418.9  377 m / s
C22  Cw22  C f22  144833 m / s
C2  380.57 m / s
C22 380.572
T2  T02   439.6   367.54 K
2Cp 2  1005
 1.4
T  1
 439.6  0.4
P02  P2  02   2.2    4.116 bar
 T2   367.54 
1 0.4
P    4.116  1.4
T02 '  T01  02   288    429.88 K
 P01   1.1013 
T ' T 429.88  288
C  02 01   0.935
T02  T01 439.6  288
Power required to drive the compressor,
P  mCp  T02  T01   8  1.005  151.6  1218.86 kW

9
AXIAL COMPRESSOR
Course Contents
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Construction of an Axial Flow
Compressor
9.3 Stage Velocity Triangles
9.4 Aerofoil Blading
9.4.1 Symmetrical (un cambered)
aerofoil
9.4.2 Non symmetrical aerofoil
9.5 Lift and Drag Coefficients

9. Axial Compressors Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
9.1 Introduction
 Axial flow compressors are turbomachines that increase the pressure of air or gas
flowing continuously in the axial direction.
 Today, axial flow compressors are reported with efficiencies of up to 97% at pressure
ratios of 8:1 due to continued aerodynamic development and the number of stages
for a given overall pressure ratio has been greatly reduced. However, a penalty has to
be paid for such high efficiencies and the performance is very sensitive to its mass
flow rate at the design point. Any deviation from the design condition causes the
efficiency to drop off drastically.
 Thus the axial flow compressors are ideal for constant load applications such as in
aircraft gas turbine engines, fossil fuel power stations where gas turbines are used for
topping up the station output when normal peak loads are exceeded.
9.2 Construction of an Axial Flow Compressor

Construction:
 An axial flow compressor consists of fixed and moving sets of blades in alternating
sequence. The sets of moving blades are attached to periphery of a rotor hub. The sets
of fixed blades are attached to the walls of the outer stationary casing called the stator.
(Fig. 9.1)
Fig. 9.1 (a) Flared stator (Drum rotor)

 At the inlet of the compressor, an extra row of fixed vanes called inlet guide vanes
are fitted. These guide vanes guide the air at the correct angle onto the first row of
moving blades. The rotor and stator blade banks must be as close as possible for
smooth and efficient flow.
 The radius of the rotor hub and the length of the blades are designed so that there is
only a very small tip clearance at the end of the rotor and stator blades.
 One set of the rotor blades and one set of the stator blades constitute a stage. The
height of successive sets of blades is reduced to compensate for the reduction in

volume resulting from increasing pressure from stage to stage. This keeps the axial
velocity (flow velocity) constant through the compressor.
Fig. 9.1 (b) Flared rotor (Disc rotor)

 The reduction in volume may be obtained by flaring the stator or by flaring the rotor.
Fig. 9.1(a) shows flared stator (called drum rotor) type compressor and Fig. 4.1(b)
shows flared rotor (called disc rotor) type compressor. Generally disc rotor
compressors are superior because for the same overall weight, the centrifugal
stresses are lower in the disc type than the drum type.
 The rotor and stator blades are so arranged that the spaces between them form
diverging passages and hence the velocity of the air is decreased as it passes through
them, and there is a rise in pressure.
Working:
 Air enters axially from the left into inlet guide vanes, where it is deflected by a certain
angle to impinge on the first row of moving blades, with proper angle of attack. The
moving blades add kinetic energy to the air. As the air passes through the moving
blades, pressure rises at the expense of a reduction in the relative velocity of the air.
This is done by providing diffuser passages between blades. The absolute velocity of air
increases due to work input to the moving blades through the rotor shaft.
 The air is then discharged at the proper angle to the first row of fixed blades, where the
pressure is further increased by diffusion. The air is then directed to the second row of
moving blades and the same process is repeated through the remaining compressor
stages.
 It is usually arranged to have an equal temperature rise in the moving and the fixed
blades and to keep the axial velocity of the air constant throughout the compressor.
Thus each stage of the compression is exactly similar with regard to air velocity and
blade inlet and outlet angles.

9.3 Stage Velocity Triangles

 A compressor stage is shown in Fig. 9.2, stagnation pressures and enthalpies are shown
at inlet and outlet of the blade rows. Fig. 9.3 shows velocity triangles for one stage of an
axial flow compressor. All angles are measured from the axial direction and the blade
velocity u is taken to be the same at blade entry and exit. This is because; the air enters
and leaves the, blades at almost equal radii.
Fig. 9.2 Axial flow compressor stage

 The velocity triangles shown in the figure are for a general stage which receives air with
an absolute velocity C1 and angle 1 from the previous stage. In the case of the first
stage in multistage compressor, the axial direction of the approaching flow is changed to
the desired
direction by providing a row of inlet guide vanes.
 Air enters the rotor blades with absolute relative velocity C1 and angle 1 at with the
axial direction. The relative velocity Cr1 obtained by the vectorial addition of the
absolute velocity C1 and blade velocity u has the inclination 1 with the axial direction.
The air is turned towards the axial blade camber and the effective flow area is increased
from inlet to outlet, thus causing diffusion. The flow diffuses and the air leaves with
relative velocity ( Cr 2  Cr1 ) causing some pressure rise in the rotor blades. Since work is
done on the air by the rotor blades, the absolute velocity increases from C1 to C2 .
 The air then passes through the diverging passages formed by the stator blades, where
its pressure is further increased due to diffusion. Part of kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy and the absolute velocity reduces from C2 to C3 . Finally the air leaves
the stator blades with velocity C3 at angle  3 and direct to the next stage. If the
following stage is the same as the previous one, the stage is said to be the normal then,
C1  C3 and 1  3 .
 Axial flow compressors are designed on the basis of constant axial velocity
Ca1  Ca 2  Ca the air angles in the absolute and relative systems are denoted by 1 ,  2 ,
 3 and 1 , 2 respectively. Subscripts ‘a’ and ‘w’ denote axial and tangential directions
respectively. Thus the absolute whirl vectors Cw1 and Cw2 are the tangential

components of absolute velocities C1 and C2 respectively and similarly Crw1 and Crw2
are the tangential components of relative velocities Cr1 and Cr 2 respectively.
Fig. 9.3 Combined velocity diagram

9.4 Aerofoil Blading
The system of blades used in centrifugal compressor is known as momentum blading
because the force on the blades is calculated from the rate of change of momentum.
Axial flow compressors fitted with momentum blading are not efficient on account of
the occurrence of boundary layer separation from the blade surfaces. This does not
occur usually on radial flow blading owing to the increase in pressure due to centrifugal
head. Boundary layer separation causes serious loss pressure due to violent eddies and
distortion of flow. Aerofoil blades give less restricted passage of air compared with
momentum blading. Axial flow compressors fitted with aerofoil blading efficiencies as
high as 90 per cent.
An aerofoil blade may be defined as a streamlined body bounded principally by two
flattened curves and whose length and width are very large in comparison with the
thickness. It has a thick rounded leading edge and a thin (sometimes sharp) trailing edge.
Its maximum thickness occurs somewhere near the midpoint of the chord. The back
bone line lying midway between the upper and lower surfaces is known as the camber
line.
When such a blade is suitably shaped and properly oriented in the flow, the force acting
on
it normal to the direction of flow is considerably larger than the force resisting its
motion. Aerofoil shapes are used for aircraft wing sections and the blades of various
turbo machines.

Fig. 9.4 shows an aerofoil type of axial flow compressor blade. The form of the blade is
defined by the centreline usually called the camber line, the camber angle 0, the
position of the maximum camber and the maximum thickness. The following are the
notations of an aerofoil blade.
Fig. 9.4 Aerofoil Blade section

Camber line: It is the line representing the locus of all points midway between the upper
and lower mean surfaces of an aerofoil.
Leading edge: It is a circular arc blended into the main profile and specified by its radius
r1 as a percentage of the maximum thickness.
Maximum thickness ’t’: It is useful parameter for describing an aero-foil and it is
expressed as a percentage of blade length.
Trailing edge: It is ideally sharp i.e. of zero radius, but this is impossible from strength
consideration. It is also a circular arc specified as a percentage of the maximum
thickness.
Camber angle: The tangents to the camber line at the entry and exit make the camber
angles with the axial direction.
x1 = Camber inlet angle
x2 = Camber outlet angle
 = Camber angle = x1  x2
b = Maximum Camber
a = Distance of the point of maximum camber from the leading edge.
c = Chord, the straight line form the leading to the trailing edge i.e. the distance
between the blade leading and trailing edges.
9.4.1 Symmetrical (un cambered) Aerofoil
The aerofoil whose axis of symmetry is parallel to the direction of undisturbed velocity
of approach is called symmetrical aerofoil. The flow pattern around a symmetrical
aerofoil placed in a stream of air is shown in Fig. 9.5 (a).
The air divides around aerofoil at the leading edge and then re-joins at the trailing edge.
Though there is some local is no permanent deflection of the main stream. The only
significant forces exerted on the aerofoil and due to friction and the local disturbance.

Fig. 9.5 Flow pattern around un cambered and cambered aerofoil

9.4.2 Non symmetrical Aerofoil
Fig. 9.5 (b) shows a non-symmetrical aerofoil inclined with the direction of the
undisturbed approaching flow at an angle i. This angle is known as the "angle of attact"
or incidence angle. Unlike the symmetrical aerofoil, in this case, there is a pronounced
disturbance which results in greater local deflection of flow. The local deflection of air
stream can only be created (by Newton's law) if the aerofoil exerts a force on the air and
hence the reaction of the air must produce an equal and opposite force on the aerofoil.
The presence of the aerofoil has changed the local pressure distribution and hence by
the Bernoulli equation the local velocity.
9.4 Lift and Drag
The static pressure distribution around a cambered aerofoil with an angle of attack i is
shown in Fig. 9.6(a).
The centrifugal force on the fluid particles on the upper convex side tries to move them
away from the surface. This reduces the static pressure on this side below free, stream
pressure. On account of this suction effect, the convex surface on the blade is known as
the suction side. In contrast to this, the centrifugal force on the lower concave side
presses the fluid harder on the blade surface, thus increasing the static pressure above
that of the free stream. Therefore, the concave side of the blade is known as pressure
side. Due to this phenomenon, the flow on the suction side begins accelerating along the
blade chord accompanied by a deceleration on the pressure side.
Fig.9.6 (a) Pressure distribution around Fig.9.6 (b) Lift and drag
a cambered aerofoil blade

The vertical sum of these pressures will produce some resultant force R acting on the
blade normal to the chord tine. This resultant aerodynamic force R can be resolved into
two components: (i) The component normal to direction of undisturbed air stream
called the lift L and (ii) The component parallel to the direction of undisturbed air stream
is called the drag D.
The lift is due to an unbalanced pressure distribution over the aerofoil Surface. Lift is the
basic force causing the aeroplane to maintain its lift. On aircraft wing there is a large
area available for the production of lift force. Therefore only a small pressure difference
over its aerofoil wing section will provide the required lift.
The drag force is made up of a friction drag, due to the pure skin friction effects and a
pressure drag, due to unbalanced pressure distribution around the blade.
9.4.1 Co-efficient of Lift and Drag
The resultant force due to flow around an aerofoil blade acts at the centre of pressure. It
has two components: lift force normal to the flow direction and the drag force parallel
to the flow. These forces depend only on the density and velocity of the fluid and the
blade chord. Thus L and D are functions of density, velocity and chard length.
L,D  f  ,C,l
The projected area per unit lenght of the blade is
A  l1
where l  chord lenght
1 2
The Iift and drag co-efficient based on this area rerate the dynamic pressure C lift
2
and drag forces.
1
L  CL A C2
2
1
D  CD A C2
2
L
Lift co-efficient,CL 
lC2
D
Drag co-efficient,CD 
lC2
For a given blade CL and CD depend upon the aerofoil shape, the degree of curvature,
Reynolds number, Mach number and the angle of incidence.
By suspending aerofoil sections in the air stream of a wind tunnel, the lift and drag
forces are measured by delicate balances and CL and CD determined for a range of
incidences and Reynolds number.
9.5 Lift and Drag Coefficients
The pressure ratio is governed by the efficiency of the stage and this efficiency depends
on the total drag for both the rotor and stator rows. From the measured cascade test
results of Po1  Po2  the lift co-efficient CL, and drag co-efficient CD may be obtained,

where CD is the blade profile drag. The method of approach is to equate all forces acting
on the air to the rate of change of momentum of the air.
Fig. 9.7 Applied and effective forces acting on blades

Fig. 9.7 shows two blades of a cascade having chord C and pitch S. At sections 1 and 2
the total air pressures are Po, and Po, respectively with corresponding velocities of Cr 1,
and Cr2 while the density change across the cascade is negligible. Let us consider the
blades moving with a velocity u, the air entering with a relative velocity Cr 1, at an angle
1 , with the axial direction and leaving the blades with a relative velocity Cr2, at an angle
2 , Cr1 and Cr2 have a mean velocity Crm at an angle m .
There are two types of forces acting on the aerofoil moving through the fluid.
(i) Shearing forces due to fluid friction of air and the surface of aerofoil and (ii) the
pressure forces acting on the aerofoil. The resultant force called the aerodynamic force
acting on the aerofoil can be resolved into two forces. One drag force D in the direction
of motion representing the frictional forces and the other lift force perpendicular to the
direction of motion. Lift is the basic force causing the aeroplane to maintain its lift.
The static pressure rise across the row of rotor blades is given by,
 1   1 
P  P2 -P1   Po2 - ACr22  -  Po1 - ACr12 
 2   2 
1
 
P   Cr12 - Cr22 - Po2 -Po1 
2
1
 
P   Cr12 - Cr22 -Po
2

From velocity triangles,

Cr12  Ca2  Crw12 and Cr22  Ca2  Crw22
Cr12 - Cr22  Crw12 - Crw22
 Ca  tan2 1 - tan2 2 
From above equation,
1

P  Ca2 tan2 1 - tan2 2 - Po
2

The axial pressure force on the blade due to static pressure rise is,
1 
 
Fa  P  Area  P   s.h   Ca2 tan2 1 - tan2 2 -Po   s.h
2 
where h  height of the blade s  pitch between two rotor blades
Since axial velocity Ca remains constant, there is no velocity change in axial direction and
consequently no momentum change. Hence momentum force in axial direction is zero.
Since there is no change in pressure in the tangential direction, the tangential pressure force
is zero. In the tangential direction the velocity changes from Crw1 to Crw2 the total tangential
force due to change in momentum is given by,
Fu = mass x change of velocity in tangential direction
  CaS.h Crw1  Crw2 
 CaS.hCa  tan1  tan2 
 Ca2S.h tan1  tan2 
D and L are teh drag and lift forecs on the blade along and perpendicular to the direction of vector
mean velocity Crm , then
1
Drag force, D  Crm2 .C.h.CD
2
1
Lift force, L  Crm2 .C.h.CD
2
Fig. 9.7 shows the forces on a cascade. Resolving along the vector mean,
1
D  Crm2 .C.h.CD  Fu Sinm  Fa Cos m
2
1 
 Ca2 .S.h. tan1  tan2  Sinm   Ca2  tan2 1 - tan2 2  -Po  s.h.Cos m
2 
tan1  tan2
Now  tan2 1 - tan2 2    tan1  tan2  tan1 - tan2  and tanm 
2
 tan 1 - tan 2   2  tan1 - tan2  tanm
2 2
 
Substitute the value of tan2 1 - tan2 2 in equation, we get

1
Crm2 .C.h.CD  Ca2 .S.h.  tan1 - tan2  sinm
2
1
 Ca2  2  tan1 - tan2  tanm  s.h.Cos m  Pos.h.Cos m
2
The first two terms of teh R.H.S are equal and therefore disappear to leave
1
Crm2 .C.h.CD  Pos.h.Cos m
2
Drag co-efficienct
S Po Cos m S Po Cos 3 m
CD  .  .
C 1  Cr12 Cos2 m C 1 Cr 2 Cos2 1
1
2 Cos m 2
From equation
C Cr 2 Cos2 1
Po  CD . . 1 .
S 2 Cos3 m
But Cr12 Cos2 m  Crm2 Cos2 m as Ca  Crm Cos m
C  Crm2 Cos2 1
Po  CD . . .
S 2 Cos3 m
C  Crm2
 CD . . .
S 2 Cos m
Also resolving perpendicular to the vector mean
1
L  Crm2 .C.h.CL  Fu Cos m  Fa Sinm
2
Substituting the values of Fu and Fa ,we get
1 
1
2
 
Crm2 .C.h.CL  Ca2 .S.h.  tan1 - tan2  cos m   Ca2 tan2 1 - tan2 2 -Po  s.h.sinm
2 
 tan 
2
1 
- tan2 2  2  tan1 - tan2  tanm and
C  C 2
Po  CD . . . rm
S 2 Cos m
1
Crm2 .C.h.CL  Ca2 .S.h.  tan1 - tan2  cos m  Ca2 .S.h.  tan1 - tan2  sinm tanm
2
C  C 2
 CD . . . rm  s.h.sinm
S 2 Cos m

 C .S.h.  tan1
2
- tan 
Cos 
2
m  sin2 m   C .C.h.  .C 2
tanm
Cos m
a 2 D rm
2
Ca Ca2
But Cosm  and 2  Cos2 m
Crm Cr m
S
CL  2    tan1 - tan2  Cosm  CD tanm
C
The drag co-efficient CD is usually negligibly small in comparision
with CL and is therefore often ignored so that the equation becomes,
S
CL  2    tan1 - tan2  Cosm
C
The variation in drag co-efficient CD and CL with change in angle of incidence during typical
cascade test is plotted as shown in Fig. 9.8.
Fig. 9.8 Variation of CL and CD with incidence
It is seen that C, increases with increasing angle of incidence but only upto a certain
maximum value occurring at a small positive value of incidence.
With further increase in angle of incidence a critical value is reached beyond which CL
decreases and CD increases rapidly. The reason is that the air stream breaks away from the
surface and there is separation of flow over large portion of the blade. The separation
causes violent eddies and distortion in flow. There is loss of lift and increase in drag with
further increase in angle of attack the area of separated flow goes on increasing. The
phenomenon of reduction in lift force at higher angle of incidence is known as stalling.
Stalling is the breakaway of the flow from suction side of the aerofoil blade.


Example 9.1 An axial flow air compressor stage has a mean diameter of 60 cm. and runs at
15000 rpm if the actual temp. rise and pressure ratio developed are 30 °C and 1.35
respectively. Determine: (i) Power required to drive the compressor while delivering 57 kg/s
of air, if the mechanical efficiency is 86 % and inlet temp. rise is 35°C. (ii) The stage loading
coefficient. (iii) (iv)The degree of reaction if the temp. at the rotor exit is 55°C.
Solution:
Given data: Find:
Dm  0.60 m P
N  15000 rpm 
T3  T1  300 C c
p3
 1.35,m  57 R
p1
m  0.86,T1  350 C,T2  550 C  328 K
(i) Work done W
W  m h3  h1   mCp  T3  T1   57  1.005  30  1718.55 kJ / s
Stage work
Now, m 
Power required at shaft
1718.55
0.86  ;P  1998.31 kW
P
(ii) Stage loadimg co - efficient
W
 2
u
D N  0.60  15000
but u  m   471.24 m / s
60 60
C  T  T  1.005  103  30
  p 3 2 1   0.1357
u 471.242
(iii) Stage efficiency
 1


 p3   
T1    1  1.4 1

p
  1  308  1.35  1.4  1

c        0.9191  91.91%
 T3  T1  30
(iv) Degree of reaction
actual change in enthalpy in rotor h2  h1 Cp  T2  T1  328  308
R     0.667
actual change in enthalpy in stage h3  h1 Cp  T3  T1  30
Example 9.2 An axial air compressor has the following data:
Air pressure and temperature at inlet = 1 bar, 270C
Mass flow rate through the stage = 20 kg/s
Air angle 1  100 ,1  500

Deflection of angle when air passes through the rotor = 400

Work done factor = 0.96
Stage efficiency = 0.89
Mechanical efficiency = 0.94
The blade speed at the mean blade section = 150 m/s
Mean diameter of rotor = 0.6 m
Solution:
Given data: Find:
p1  1 bar,T1  270 C  300 K 2
m  20 kg / s, 1  10 , 1  50 , 1  2  40
0 0 0
P
P3
 0.96, c  0.89, m  0.94
P1
D hub
u  150 m / s
Dtip
Dm  0.6 m 
From velocity diagram
u 150
 tan 1  tan1   tan10  tan50
Vf Vf
Vf  109.64 m / s
From velocity diagram
u 150
 tan 2  tan2   tan 2  tan10
Vf 109.64
tan 2  1.10917  2  500
Work done / kg of air  uVf  tan 2  tan 1 
 0.96  150  109.64  tan50  tan10   16031.72 J / kg
mW 20  16031.72 
Power received by the air    320.364 kW
1000 1000
329.634 329.634
Power required to drive the compressor P    341.1 kW
m 0.94
Work done / kg  Cp  T3  T1 
16031.72  1005  T3  T1 
T3  T1  15.95
T ' T
Now c  3 1
T3  T1
T ' 300
0.89  3
15.95
T3 '  314.197 K

1  1.4
T ' p   p  T '  314.197  1.4 1
1
Now, 3   3   3  3     1.175
T1  p1  p1  T1   300 
p
 Stage pressure ratio  3  1.175
p1
Mass flow rate m  1  Dmh  Vf
p1 1  105
But 1    1.1614 kg / m3
RT1 287  300
20  1.1614   0.6  h   109.64
h  0.0833 m
Diameter at the tip Dtip  Dm  h  0.6  0.0833  0.6833 m
Diameter at the hub Dhub  Dm  h  0.6  0.0833  0.5167 m
D 0.5167
Hub tip ratio hub   0.7562
Dtip 0.6833
W 16031.72
Stage loading coefficient     0.7125
u2 1502

10
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINES
Course Contents
10.1 The Hydraulic Press
10.2 The Hydraulic Accumulator
10.3 The Hydraulic Intensifier
10.4 The Hydraulic Ram
10.5 The Hydraulic Lift
10.6 The Hydraulic Crane
10.7 The Hydraulic Coupling
10.8 The Hydraulic Torque Converter

10. Miscellaneous Machines Fluid Power Engineering (2151903)
10.1 Introduction
Fluid system is defined as the device in which power is transmitted with the help of a fluid
which may be liquid (water or oil) or a gas (air) under pressure. Most of these devices are
based on the principles of fluid statics and fluid kinematics. In this chapter, the following
devices will be discussed:
1. The hydraulic press
2. The hydraulic accumulator
3. The hydraulic intensifier
4. The hydraulic ram
5. The hydraulic lift
6. The hydraulic crane
7. The fluid or hydraulic coupling
8. The fluid or hydraulic torque converter
10.2 The Hydraulic Press

 The hydraulic press is a device used for lifting heavy weights by the application of a
much smaller force. It is based on Pascal's law, which states that the intensity of
pressure in a static fluid is transmitted equally in all directions.
 The hydraulic press consists of two cylinders of different diameters. One of the cylinder
is of large diameter and contains a ram, while the other cylinder is of smaller diameter
and contains a plunger as shown in Fig. 10.1. The two cylinders are connected by a pipe.
The cylinders and pipe contain a liquid through which pressure is transmitted.
Fig. 10.1 Hydraulic press

 When a small force F is applied on the plunger in the downward direction, a pressure is
produced on the liquid in contact with the plunger. This pressure is transmitted equally
in all directions and acts on the ram in the upward direction. The heavier weight placed
on the ram is then lifted up.
Let W  Weight to be lifted
F  Force applied on the plunger
A  Area of ram
Prepared By: Ketan Agola Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fluid Power engineering (2151903) 10. Miscellaneous Machines
a  Area of plunger
p  Pressure intensity produced by force F
Due to Pascal's law, the above intensity of pressure will be equally transmitted in all
F
directions. Hence, the pressure intensity at the ram will be, p 
a
Weight W
But pressure intensity at the ram is also, p  
Area of ram A
F W
Equating the pressure intensity on ram, 
a A
F
W  A (10.1)
a
Mechanical Advantage: It is the ratio of weight lifted to the force applied on the plunger.
Mathematically, mechanical advantage is written as,
W
M.A  (10.2)
F
Leverage of the Hydraulic Press: If a lever is used for applying force on the plunger, then a
force F ' smaller than F can lift the weight W as shown in Fig. 10.2. The ratio of L is
l
called the leverage of the hydraulic press.
Fig. 10.2 Leverage of the hydraulic press

Taking moments about O , F '  L  F  l
L
F  F'  (10.3)
l
Substituting the value of F in equation 10.1, we get the expression for weight lifted as,
L A
W  F'   (10.4)
l a
10.2.1 Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press
 Based on the nature of the work required, actual hydraulic press is different in shape,
but all actual hydraulic press consist of a ram sliding in a cylinder to which high-pressure
liquid is forced.

Fig. 10.3 Actual hydraulic press

 It consists of a fixed cylinder in which ram is sliding (Fig. 10.3). To the lower end of the
ram, movable plate is attached. As the ram moves up and down, the movable plate
attached to the ram also moves up and down between two fixed plates. When any liquid
under high pressure is supplied into the cylinder, the ram moves downwards direction
and exerts a force equal to the product of intensity of pressure supplied and the area of
the ram, on any material place between the lower fixed plate and the movable plate.
Thus the material gets pressed.
 To bring back the ram in the upward position, the liquid from the cylinder is taken out.
Then by the action of the return weights, the ram along with the movable plate will
move up.
10.3 The Hydraulic Accumulator
 The hydraulic accumulator is a device used for storing the energy of a liquid in the form
of pressure energy which may be supplied for any sudden or intermittent requirement.
 In case of hydraulic lift or the hydraulic crane, a large amount of energy is required when
lift or crane is moving upward. This energy is supplied from hydraulic accumulator. But
when the lift is moving in the downward direction, external energy is required and at
that time, the energy from the pump is stored in the accumulator.
 Fig. 10.4 shows a hydraulic accumulator which consists of a fixed vertical cylinder
containing a sliding ram. A heavy weight is placed on the ram. The inlet of the cylinder is
connected to the pump, which continuously supplies water under pressure to the
cylinder. The outlet of the cylinder is connected to the machine (which may be lift or
crane etc.)
 The ram is at the lowermost position in the beginning. The pump supplies water under
pressure continuously. If the water under pressure is not required by the machine (lift or
crane), the water under pressure will be stored in the cylinder. This will raise the ram on

which a heavy weight is placed. When the ram is at the uppermost position, the cylinder
is full of water and accumulator has stored the maximum amount of pressure energy.
When the machine (lift or crane) requires a large amount of energy, the hydraulic
accumulator will supply this energy and ram will move in the downward direction.
Fig. 10.4 The hydraulic accumulator

Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator: It is defined as the maximum amount of hydraulic
stored in the accumulator. The expression for the capacity of accumulator is obtained as:
Let A  Area of the sliding ram
L  Stroke or lift of the ram
p  Intensity of water pressure supplied by the pump, and
W  Weight placed on the ram (including the weight of ram)
 Intensity of pressure  Area of ram  p  A
The work done in lifting the ram  W  lift of ram  W  l  p  A  l
Work done, in lifting the ram is also the energy stored in the accumulator and energy stored
is equal to the capacity of the accumulator.
 Capacity of accumulator = work done in lifting the ram  p  A  l  p V
10.3.1 Differential Hydraulic Accumulator

 It is a device in which the liquid is stored at a high pressure by a comparatively small
load on the ram.
 It consists of a fixed vertical cylinder of small diameter as shown in Fig. 10.5. The fixed
vertical cylinder is surrounded by loosely fitting brass bush, which is surrounded by an
inverted moving cylinder, having circular projected collar at the base on which weights
are placed.
 The liquid from the pump is supplied to the fixed vertical cylinder. The liquid moves up
through the small diameter of fixed vertical cylinder and then enters the inverted

cylinder. The water exerts an upward pressure forte on the internal annular area of the
inverted moving cylinder, which is loaded at the base. The internal annular area of the
inverted moving cylinder is equal to the sectional area of the brass bush. When the
inverted moving cylinder moves up, the hydraulic energy is stored in the accumulator.
Fig. 10.5 Differential hydraulic accumulator

Let, p  Intensity of pressure of liquid supplied by pump
a  Area of brass-bush
L  Vertical lift of the moving cylinder
W  Total weight placed on the moving cylinder including the weight of cylinder.
W
Then, W  p  a and p 
a
From above equation, it is clear that pressure intensity can be increased with a small load
W by making area a small.
Now total energy stored in accumulator = Total weight  Vertical lift = W  L
10.4 The Hydraulic Intensifier

 Hydraulic intensifier is the device, which is used to increase the intensity of pressure of
water by means of hydraulic energy available from a large amount of water at a low
pressure is called the hydraulic intensifier. Such a device is needed when the hydraulic
machines such as hydraulic press requires water at very high pressure which cannot be
obtained from the main supply directly.
 A hydraulic intensifier consists of fixed ram through which the water, under a high
pressure, flows to the machine. A hollow inverted sliding cylinder, containing water
under high pressure, is mounted over the fixed ram. The inverted sliding cylinder is
surrounded by another fixed inverted cylinder which contains water from the main
supply at a low pressure as shown in Fig. 10.6.

Fig. 10.6 The hydraulic intensifier

 A large quantity of water at low pressure from supply enters the inverted fixed cylinder.
The weight of this water pressure the sliding cylinder in the downward direction. The
water in the sliding cylinder and its pressure thus increased. The high pressure water is
forced out the sliding cylinder through the fixed ram to the machine.
Let,
p = Intensity of pressure of water from supply to the fixed cylinder (low pressure water)
A = External area of the sliding cylinder
a = Area of the end of the fixed ram and
p* = intensity of the pressure of water on the sliding cylinder (high pressure water)
The forced exerted by low pressure water on the sliding cylinder in the downward direction
 p A
The forced exerted by high pressure water on the sliding cylinder in the upward direction
 p*  a
Equating the upward and downward forces,
p A
p* 
a
10.5 The Hydraulic Ram
 The hydraulic ram is a pump which raises water without any external power for its
operation. When large quantity of water is available at a small height, a small quantity of

water can be raised to a greater height with the help of hydraulic ram. It works on the
principle of water hammer.
 Fig. 10.7 shows the main components of the hydraulic ram. When the inlet valve fitted
to the supply pipe is opened, water starts flowing from the supply tank to the chamber,
which has two valves at ‘B’ and ‘C’. The valve ‘B’ is called waste valve and valve ‘C’ is
called the delivery valve. The valve ‘C’ is fitted to an air vessel. As the water is coming in
to the chamber from supply tank, the level of water rises in the chamber and waste
valve ‘B’ starts moving upward. A stage comes, when the waste valve ‘B’ suddenly
closes. This sudden closure of waste valve creates high pressure inside the chamber. This
high pressure force opens the delivery valve ‘C’. The water from chamber enters the air
vessel and compresses the air inside the air vessel. This compressed air exerts force on
the water in the air vessel and small quantity of water is raised to a greater height.
 When the water in the chamber loses its momentum, the waste valve ‘B’ opens in the
downward direction and the flow of water from supply tank starts flowing to the
chamber and the cycle will be repeated.
Let,
W = Weight of water flowing per second into chamber
w = Weight of the water raised per second
h = Height of water in supply tank above the chamber
H = Height of water raised from the chamber
The energy supplied by the supply tank to ram,
= Weight of water supplied  Height of supply water
= W h
Energy delivered by the ram = Weight of water raised  Height through which water is
raised= w  H
Fig. 10.7 The hydraulic ram

Efficiency of the hydraulic ram,
Energy delivered by the ram w  H
 
Energy delivered to the ram W  h
The above expression of efficiency was known as D' aubuisson efficiency.

Rankine gave another form of the above efficiency. According to him the weight of
water  w  is raised to a height of  H  h  and not H . The water is initially at a height of h
from the ram and hence the water is only raised to a height equal to  H  h . Hence
according to Rankine:
Energy delivered by the ram = w  H  h 
Energy supplied = W  w  h
w  H  h
 Efficiency is given by,   is known as Rankine’s efficiency.
W  w h
The above two efficiencies, In terms of discharge is written as,
q H q   H  h
D’ Aubuisson’ efficiency is   and Rankine’s efficiency is  
Qh Q  q   h
Where q  Discharge of delivery pipe and Q  Discharge through supply pipe
10.6 Hydraulic Lift

10.6.1 Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift
 The hydraulic device is a device used for carrying passenger or goods from one floor to
another in multi-storeyed building. The hydraulic lifts are of two types.
 It consists of a ram, sliding in fixed cylinder as shown in Fig. 10.8. At the top of the sliding
ram, a cage (on which the persons may stand or goods may be placed) is fitted. The
liquid under pressure flows into the fixed cylinder. This liquid exerts force on the sliding
ram, which moves vertically up and thus raises the cage to the required height.
Fig. 10.8 Direct acting hydraulic lift

 The cage is moved in the downward direction by removing the liquid from the fixed
cylinder.
10.6.2 Suspended Hydraulic Lift
 Fig. 10.9 shows the suspended hydraulic lift. It is a modified form of the direct acting
hydraulic lift. It consists of a cage is suspended from a wire rope. A jigger, consisting of a
fixed cylinder, a sliding ram and a set of two pulley blocks, is provided at the foot of the
hole of the cage. One of the pulley block is movable and the other is a fixed one. The end
of the sliding ram is connected to the movable pulley block.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed at A and the other end is taken round all the
pulleys of the movable and fixed blocks and finally over the guide pulleys. The cage is
suspended from the other end of the rope. The raising or lowering of the cage of the lift
is done by the jigger as explained below.
 When water under high pressure is admitted into the fixed cylinder of the jigger, the
sliding ram is forced to move towards left. As one end of the sliding ram is connected to
the movable pulley block and hence the movable pulley block moves towards the left,
thus increasing the distance between two pulley blocks. The wire rope connected to the
cage is pulled and the cage is lifted.
Fig. 10.9 Suspended hydraulic lift

 For lowering the cage, water from the fixed cylinder is taken out. The sliding ram moves
towards right and hence movable pulley blocks and the cage is lowered due to increased
length of the rope.
10.7 The Hydraulic Crane

 Hydraulic crane is a device, used for raising or transferring heavy loads. It is widely used
in workshops, warehouses and dock sidings. (Fig. 10.10)

 A hydraulic crane consists of a mast, tie, jib, guide pulley and a jigger. The jib and tie are
attached to the mast. The jib can be raised or lowered in order to decrease or increase
the radius of action of the crane.
 The mast along with the jib can revolve about a vertical axis and thus the load attached
to the rope can be transferred to any place within the area of the crane's action. The
jigger, which consists of a movable ram sliding in a fixed cylinder, is used for lifting or
lowering the heavy loads. One end of the ram is in contact with water and the other end
is connected to set of movable pulley block. Another pulley block, called the fixed pulley
block is attached to the fixed cylinder. The pulley block, attached to the ram, moves up
and down while the pulley block, attached to the fixed cylinder, is not having any
movement.
 A wire rope, one end of which is fixed to a movable pulley (which is attached to the
sliding ram) is taken round all the pulleys of the two sets of the pulleys and finally passes
over the guide pulley, attached to the jib as shown in Fig. 10.10. The other end of the
rope is provided with a hook, for suspending the load.
Fig.10.10 The Hydraulic crane

 For lifting the load by the crane, the water under high pressure is admitted into the
cylinder of the jigger. This water forces the sliding ram to move vertically up. Due to the
movement of the ram in the vertically up direction, the movable pulley block attached to
the ram also moves upward. This increases the distance between two pulley blocks and
hence the wire passing over the guide pulley is pulled by the jigger. This raises the load
attached to the hook.
10.8 The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling

 The fluid or hydraulic coupling is a device used for transmitting power from driving shaft
to driven shaft with the help of fluid (generally oil).
 There is no mechanical connection between the two shafts. It consists of radial pump
impeller mounted on a driving shaft A and a radial flow reaction turbine mounted on the

driven shaft B. Both the impeller and runner are identical in shape and they together
form a casing which is completely enclosed and filled with oil.
 In the beginning, both the shafts A and B are at rest. When the driving shaft A is rotated,
the oil starts moving from the inner radius to the outer radius of the pump impeller as
shown in Fig. 10.11. The pressure energy and kinetic energy of the oil increases at the
outer radius of the pump impeller. This oil of increased energy enters the runner of the
reaction turbine at the outer radius of the turbine runner and flows inwardly to the
inner radius of the turbine runner. The oil while flowing through the runner, transfers its
energy to the blades of the runner and makes the runner to rotate. The oil from the
runner then flows back into the pump impeller, thus having a continuous circulation.
Fig. 10.11 The hydraulic coupling

 The power is transmitted hydraulically from the driving shaft to driven shaft and the
driven shaft is free from engine vibrations. The speed of the driven shaft B is always
less than the speed of the shaft A, by about 2 per cent. The efficiency of the power
transmission by hydraulic coupling is about 98%.This is derived as given below.
 Efficiency of a fluid coupling,
Power output Power transmitted to shaft B
  (10.5)
Power input Power available at shaft A
2 NT
But power at any shaft   NT  Speed  Torque (10.6)
60000
Let, N A  Speed of shaft A
TA  Torque at the shaft A
N B  Speed of shaft B
TB  Torque at the shaft A
From equation 10.6, we have
Power available to shaft A  (Speed of shaft A)  Torque of A  N ATA

Similarly, power transmitted to shaft B  NBTB

Substituting these values of powers in equation 10.5,
N T
 B B
N ATA
NB
But TA  TB thus  (10.7)
NA
Slip of fluid coupling is defined as the ratio of the difference of the speeds of the driving and
driven shaft to the speed of the driving sharp. Mathematically,
N  NB N
Slip, S A  1  B  1  (10.8)
NA NA
10.12 The Hydraulic Torque Converter

 The hydraulic torque converter is a device used for transmitting increased torque at the
driven shaft. The torque transmitted at the driven shaft may be more or less than the
torque available at the driving shaft.
 The torque at the driven shaft may be increased about five times the torque available at
the driving shaft with an efficiency of about 97%.
Fig. 10.12 The hydraulic torque converter

 The power at any shaft is proportional to the product of torque and speed of the shaft.
Hence, if the torque at the driven shaft is to be increased, the corresponding value of
the speed at the same shaft should be decreased. The speed of the driven shaft is
deceased by decreasing the velocity of oil, which is allowed to flow from the pump
impeller to the turbine runner and then through stationary guide vanes as shown in Fig.
10.12. Due to decrease in speed at the driven shaft, the torque increases.


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BRIEF CONTENTS

Sr. No. Chapters Page No.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Major applications of hydro power plant

 Normally hydro projects are developed for the following purpose:

1.2. SELECTION OF SITE FOR A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.3 GENERAL LAYOUT & ELEMENTS OF A HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO-PLANT

I. High Head Plants

Fig. 1.2 Schematic of high head power plant

Department of Mechanical Engineering

II. Low Head Power Plants

Fig. 1.3 Schematic of low head power plant

Fig. 1.4 Schematic of medium head power plant

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B. According to the quantity of water available

I. Run-off river plant

II. Run-off river plant with reservoir

III. Storage type plants

IV. Pump storage plants

V. Mini and micro hydro plants

Department of Mechanical Engineering

C. According to the nature of land

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Impulse – Momentum Principle:

According to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,

2.2 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Plate is inclined to the jet

A. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary vertical flat plate

Fig. 2.1 Jet striking a fixed vertical plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary inclined flat plate

Fig. 2.2 Jet striking a fixed inclined plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 This force can be resolved into two components,

C. Force exerted by the jet on a stationary curved plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 2.3 Jet striking a fixed curved plate at the center

( ve sign means is acting downwards)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Fig. 2.4 Jet striking curved fixed plate at one end

Department of Mechanical Engineering

D. Force exerted by a jet of water on a hinged plate

Fig. 2.5 Force on a hinged plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Let, the weight of the plate is acting at point .

Where, Angle between jet and plate

2.3 Force Exerted by the Jet on a Moving Plate

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A. Force exerted by a jet of water on flat vertical plate moving in the

Fig. 2.6 Jet striking a flat vertical moving plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

B. Force exerted by a jet of water on the inclined plate moving in the

Fig. 2.7 Jet striking an inclined moving plate

Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Work done per second by the jet on the plate,