A New Paradigm For Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills To Managers

Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills 1
A New Paradigm for Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills to Managers
Scott Whittaker
Post University
Abstract
Interpersonal conflict is a common workplace challenge for managers, which, if unresolved, can
have deleterious effects on the organization. However, managers often lack the requisite skill set
to successfully mitigate conflict. A comprehensive approach to dealing with conflict relies
heavily on management training, especially for entry-level leadership roles. The quality of the
training to be provided is critical, however, the nature of the subject and the learning
environment presents unique challenges. An analysis of contemporary thinking, tools and
techniques in instructional design strongly suggests that a blended model of instruction can
overcome the impediments to standard methods of workplace training; delivering training to the
workplace which is not only highly effective, but also efficient.
Keywords: instructional design, conflict, management, blended training, elearning

A New Paradigm for Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills to Managers
Needs Analysis
Conflict is a natural occurrence of two or more people working together. In modern, complex
work environments there is a greater potential for conflict due to increased task interdependence,
such as the use of teams, and greater employment diversity. According to Ernst and Yip (2008),
In todays globally diverse and increasingly interconnected world, identity boundaries rub
together, pull apart, and collide in the workplace. While some conflict is inevitable and even
necessary, unresolved conflict can result in decreased group cohesion, higher employee turnover,
reduced performance and higher operating costs. Therefore, it is critical that those in leadership
roles are able to effectively manage workplace conflict.
Conflict may arise from a number of circumstances and take a wide variety of forms. As a
result, the ways in which one resolves conflict are equally numerous. Most organizations have
built-in systems for ameliorating conflict, however, it is still incumbent upon the manager to
identify when conflict arises and to do so in a timely way to utilize the mechanisms of redress
available to them. Moreover, as formal dispute resolution processes such as grievance procedures
and mediation usually only address the symptoms, not the sources of conflict, the role of the
manager is critical to getting at the root causes of conflict.
Research demonstrates that training in conflict resolution skills is effective and can result in
improved teamwork, productivity, and employee satisfaction (Overton & Lowry, 2013).
Unfortunately, most managers receive little to no training in this critical skill, even though it is
estimated American Managers spend about three hours each week handling conflicts. A recent
survey revealed that 96% of managers felt they needed more training in conflict resolution skills
(Simpson, 2016). The gap between the prevalence and a managers ability to resolve it directly
impacts a business bottom line. It has been reported that, in the US, the time spent in
organizations tied up with conflict equates to $359 billion in paid hours a year or 385 million
working days in lost productivity (Lawler, 2010).
While training and resources are available, these may be insufficiently utilized. A survey of
middle managers felt that approximately two out of five managers were "unprepared for
management when they assumed the role. 87% of middle managers wish they had received more
management training when they first became a manager (Lipman, 2016). Miriam Larson (2014.
p. 244), points out in her book, A Practical Guide to Instructional Design that approximately
50% of organizational leaders are slow to adopt training initiatives because they are skeptical
about their effectiveness or averse to that which might bring about change.
Several studies show that employee training can be more problematic than productive. A
2010 McKinsey & Company report found just 25% of respondents felt that training programs
had a measurable improvement in performance. A 2015 study from online training company
24x7 Learning found that only 12% of employees apply new skills learned in training to their
jobs (Borzykowski, 2017). Even if management training is provided, it does not necessarily
translate to improvements in the workplace. Not only do many organizations cite "capability
gaps" as one of their biggest challenges, they report that it takes 3-5 years to take a seasoned
professional and make them fully productive (Bersin, 2014). Furthermore, some studies indicate
that perhaps no more than 20% of training results in performance improvement or transfer of
training to the workplace (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Holton, Bates & Ruona, 2000, as cited in Lee,
2010. p 182).
While spending on corporate training has been increasing in recent years (Bersin, 2014),
many business leaders still believe that there are many problems in its delivery and effectiveness.
These include
Training takes up too much time;
Training is expensive;
Training subjects lack focus;
Lack of follow up, and
Lack of support after the training (Mcdowell, 2015).
The onus then falls to instructional designers and educators to deliver programs which address
these concerns; programs which are streamlined, cost-effective and aimed at the development of
specific skill sets. Further, the training events should ideally be enmeshed in, and not separate
from, the workplace, fostering the development of connections between the content and day to
day work activities. The purpose of this paper is to propose the development of a hybrid model
of instructional delivery in conflict management skills which is based on best practices,
adaptable to a variety of employment settings, portable, efficient and effective.
Learner Analysis
Any structured training program should be flexible enough to accommodate a wide variety of
learning styles, however, the characteristics of the learner impacts the effectiveness of
instruction. A solid foundation of instruction begins with identifying the target audience (Larson,
2014. p. 46). In this regard, an analysis of emerging trends in the workplace reveals that
approximately 50% of the workforce is comprised of the younger generations - the so-called Gen
Xers and Millennials (Anovick & Merrill, n.d.), likely to be college educated (BLS, 2014), and
comfortable with technology.
The increasing diversity of the American workforce is another important trend. The United
States continues to be a melting pot of demographic diversity and the labor force reflects this.
Modern business is becoming more conscious of the benefits, as well as the pitfalls, of diverse
workforces and developing strategies to maximize the former and minimize the latter. Diversity
initiatives create pipelines to management and therefore entry-level managers are an equally
diverse group, with respect to age, gender and ethnicity. Furthermore, according to the Society
for Human Resource Management diversity initiatives leads to a workforce which is diverse, not
only in primary dimensions of diversity, but also diverse in personality types, thinking style and
other factors that influence how people see the world (SHRM, 2017).
Based on this assessment, it can be concluded the target audience, in general, for conflict
resolution skills training are entry-level managers with some labor force experience, who are
relatively younger, college-educated and from a wide variety of demographic backgrounds.
Task analysis
Following the ADDIE model of instructional design, a program of instruction begins with an
analysis of the learner and what is to be learned. Moving into the design phase, instructors need
to consider the learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, content, subject matter
analysis, lesson planning and media selection, which become the core elements comprising an
instructional strategy (ADDIE Model, n.d).
Central to the design phase is the development of learning objectives. According to Mager
(n.d.), an objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit

before you consider them competent. However, Instructional designers seeking to define the
terminal goal of instruction will find that little consensus exists on what exactly interpersonal
skills are, which has made the development of evidence-based teaching techniques a difficult
task (Bedwell, Fiore & Salas, 2014).
The skills necessary for effective conflict management are inextricably linked within the
framework of a given individuals overall level of interpersonal skill (Spitzberg & Hurt, 1987).
In this regard, interpersonal skills are heavily reliant on other, more general skills, such as
communication skills, particularly verbal communication. Skilled communicators negotiate
positive outcomes with customers, subordinates, and superiors through social perceptiveness,
persuasion, instructing, and a service orientation. In addition, interpersonal skills draw on many
capacities, such as knowledge of social customs and the capacity to solve problems associated
with social expectations and interactions. (Bedwell, Fiore And Salas, 2011 as cited in National
Research Council, 2011).
According to the literature A cluster analysis is used to analyze verbal information skills
where no logical order is required to meet the stated goal(s)" (Muffoletto, 2000 as cited in
Instructional Design Database, 2014). Such an analysis reveals clusters of abilities which align
along the following axes: Emotional Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Social Skill. Being able to
resolve conflict is part of a larger framework of a persons interpersonal skill. The elements
identified by this analysis relate well to the Goleman model of Emotional Intelligence. This
model proposes that a large part of our ability to work effectively with others involves the ability
to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with
emotion, and regulate emotion in ones self and others (McShane & Von Glinow, 2015. p. 101).
Having established competency areas, the instructional design process can move to a
consideration of topical sequencing and event planning. The Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
developed by Bloom (Blooms Digital Taxonomy, n.d.) states that thinking skills progress from
lower order skills, such as recalling information, to higher order skills exemplified synthesizing
the information learned to create new connections, behaviors or ideas. Therefore, the educational
process should build upon simpler behaviors to form more complex behaviors.
An analysis of the competencies necessary to resolve conflict and the best-practice literature on
the subject, while recalling the work of Bloom, reveals the following performance criteria (from
lower order to higher order skills):
Defining conflict;
Describing the antecedents of conflict;
Recalling and explaining relevant personnel policies, state regulations and/or federal
regulations;
Recognizing the signs of conflict;
Analyzing the quality of workplace interactions;
Applying the conflict styles model to evaluate employees;
Classifying the severity of conflict;
Developing and implementing a conflict resolution strategy, and
Demonstrate effective active listening and negotiation skills (SHRM, 2017).

Situational/Environmental analysis
As identified, employees are entering the workforce inadequately prepared with the
interpersonal skills demanded in todays work environment. While these skills are integral to the
effectiveness of any organization, very few organizations possess the internal capacity for
training in this area. Therefore, there is an unmet need for effective, efficient and comprehensive
external resources. What this paper proposes is the development of a fee-based, consultative
training resource to address this increasing need. As such, it presupposes that all functional
activities, including, planning, development, design, and delivery are the purview of one or two
business principles acting as instructional designer, subject matter expert and instructor.
Instructional delivery in a business setting presents with unique challenges, and even more so
for external consultants. Indeed, it might be some of the negative perceptions of workplace
training arises due to the difficulties of bringing the material and the learners together. Training
is subservient to other business activities and needs to have as little disruptive impact as possible.
Given that there is already a bias toward training being a waste of time, sensitivity to the needs
of a specific business is important. Looking at training from the learners perspective, workplace
demands are among the largest obstacles to engagement, as business necessity pulls them away.
By far the biggest challenge for the external consultant is a lack of control over the learning
environment. Given the number of potential variables, the instructional delivery needs to be
flexible and adaptive, while the core elements remain consistent. To address the considerations
identified above, organizations are increasingly turning to elearning delivery. According to a
recent report, the adoption rate of blended learning is rapidly increasing (Bonk, Kim & Zeng,
2006 as cited in Lee, 2010. p 182). Online courses in counseling skills and techniques have the
potential to produce learning outcomes that are comparable to those of their traditional classroom
counterparts. Interpersonal skills necessary for effective conflict management necessitates an
interactive approach as well, as it is the lack of interpersonal interaction students often cite as an
issue in elearning (Cicco, 2011). In this regard, the interactive portion of the presentation needs
to be as fully self-contained and self-reliant as possible, in order for the instructor to retain
control over instruction.
Media analysis
Having considered what needs to be learned, who will be learning it and where learning will
occur, instructional designers turn their attention to delivery methodologies. The message is only
as good as the medium. The medium employed in conjunction with the content can help facilitate
how the information is perceived and needs to be an integral part of the overall communication
strategy (Larson, 2014). Today, a discussion of media usually means a discussion about
technology. As with instructional strategies, there are a wide variety of delivery technologies
available to the instructional designer. In this regard, technology can be defined as any tool
that facilitates learning (Larson, 2014. p. 184) and includes both products and processes.
As proposed, the use of technology, is going to encompass two main forms of media:
elearning modalities and classroom presentation materials. The former involves an elearning and
authoring platform, such as Adobes Captivate, while the live presentation portion of the media
will be developed through presentation software such as Powerpoint, projected on a screen with
an LCD projector. The focus of the classroom learning will be instructor-led activities with the
media serving as the script. This traditional approach minimizes variables which may impede
delivery and emphasizes interpersonal interaction.

While different media are being employed in different contexts, they both are primarily visual
media and, as such, have important considerations for the instructional designer. Not everyone is
a visual learner, moreover, some people may not have the visual acuity to access the information.
Effective programs of instruction provide for multiple means of representation to ensure
accessibility (Larson, 2014, p. 236).
Accessibility is defined as the degree to which the instruction is available to all learners
(Larson, 2014. p. 234). It will need to be assured that participants will have both the time and the
availability of suitable computer equipment to access the elearning component. In this regard,
contingency plans will be necessary. For example, learning would be seriously degraded if
participants missed a portion of the content, a likely scenario given the nature of the instructional
environment. Furthermore, adaptations will need to be available for those who have unique
personal characteristics, such as being hearing or visually impaired. Fortunately, technology can
be useful here in that it can allow for differentiation; providing learners with different ways to
access content (Tomlinson, 2001 as cited in Larson, 2014. p. 235).
The design phase - development schedule
As with any project, Instructional Designers need to manage the implementation, or roll out,
effectively; establishing project tasks, deliverable specifications and timetables (Larson, 2014. p.
226), of the three main project management tasks, examining the materials; identifying project
requirements and Identifying production tasks (Larson, 2014. p .223), the latter two are
important considerations here and activities with which the consultant will need to work in close
collaboration with the client.

Introductory discussions with organizational stakeholders will be critical for a number of
reasons. Given the nature of the educational delivery, additional efforts at data collection present
a challenge. With sufficient time, it would be possible to send out a participant survey instrument
ahead of time. However, as Larson notes, in a matrix of power and control, such as that in an
employment setting, neither the teachers nor the students have the total freedom to choose the
learning strategies that may wish to use. Otherwise, instructors primarily reply on reports from
senior management and observations of the target audience of representative examples (Larson,
2014, p. 56).
In addition to gathering information about the learning audience, the instructor will also need
to, among other objectives:
Secure relevant organizational policies and procedures;
Identify resources, including classroom space, the availability of media, etc. and
Agreeing to a timetable for implementation.
As one content developer stated, There are many variables in conflict management training
such as these that are beyond basic tenets. That is, a "cookie cutter" program is not a responsible
model for the supplier to offer or the organization to accept. Trainers need, in addition to other
variables, to tailor-make role plays and ensure all experiential exercises specifically apply to the
organization and its stakeholders, as well as establishing individual and organizational
measurement criteria, in advance of the training (Noble, 2005). Getting copies of business
specific materials will aid the instructional designers in producing tailored content.
Production tasks are the acts to physically complete the development of instruction and
includes all the various tasks involved with producing media, including video, audio, graphic and
text content (Larson, 2014. p. 230). The strength in such a hybrid or blended approach is its
adaptability to meet the organizations needs while ensuring a consistency of delivery. Much of
the development work will be done beforehand, with a variety of customizable templates
providing flexibility for different situations. Customizing these elements represent the largest
commitment of time and resources, though, with much of the instructional framework already
developed, this element may be accomplished in a matter of days, allowing for expeditious
delivery. On the other hand, this means more work on the part of instructional designers to
effectively package and present content. Good visual design doesnt just enhance learning. It
affects the way that learners perceive course content (Nokes & Sappington, 2010), so the up-
front investment is substantial.
One of the main elements topics for discussion with organizational stakeholders is the
delivery schedule. While this may be mostly driven by the organizations needs, timing is
important to ensure that material isnt forgotten during the intervening period. A proposed
development schedule is as follows:
Elearning Activity: Initial content delivery would occur after the introductory meeting as
practicable (depending on stakeholder needs), but most likely thirty days to three months after
the initial period of assessment and planning. During this time customized materials will be
developed along with a communication plan aimed at participants.
Classroom presentation: The next step in the curriculum would be a classroom style meeting
scheduled for a period of time to occur within two weeks to no more than thirty days after the
completion of content delivery. This module can be presented as a one day or two half-day
presentations, again, depending on the needs of the client.
Coaching: Within approximately 30 days after the conclusion of the classroom presentation,
instructors will meet with participants for a one hour follow up discussion. Furthermore, the
instructor will be available for phone and/or email consultations to students for a period of time
immediately following the classroom meeting and ongoing.
Course learning objectives
The identification of learning outcomes, goals and objectives are a critical component in
designing any program of instruction. For the learner, objectives communicate the relevance of
the material to be learned (Larson, 2014). For the instructional designer, the development of
objectives provides insight into the sorts of learning activities the curriculum should include and
the means for evaluating the student. Applying the principle of beginning with the end in mind
suggested by Stephen Covey (2004), the overarching desired outcome in this regard is the:
Reduction in incidents which are disruptive to business activity, such as those that require
arbitration, or which result in turnover as a direct result of interpersonal conflict.
The terminal goal for instruction in the development of conflict management skills is the:
Effective resolution of conflict using a strategy for managing incidents of conflict about
which the learner becomes aware.
Having identified the desired state and goal, more specific learning outcomes can be derived.
Learning theorist Robert Mager states that good learning objectives need to denote an Audience,
Behavior (performance), a Condition, and a Degree (criterion) within the objective (Mager, n.d.).
In light of the tasks heretofore identified, some of the learning objectives will include:
Objective: After participating in a program of elearning instruction participants will be
able to correctly define conflict, describe the types of conflict and explain
why conflict can be a good thing.
Degree: Successful recall of all factors and complete explanations as measured by a
learning post-test following presentation of the material.
able to correctly describe the antecedents of conflict.
able to correctly recall and describe the conflict process model.
Objective: After participation in instructor lead discussion, a small group activity/
role-playing exercises participants will be able to correctly identify apply the
conflict styles model in evaluating the styles of others

Degree: Correct assessment of conflict styles depicted in 5 different case scenarios as
measured by a post-instruction assessment.
Objective: After participation in instructor lead discussion, a small group activity/
role-playing exercises participants will be able to correctly demonstrate
effective active listening skills.
Degree: Instructor identification and assessment of the skills being visibly demonstrated in
practice.
In summary, after instruction, participants will be able to successfully reduce the incident of
conflict by the Three Rs:
Recognizing conflict;
Responding effectively to conflict, and
Resolving conflict by developing a plan for mitigation.
Lesson structure
The selection of an instructional strategy is an important aspect of the development stage of
instructional design. Teaching strategies are the processes through which the instructor aims to
achieve learning outcomes, whereas learning strategies involve the engagement and activities of
the learner. Both elements need to be considered for an effective instructional design strategy.
(Locke, 1996. p. 5 in Larson page 149). Numerous strategic models for instructional design have
been proposed. While the different approaches emphasize some facets over others, they all share
certain things in common: a concern for organizing the material, delivering it, and managing
learner engagement (Clark, 2015). Regardless of the strategy employed, the overarching
consideration is that an analysis of the audience, subject matter, and delivery must align to
support learning objectives.
Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism are the three broad learning theories most
often utilized in the creation of instructional environments. As Tennyson noted (2002, as cited in
Macdonald, Bullen, & Kozak. 2007), course content often lends itself to one pedagogical
approach more so than another. The format suggested here begins with an Instructivist oriented
approach and moves to a Constructivist oriented one. An Instructionist approach lends itself well
to subject matter which is more objectively identifiable by behavioral observation, whereas,
Constructionism is defined as active construction of new knowledge, based on a learners prior
experience.
Building on the work of Bloom, Kolb posited that an effective curriculum should integrate the
following components (Reilly 2013, p. 449 as cited in Katz et al, 2016).
Concrete experience;
Reflective observation;
Abstract conceptualization, and
Active experimentation (Katz et al, 2016).
What makes teaching interpersonal skills challenging is that it involves the full range of
abilities on Blooms Taxonomy from understanding on one end to synthesis and evaluation on
the other. As this pertains to curriculum design, it can be concluded that lower order skills, those
relying mostly on the need to understand and recall, can effectively be served by an elearning
modality, whereas higher order skills, such as those that require analysis and synthesis are more
aptly facilitated through practice and behavior modeling. According to Glaser (Glaser, 1983, as
cited in Christie, 2012. p. 745.), as the skill required of the learner becomes more complex,
content delivery needs to become more interactive and involving direct instruction, written
practice, self-monitoring, modeling, rehearsal, and in vivo practice of target behaviors.
Applying Blooms Taxonomy and the work of Kolb suggests that curriculum design should
begin with concept delivery, move on to reflection and experimentation and, lastly, the
opportunity for practical experience. In this regard, consideration needs to be given to the overall
strategy which provides the framework for instruction. Using the prevailing thinking as a starting
point, a three-pronged approach consisting of an elearning activity, a period of classroom
instruction followed up by in situ support would be highly effective in delivering instruction
while addressing the issues organizational leaders and managers have with workplace training.
The topics to be covered in the two main learning activities are as follows:
Modality Topics Activities Outcomes Supported
Elearning The symptoms of Presentation Defining conflict;
conflict materials Describing the
The definition of antecedents of conflict;
conflict Formative Recalling and
The types of conflict Assessments explaining relevant
The causes of conflict personnel policies, state

The signs of conflict Summative regulations and/or
Presentation of the Assessment federal regulations;
conflict process model Recognizing the signs of
Applicable policies and Post-Course conflict;
regulations Assessment
Classroom Analyzing the quality
Instructor of workplace
presentation interactions;
Presentation of the
Applying the conflict
Conflict management
Presentation
styles model to
styles model
Materials
Applying the conflict evaluate employees;
management style Classifying the

Self-Assessment
Active listening severity of conflict;
Holding difficult Developing and

Small group
conversations implementing a
discussion
Complete model of
conflict resolution
conflict resolution
Case Analysis strategy, and
Mediation and
Demonstrate effective
negotiation skills
Role Playing active listening and
negotiation skills.
Activities
Given that these skills have attitudinal, behavioral, and cognitive components (Ley, &
Gannon-Cook, 2014), Glaser suggests that an individual cannot attain interpersonal competence
by understanding theory alone, because translation of classroom learning to the real world is not
automatic (Glaser, 1983, as cited in Christie, 2012. p. 745.). Therefore, the need for an active
classroom session in addition to the elearning activity.
Research demonstrates that groups of people using effective conflict management styles
openly discuss differences of opinion, exchange information to solve problems together. As
conflict and conflict resolution styles are as individual as the organizations in which they arise, a
management team-oriented approach to training on this subject is suggested (DeChurch &
Marks, 2001). The classroom oriented portion of instruction will emphasize drawing upon
management teams from the various organizations. One of the main considerations in regard to
classroom activities is the size of the group, which may vary considerably. Training groups of
eight to twelve managers is an optimum number (Noble, 2005).
Within the context of the classroom presentation, the first activity will be a self-assessment
survey in which participants will become acquainted with the conflict resolution style inventory.
This is a non-graded formative assessment. In addition to introducing the topic, such an
assessment requires the student to reflect on their own personal conflict resolution style. Once
familiar with the subject and, after further classroom discussion, students can use this as a
framework for applying to others. This self-assessment provides a reflective activity, one
element of the Constructivist approach, aimed at enhancing ones own self-awareness and
serving as a basis for improved personal self-regulation. This activity supports the outcome
objective of being able to recognize and evaluate the conflict management style of others.
The next classroom activity will be a small group discussion of presented case scenarios.
Groups will be tasked to assess the scenario, identify the cause of conflict, the conflict styles of
the characters, evaluate the severity of the conflict and suggest an appropriate response for
remediation. Trevisan (2004 as cited in Christie, 2012) recommended that students be exposed to
the intricacies that take place in the real-world setting, such as (a) negotiating and evaluating; (b)
handling incomplete data; (c) dealing with clients that dont communicate well; (d) thinking
creatively and flexibility to take into account resource, organizational, and political constraints.
The evaluation of fictitious scenarios serves to create a framework for generalization and has
been identified as an effective mechanism for affecting workplace transference (National
Research Council, 2011).
Many outcomes of instruction are supported here by a small group analysis and discussion of
case scenarios. One benefit is it brings in a Connectionist oriented approach to the subject.
Managers rarely work in a vacuum. Having a network of peers with whom participants have
established problem-solving relationships will aid in the transfer of learning to the workplace and
provide an ongoing framework for its use. Critically, this exercise provides participants with an
opportunity to practice their observation skills and to begin developing a problem-solving
paradigm which is one of the primary objectives of the course.
The final activity will be role-playing scenarios. After the concept and features of active
listening is presented by the instructor and after watching a video, Students will be broken up
into groups of two or three and assigned roles in a fictitious conflictual situation. The purpose of
this activity is to provide students with the opportunity to practice active listening skills and, if
permitted by instructional limitations, also practice conflict mediation skills. As previously
identified, effective verbal communication skills are integral to effective conflict resolution
skills.
According to Tanner (2010), the constructivist schema emphasizes the learner gaining insight
into their views on a given subject, becoming receptive to new ideas, and then integrating these
into new information. In addition, Tanner, in referencing the 5E model, states that any instruction
should have multiple components being accessible to students with a variety of different learning
styles and preferences. The learning delivery structure proposed above fits well within the
framework of the 5E model in that it provides the student the multiple components suggested
by Tanner. These include the opportunity for personal reflection, student-centered learning, and
practice within a context which has relevance for the learner; fostering learner engagement with
the material. Moreover, the activities described herein have been shown to reduce the transfer
distance in learning; the gap between the learning environment and application in the job
environment (Reilly 2013, p. 460 as cited in Katz, Sosa, & Harriott, 2016).
Assessment
Evaluation is another critical step in the instructional process. This phase of the process has
two important considerations: measuring how the student performed in relation to the outcome
objectives previously established and examining the effectiveness, as well as the efficiency of the
learning instruction program. In this regard, the term assessment is applied to measuring student
performance and evaluation is used as it pertains to examining the instruction itself, in order to
make the distinction (Larson, 2014. p.133).

There are generally two types of evaluation, formative and summative. Formative
assessments measure the students progress at critical steps of learning to reflect progress, giving
feedback to the learner and helping the instructor gauge the learners progress. Summative
assessments occur at the end of the instructional program and measure the totality of what was
learned. For instructional designers, both types of assessment provide valuable insight into the
usefulness of the delivery program with an eye towards in making improvements in the content,
instructional strategies, pace, or sequencing (McArdle, 2011).
In terms of developing assessments, the application of Blooms taxonomy again provides
guidance. For example, assessments, such as written exams, are good at assessing criteria such as
recall of facts. However, soft skills, such as interpersonal and leadership skills cannot be
accurately measured by quizzes or exams. Larson (2014. p. 136) states that skills such as
interpersonal skills are more readily assessed through non-traditional means, such as requiring
the learner to create a response to scenarios (Larson, 2014. p. 136). The types of assessment and
the formats need to align with content.
Given that there are several components to content delivery, each portion of the instructional
program will have its own related assessments. The first stage of instruction is the content to be
delivered through elearning. Here, it is proposed that a series of formative, non-graded self-
assessments are used in order to engage the learner, provide feedback to the learner on their
progress and to reinforce learning of the material. At the end of the elearning unit will be a
computer-graded summative assessment, employing traditional elements such as true or false and
multiple-choice questions. At the close of the assessment, the participant will be given a course
evaluation to provide direct feedback to the instructional designers.

There will be three assessments as part of the classroom unit. One such assessment, the
Conflict Resolution Styles self-assessment has been discussed previously above. Apart from this,
there will be an assessment at the end of the active listening activity and a summative assessment
at the end of the unit. The assessment methodology integrated into the plan outlined here
incorporates skill demonstrations and case analysis.
The primary skill to be demonstrated after instruction is that of active listening skills. As a
complex behavioral skill, there are many components. These include: attending behaviors; open-
and closed-ended questions; client observation skills; encouraging, paraphrasing, and
summarizing; reflection of feeling; confrontation; reflection of meaning and interpretation;
reframing; skill integration; and determining personal style and theory. Development of
attending behaviors and basic listening skills can be noted in observable patterns such as eye
contact, body language, vocal qualities, and verbal tracking (Cicco 2011). As questions rightly
arise as to how reliability is maintained, given this type and format of assessment, the plan
identified will utilize rubrics; rubrics being a checklist of uniformly applied criteria for judging
work in order to simplify the process and ensure equity (Larson, 2014. p. 137). Reference the
Appendix for a sample rubric.
At the conclusion of the instructional program will be a summative assessment. This
assessment will require participants to independently evaluate a number of case scenarios and to
correctly identify the sources for conflict and to suggest a cogent plan for amelioration. Fiore
found that use situational judgment tests (SJTs), which are multiple-choice assessments of
possible reactions to hypothetical teamwork situations are an effective means to assess capacities
for conflict resolution, communication, and coordination. The researchers were able to
demonstrate relationships between these results and both peers and supervisors ratings and to
ratings of job performance (National Research Council, 2011).
These measures will serve to evaluate organizational impact but also provide insight into the
effectiveness of learning transfer. Other suggested mechanisms for evaluating learning transfer
include performance evaluations of program participants and surveys of their supervisors. This is
consistent with McArdles recommendation that the way to measure whether the learners
transfer their new skills or knowledge when back on the job is best evaluated through personal
observation or testimony (McArdle, 2011). Notably, this form of assessment may be most telling
in regard to learning transfer.
Implementation
Instructional design processes are mostly theoretical until the instruction is delivered to an
audience. There is a saying in the military that no plan survives first contact with the enemy.
Therefore, it is prudent to also give serious consideration to implementation. The fact that the
instructional designers for this project are also the subject matter experts, as well as the
instructors, means intimate knowledge of the subject matter and previous experience in
providing similar training. The value for the end consumer is derived, in part, by the level of
specialized knowledge required to produce and deliver this program. Designers and teachers
need to have had prior experience in corporate training as well as having had the practical
experience of managing workplace conflict situations, such as Human Resource professionals
have. As Larson points out (2014.p. 241), instructional designers are often called upon to be
agents of change. In this regard, experienced Human Resource professionals are ideally suited to
help organizations to change by adopting programs which improve workplace performance
through management training.
Even seasoned professionals can deliver an instructional program that fails to achieve its
objectives, or which is not well received by the audience. Since there are several components to
the project as proposed, there are several areas where things can go wrong. Usability testing
should be carried out to ensure that everything functions correctly. Usability often involves an
observed functional test of a prototype by participants who are representative of the target group
(Larson, 2014. P. 240).
Testing of the elearning program would need to be done to ensure that the software deployed
works in a variety of browsers. In this regard, selecting a software which is SCORM conforming
would be important. SCORM is a set of technical standards for e-learning software products,
which governs how online learning content and Learning Management Systems communicate
with each other; an industry standard for e-learning interoperability (SCORM explained, n.d.).
Other aspects of implementation, such as the classroom portion, can be usability tested by
presenting it live, for free or at a reduced cost, to local Chambers of Commerce or non-profit
organizations, though much of it is likely to draw upon the facilitators prior experience. The
unique facet to this proposal is the use of a blended approach to learning. The main consideration
will be in the coordination of the various elements. Otherwise, much of the remaining tasks
associated with implementation consist of the those associated with materials production,
previously discussed.
Evaluation of the instruction
It isnt enough to design the instruction, present it and assess the learners, one must also
examine if the program achieved its goals. Furthermore, designers, educators, and stakeholders
will want to know if the program was also efficient. Regardless how a subject is taught or what
sort of assessment is used, all measurement instruments need to be as reliable and valid as
possible.
Validity means the method of assessment actually measures what it is intended to measure,
whereas a reliable process yields consistent results over time, under different conditions and
different raters. This is important for learners, so they understand they are being rated fairly. For
instructional designers and educators, valid and reliable data equates to confidence in the
instructional program and the usefulness of the information for making changes as necessary in
the course. Lastly, stakeholders, such as employers, for example, want assurance that the
outcomes and benefits to be measurable to justify the capital commitments. The evaluation
process measures what changes have resulted from the training, how much change has resulted,
and how much value can be assigned to these changes (McArdle, 2011).
With respect to our subject, the goal is to reduce the number and severity of conflict incidents.
Given the complexity of the subject, the different learning approaches, the number of objectives
and the various forms of learning activity, a variety of learning assessments is called for. To this
end, evaluation of the success of the proposed training will begin the first of the month after the
training program has ended and consist of the collection and analysis of the data identified
below. Data will be collected and examined over the course of the year which follows. To ensure
an accurate baseline for comparison, these same data sets will be examined for the year prior to
the implementation of the training program.
Data to be collected:
The number of employee complaints to management, Human Resources, Shop Stewards or
entities external to the organization, such as the Connecticut Commission on Human Rights
and Opportunities. Data will be collected monthly, but aggregated annually.
Exit interview surveys of separating employees, identifying their reasons for quitting;
The costs associated with legal proceedings or arbitration (again, data will be collected
monthly, but aggregated annually), and
Surveying employees on their degree of satisfaction with respect to how their manager resolves
conflict in the workplace. With respect to this point, surveys will be conducted by interview,
as well as electronic survey formats. Data will be collected monthly with participants selected
randomly.
Average close time: This is a measure of the efficiency of the grievance resolution process. It
is based on how many days it takes to resolve an issue from the day it is identified as a problem.
(SHRM, 2015)
Use of the Interpersonal Conflict Scale at Work instrument a widely used instrument with
known properties and demonstrated validity/reliability (Organization of Work: Measurement
Tools for Research and Practice, 2012). Refer to Appendix A.
One model which has been shown to be an effective approach to evaluating learning
instruction is the Kirkpatrick model. This model looks at four key elements which are:
Learner reaction
The training itself - How well did the learner apply the new skills and knowledge?
Training transfer - What changes in job behavior resulted from the training?
Organizational impact - What were the results of the training on the companys bottom line
(McArdle, 2011).
The Kirkpatrick model seems well suited as it applies to evaluating a workplace training
program in Conflict Management in that the very reason such a program is being proposed is to
impact the organizations bottom line.
Lastly, learner reaction to the training will be captured by a post-training course evaluation
provided to each participant. With respect to the elearning portion of the program, the survey
will be delivered electronically at the completion of that module, while a paper instrument will
be disseminated and collected at the close of the in-person classroom portion. A standardized
tool will be used for all participants employing a typical Likert scale. A sample can be found in
the Appendix.
While a program of evaluation is critical for ensuring the effectiveness of instructional design,
one must be cognizant of the potential pitfalls in, and the practical limitations of, data collection.
For example, it is not uncommon to get a low response rate on post-training participant
evaluations or that a lack of care in their completion by the participant renders its data unusable.
In terms of assessing learning transfer and organizational impact, it may take weeks or
months for changes in behavior of those who participated in the training to reveal themselves in
ways the available data collection methods can detect (McArdle, 2011). Hence the reason for an
ongoing period of data review as proposed above. Another potential limitation to the data is that
participants might not have an immediate opportunity to practice their new skills on the job. In
this regard, we may find that there is a measurement gap between what the student has learned
and our ability to detect it; a student may have learned the new skills, but if there are barriers to
their use, such as a lack of opportunity to use them, no overt organizational impact will be
identified.
Conclusion/Summary
While interpersonal conflict may be inevitable in the workplace, solutions exist. It is in the
best interest of all stakeholders, management, leadership and employees alike, that conflict is
resolved in a timely and effective way. Developing conflict resolution skills in frontline
managers is a key element of any strategic plan for better management of the workforce.
Given that such an effort represents a significant commitment of organizational resources, the
effectiveness of management development programs must be evaluated to ensure an appropriate
return on the investment. Many organizational leaders find that the standard training formats are
ineffective because they are too costly and too time-consuming. Even more critically, managers
cite that the training which is available isnt focused enough to their needs and there is a lack of
connection between what takes place during training and the job.
Through a consideration of best practices in instructional pedagogy, design, and delivery, a
more effective method of training emerges. This paper argues that a three-tiered approach to
training - an elearning program, followed by a classroom presentation and, lastly, a brief period
of on the job individualized coaching - represents one of the most effective and efficient
programs for developing conflict management skills in the workplace.

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Appendix
POST COURSE EVALUATION
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey. Feel free to add other comments as you see fit.
You may respond anonymously or supply your name if you care to, whatever you are comfortable with. I
value your comments and will use them to modify the course presentation as appropriate. Thank you
again.
Please use the following rating scale for the questions that follow
5= strongly agree 4=somewhat strongly 3=agree 2 = somewhat disagree 1= strongly disagree
1) I am satisfied with this course 5 4 3 2 1
overall
2) I believe that I will be able to use the 5 4 3 2 1
materials I learned from this course
3) I believe this course is worth my time 5 4 3 2 1
and effort
4) The learning objectives are clear 5 4 3 2 1
5) The materials are a valuable tool for 5 4 3 2 1
learning the material
6) The tests/projects are an accurate 5 4 3 2 1
measure of my knowledge
7) The instructor made the material 5 4 3 2 1
interesting and/or relevant

8) The grade criteria for the tests/projects 5 4 3 2 1
were clear
9) The course overview accurately 5 4 3 2 1
reflected what this course is about
10) The Instructor was available to me 5 4 3 2 1
and gave me feedback my efforts
Please respond as indicated:
1) This course: 1) Exceeded my expectations, 2) Met my expectations, OR 3) fell below my expectations
I would rate the value of this course as

High Average Low
I would give this course a(n)

ABCDF
THANK YOU FEEL FREE TO WRITE OTHER COMMENTS HERE

CASE STUDIES
CASE 1
Latonya works second shift and Bill works on third shift. Most days of the week they do shift change
with each other but on Saturday Bill shares the morning with Latonya. Bill has been getting mad at
Latonya because when he comes in to work for third shift, there are often dirty dishes in the sink or wet
clothes in the dryer.
Bill decides to say something about this to Latonya one Saturday morning. Latonya tells Bill that she is
busy on second shift as the people they support lead active lives and Latonya is often out with them and
she runs out of time for this sort of work. Latonya tells Bill that they are all there for the people they
support and, as a team everyone has to help pick up the slack.
Bills strong attitude about this upsets Latonya, but she does not say anything to Bill. Bill too is mad
because he feels Latonya is implying that he is not part of the team and he feels there is often time for
Latonya to pick up her own slack.
Bill begins to talk to the other team members about Latonya and complain. After a while, word of this
gets back to Latonya. Latonya has noted Bills frosty attitude on Saturdays as well. Latonya goes to the
manager to complain that Bill is targeting her and that she does not want to work with Bill anymore.
You are the manager. What is the source of conflict here? What are the participants conflict styles?
What do you do?
CASE 2
Chris, Tracy and John all work second shift together most days of the week. John rushes in each shift,
takes care of his basic responsibilities and then takes Bob out. This is Johns basic routine. Often John
takes Bob out to eat and then they go to Johns house to play video games. Bob loves to play video
games and John has a great entertainment system.
Chris and Tracy are OK with this at first, but after a while they begin to get upset. They feel that John is
taking Bob out all the time to avoid having to cook dinner, pass meds or help with other evening chores.
They also feel that Bob is the easiest person in this 6 person home. They question why Bob cant play
video games at home and they feel that John is only taking Bob to his house so that John can hang out.
Chris and Tracy begin to talk to the other employees about John. Several of the other employees are
friends with Chris and Tracy and others are friends with John. Johns friends tell him that Chris and Tracy
are talking about him. Soon, everyone is talking about each other the house is in an uproar. As many of
these people are friends on Facebook, some of this fracas has leaked out there too, but no names
have been mentioned.
You, as the manager, are the last to find out, but finally someone comes to tell you about this. You find
out that this has been going on for 4 months!
What is the source of conflict here? What are the participants conflict styles? What do you do?
Interpersonal Conflict At Work Scale, ICAWS
(Spector & Jex, 1998).
Quite Often
Sometimes
Very Often
Rarely
Never
1. How often do you get into arguments with others at
work?
2. How often do other people yell at you at work?
3. How often are people rude to you at work?
4. How often do other people do nasty things to you at

work?
Organizational Constraints Scale, OCS
How often do you find it difficult or impossible to do your
Once or twice per month
Once or twice per week

job because of ... ?
Once or twice per day
Several times per day

Less than once per
month or never
1. Poor equipment or supplies.
2. Organizational rules and procedures.
3. Other employees.
4. Your supervisor.
5. Lack of equipment or supplies.
6. Inadequate training.
7. Interruptions by other people.
8. Lack of necessary information about what to do or how to

do it.
9. Conflicting job demands.
10. Inadequate help from others.

11. Incorrect instructions.
Quantitative Workload Inventory, QWI
Less than once per month or never
Once or twice per month
Once or twice per week
Once or twice per day
Several times per day

1. How often does your job require you to work very fast?
2. How often does your job require you to work very hard?
3. How often does your job leave you with little time to get things
done?
4. How often is there a great deal to be done?
5. How often do you have to do more work than you can do well?
Physical Symptoms Inventory, PSI. This is the original 18-item version with yes/no response format. The
PSI page on my website http://shell.cas.usf.edu/~pspector/scales/symppage.html has 12-item and 13-
item versions, using a 5-point frequency format that we now use.
During the past 30 days did you have any of the following symptoms? If you
Yes, but I didn't
did have the symptom, did you see a doctor about it?
Yes, and I saw
see doctor
During the past 30 days did you have?

doctor
No
1. An upset stomach or nausea
2. A backache
3. Trouble sleeping
4. A skin rash
5. Shortness of breath
6. Chest pain
7. Headache
8. Fever
9. Acid indigestion or heartburn
10. Eye strain
11. Diarrhea
12. Stomach cramps (Not menstrual)
13. Constipation
14. Heart pounding when not exercising
15. An infection
16. Loss of appetite
17. Dizziness
18. Tiredness or fatique

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Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills 1

A New Paradigm for Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills to Managers

to successfully mitigate conflict. A comprehensive approach to dealing with conflict relies

environment presents unique challenges. An analysis of contemporary thinking, tools and

workplace which is not only highly effective, but also efficient.

Keywords: instructional design, conflict, management, blended training, elearning

A New Paradigm for Teaching Conflict Resolution Skills to Managers

roles are able to effectively manage workplace conflict.

manager is critical to getting at the root causes of conflict.

working days in lost productivity (Lawler, 2010).

Training takes up too much time;

Training subjects lack focus;

Lack of follow up, and

Lack of support after the training (Mcdowell, 2015).

of instructional delivery in conflict management skills which is based on best practices,

adaptable to a variety of employment settings, portable, efficient and effective.

comfortable with technology.

relatively younger, college-educated and from a wide variety of demographic backgrounds.

instructional strategy (ADDIE Model, n.d).

(n.d.), an objective is a description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit

task (Bedwell, Fiore & Salas, 2014).

communication skills, particularly verbal communication. Skilled communicators negotiate

Research Council, 2011).

lower order to higher order skills):

Describing the antecedents of conflict;

Recognizing the signs of conflict;

Analyzing the quality of workplace interactions;

Applying the conflict styles model to evaluate employees;

Classifying the severity of conflict;

Developing and implementing a conflict resolution strategy, and

Demonstrate effective active listening and negotiation skills (SHRM, 2017).

identified above, organizations are increasingly turning to elearning delivery. According to a

counterparts. Interpersonal skills necessary for effective conflict management necessitates an

control over instruction.

delivery and emphasizes interpersonal interaction.

Effective programs of instruction provide for multiple means of representation to ensure

accessibility (Larson, 2014, p. 236).

access content (Tomlinson, 2001 as cited in Larson, 2014. p. 235).

The design phase - development schedule

collaboration with the client.

Introductory discussions with organizational stakeholders will be critical for a number of

to, among other objectives:

Secure relevant organizational policies and procedures;

Agreeing to a timetable for implementation.

organization and its stakeholders, as well as establishing individual and organizational

front investment is substantial.

development schedule is as follows:

developed along with a communication plan aimed at participants.

presentations, again, depending on the needs of the client.

immediately following the classroom meeting and ongoing.

Course learning objectives

arbitration, or which result in turnover as a direct result of interpersonal conflict.

which the learner becomes aware.

Objective: After participating in a program of elearning instruction participants will be

why conflict can be a good thing.

Degree: Successful recall of all factors and complete explanations as measured by a

learning post-test following presentation of the material.

Objective: After participating in a program of elearning instruction participants will be

able to correctly describe the antecedents of conflict.

Degree: Successful recall of all factors and complete explanations as measured by a

learning post-test following presentation of the material.

Objective: After participating in a program of elearning instruction participants will be

able to correctly recall and describe the conflict process model.