Experiment 2 System Modeling Manual

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Control Systems
Lab Manual
Student Name: ____________________________________________
Registration Number: ____________________________________________
Section: ____________________________________________
UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE

Control Systems Session: 2013
Important Instructions
1. Every student should have lab manual in the lab; otherwise there will no
evaluation and attendance.
2. Those students who have Laptop must bring it in the lab.
3. Every student should fill his/her own manual in the lab complete in all respects,
otherwise there will be deduction of marks, and no excuse will be accepted.
4. Student should read the manual before coming to the lab.
5. Every student will have to submit simulation assignments in individual.
Assignments after due date will not be accepted.
6. Waveforms should be made with pencils preferably and should be on proper
scale. Plot at least two cycles of each waveform.
7. Every student must have text book in lab.
8. There will be a term project and number of simulation/hardware assignments
for this lab.
9. You can use Matlab or LabView in your assignments.
10. All the material related to lab and theory will be available at
http://alinspiron.weebly.com. No announcements will be made in class, keep
visiting this link.
Department of Electrical Engineering,

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore 1|Page
Experiment No. 2
System Modeling Using Matlab
Pre-Lab Reading:
Visit this link to get idea about experiment

http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction&section=SystemModeling
Objectives:
When you have completed this assignment you will:
Have extensive knowledge about conversion of electrical and mechanical model into
mathematical model using matlab.
Introduction: System Modeling [1]
The first step in the control design process is to develop appropriate mathematical models of the
system derived either from physical laws or experimental data. In this section, we introduce the state-
space and transfer function representations of dynamic systems. We then review some basic
approaches to modeling mechanical and electrical systems and show how to enter these models into
MATLAB for further analysis.
Key MATLAB commands used in this tutorial are: ss , tf
Dynamic Systems
Dynamic systems are systems that change or evolve in time according to a fixed rule. For many
physical systems, this rule can be stated as a set of first-order differential equations:
(1)
In the above equation, is the state vector, a set of variables representing the configuration of the
system at time . For instance in a simple mechanical mass-spring-damper system, the two state
variables could be the position and velocity of the mass. is the vector of control inputs at time ,
representing the externally applied "forces" on the system, and is a possibly nonlinear function
giving the time derivative (rate of change) of the state vector, for a particular state, input, and
time.
The state at any future time, , may be determined exactly given knowledge of the initial
state, , and the time history of the inputs, , between and by integrating Eq.(1). Though
the state variables themselves are not unique, there is a minimum number of state variables, ,
required in a given system for the above to hold true. is referred to as the system order and

determines the dimensionality of the state-space. The system order usually corresponds to the
number of independent energy storage elements in the system.
The relationship given in Eq.(1) is very general and can be used to describe a wide variety of different
systems; unfortunately, it may be very difficult to analyze. There are two common simplifications
which make the problem more tractable. First, if the function, , does not depend explicitly on time,
i.e. , then the system is said to be time invariant. This is often a very reasonable
assumption, since the underlying physical laws themselves do not typically depend on time. For time
invariant systems, the parameters or coefficients of the function, , are constant. The control input,
however, may still be time dependent, .
The second common assumption concerns the linearity of the system. In reality, nearly every physical
system is nonlinear. In other words, is typically some complicated function of the state and inputs.
These nonlinearities arise in many different ways, one of the most common in control systems being
"saturation" in which an element of the system reaches a hard physical limit to its operation.
Fortunately, over a sufficiently small operating range (think tangent line near a curve), the dynamics
of most systems are approximately linear, that is .
Until the advent of digital computers (and to a large extent thereafter), it was only practical to
analyze linear time invariant (LTI) systems. Consequently, most of the results of control theory are
based on these assumptions. Fortunately, as we shall see, these results have proven to be remarkably
effective and many significant engineering challenges have been solved using LTI techniques. In fact,
the true power of feedback control systems are that they work (are robust) in the presence of the
unavoidable modeling uncertainty.
State-Space Representation
For continuous linear time invariant (LTI) systems, the standard state-space representation is given
below:
(2)
(3)
where is the vector of state variables (nx1), is the time derivative of state vector (nx1), is the
input or control vector (px1), is the output vector (qx1), is the system matrix (nxn), is the input
matrix (nxp), is the output matrix (qxn), is the feedforward matrix (qxp).
The output equation, Eq.(3), is necessary because often there are state variables which are not directly
observed or are otherwise not of interest. The output matrix, , is used to specify which state variables
(or combinations thereof) are available for use by the controller. Also often there is no direct
feedforward in which case is the zero matrix.
The state-space representation, also referred to as the time-domain representation, can easily
handle multi-input/multi-output (MIMO) systems, systems with non-zero initial conditions, and

nonlinear systems via Eq.(1). Consequently, the state-space representation is used extensively in
"modern" control theory.
Transfer Function Representation

LTI systems have the extremely important property that if the input to the system is sinusoidal, then
the output will also be sinusoidal at the same frequency but in general with different magnitude and
phase. These magnitude and phase differences as a function of frequency are known as the frequency
response of the system.
Using the Laplace transform, it is possible to convert a system's time-domain representation into a
frequency-domain output/input representation, known as the transfer function. In so doing, it also
transforms the governing differential equation into an algebraic equation which is often easier to
analyze.
The Laplace transform of a time domain function, , is defined below:
(4)
where the parameter is a complex frequency variable. It is very rare in practice that you
will have to directly evaluate a Laplace transform (though you should certainly know how).
The Laplace transform of the nth derivative of a function is particularly important:
(5)
Frequency-domain methods are most often used for analyzing LTI single-input/single-output
(SISO) systems, e.g. those governed by a constant coefficient differential equation as follows:
(6)
The Laplace transform of this equation is given below:
(7)
where and are the Laplace Transforms of and respectively. Note that when
finding transfer functions, we always assume that the each of the initial conditions, , , ,
etc. is zero. The transfer function from input to output is therefore:

(8)
It is useful to factor the numerator and denominator of the transfer function into the so called zero-
pole-gain form:
(9)
The zeros of the transfer function, , are the roots of the numerator polynomial, i.e. the values
of s such that . The poles of the transfer function, , are the roots of the denominator
polynomial, i.e. the values of s such that . Both the zeros and poles may be complex valued
(have both real and imaginary parts). The system Gain is .
Note that we can also determine the transfer function directly form the state-space representation as
follows:
(10)
Mechanical Systems
Newton's laws of motion form the basis for analyzing mechanical systems. Newtons second law, Eq.
(11), states that the sum of the forces acting on a body equals its mass times acceleration. Newton's
third law, for our purposes, states that if two bodies are connected, then they experience the same
magnitude force acting in opposite directions.
(11)
When applying this equation, it is best to construct a free body diagram (FBD) of the sysetm showing
all applied forces.
Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System

The free body diagram for this system is shown below. The spring force is proportional to the
displacement of the mass, , and the viscous damping force is proportional to the velocity of the
mass, . Both forces oppose the motion of the mass and are therefore shown in the negative -
direction. Note also, that corresponds to the position of the mass when the spring is
unstretched.
Now we proceed by summing the forces and applying Newtons second law, Eq. (11), in each direction
of the problem. In this case, there are no forces acting in the -direction; however, in the -direction
we have:
(12)
This equation, known as the governing equation, completely characterizes the dynamic state of the
system. Later, we will see how to use this to calculate the response of the system to any external
input, , as well as analyze system properties such as stability and performance.
To determine the state-space representation of the mass-spring-damper system, we must reduce the
second order governing equation to a set of two first order differential equations. To this end, we
choose the position and velocity as our state variables.
(13)
Note also that these state variables correspond to the potential energy in the spring and the kinetic
energy of the mass respectively. Often when choosing state variables it is helpful to consider the
independent energy storage elements in the system.
The state equation in this case is as follows:
(14)

If, for instance, we are interested in controlling the position of the mass, then the output equation is
as follows:
(15)
Entering State-Space Models into MATLAB

Now we will show you how to enter the equations derived above into a m-file for MATLAB. Let's assign
numerical values to each of the variables.
m mass 1.0 kg
k spring constant 1.0 N/m
b damping constant 0.2 Ns/m
F input force 1.0 N
Create a new m-file and enter the following commands.
m = 1;
k = 1;
b = 0.2;
F = 1;
A = [0 1; -k/m -b/m];
B = [0 1/m]';
C = [1 0];
D = [0];
sys = ss(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
sys =
a =
x1 x2
x1 0 1
x2 -1 -0.2

b =
u1
x1 0
x2 1
c =
x1 x2
y1 1 0
d =
u1
y1 0
Continuous-time state-space model.
The Laplace transform for this system assuming zero initial conditions is
(16)
and therefore the transfer function from force input to displacement output is
(17)
Entering Transfer Function Models into MATLAB

Now we will show how to enter the transfer function derived above into MATLAB. Enter the following
commands into the m-file in which you defined the system parameters.
s = tf('s');
sys = 1/(m*s^2+b*s+k)
OUTPUT:
sys =

---------------
s^2 + 0.2 s + 1
Continuous-time transfer function.
Note that we have used the symbolic s variable here to define our transfer function model. We
recommend using this method most of the time; however, in some circumstances, for instance in older
versions of MATLAB or when interfacing with SIMULINK, you may need to define the transfer function
model using the numerator and denominator polynomial coefficients directly. In these cases, use the
following commands:
num = [1];
den = [m b k];
sys = tf(num,den)
OUTPUT:
sys =
---------------
s^2 + 0.2 s + 1
Electrical Systems
Like Newtons laws in mechanical systems, Kirchhoffs circuit laws are the basic analytical tool in
electrical systems. Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) states that the sum of the electrical currents entering
and exiting a node in a circuit must be equal. Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) states that the sum of
voltage differences around any closed loop in the circuit is zero. When applying KVL, the source
voltages are typically taken as positive and the load voltages taken as negative.

Example: RLC Circuit

We will now consider a simple series combination of three passive electrical elements: a resistor, an
inductor, and a capacitor, known as an RLC Circuit.
Since this circuit is a single loop, each node only has one input and output; therefore, application of
KCL simply shows that the current is the same throughout the circuit at any given time, . Now
applying KVL around the loop and using the sign conventions indicated in the diagram, we arrive at
the following governing equation.
(18)
We note that that the governing equation for the RLC circuit has an analogous form to the mass-
spring-damper mechanical system. In particular, they are both second order systems where the charge
(integral of current) corresponds to displacement, the inductance to mass, the resistance to viscous
damping, and the inverse capacitance to the spring stiffness. These analogies and others like them
turn out to be quite useful conceptually in understanding the behavior of dynamical systems.
The state-space representation is found by choosing the charge and current as the state variables.
(19)
where,

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore 10 | P a g e
(20)
The state equation is therefore:
(21)
We choose the current as ouput as follows:
(22)
The transfer function representation may be found by taking the Laplace transform as we did for the
mass-spring-damper or from the state-space equation as follows:
(23)
(24)
The RLC state-space and transfer function models can be entered into MATLAB using the same
procedure as discussed for the mass-spring-damper system above.
System Conversions
Most operations in MATLAB can be performed on either the transfer function, the state-space model,
or the zero-pole-gain form. Furthermore, it is simple to transfer between these if the other form of
representation is required.
Key MATLAB Commands used in this tutorial are: tf , ssdata

A dynamic system is most commonly described in one of three ways:
1. By a set of state-space equations and the corresponding matrices
2. By a transfer function using the symbolic s variable or numerator and denominator polynomials
3. By a list of poles and zeros and the associated gain

From time to time, it is useful to convert between these various representations. MATLAB can do
these conversions quickly and easily.
MATLAB has the ability to represent systems in a generic sense in a system variable. System variables
are used independently of the original system notation, and it is easy to both store a system variable
from any representation and to extract any of the three system representations from a system
variable.
System variable conversions [2]

Suppose you have a transfer function of the form
(25)
This can be represented in state space form with the following commands:
s = tf('s');
G = (2*s+1)/(4*s^2+3*s+2)
OUTPUT:
G =
2 s + 1
---------------
4 s^2 + 3 s + 2
or equivalently by assigning the numerator and denominator coefficient vectors as follows:
num = [2 1];
den = [4 3 2];
G = tf(num,den)
G =
OUTPUT:

2 s + 1
---------------
4 s^2 + 3 s + 2
A state-space model can be extracted from the system variable G with the following command:
[A,B,C,D] = ssdata(G)
OUTPUT:
A =
-0.7500 -0.5000
1.0000 0
B =
C =
0.5000 0.2500
D =
This state-space representation can be stored in another (equivalent) system variable, H, with the
following commands which returns the following output showing the relationships between the state,
input, and output variables
H = ss(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
H =
a =
x1 x2
x1 -0.75 -0.5

x2 1 0
b =
u1
x1 1
x2 0
c =
x1 x2
y1 0.5 0.25
d =
u1
y1 0
Continuous-time state-space model.
To extract a zero-pole-gain model from this system variable, you enter the following command
[z,p,k] = zpkdata(H,'v')
OUTPUT:
z =
-0.5000
p =
-0.3750 + 0.5995i
-0.3750 - 0.5995i
k =
0.5000
The 'v' causes the function to return a vectorized version of the zeros and poles, which is useful for
SISO systems.

We can now form another system variable, K, from this zpk representation with the following
command
K = zpk(z,p,k)
OUTPUT:
K =
0.5 (s+0.5)
-------------------
(s^2 + 0.75s + 0.5)
Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.
Finally, given this system variable, we can extract a transfer function representation with the following
command
[num,den] = tfdata(K,'v')
OUTPUT:
num =
0 0.5000 0.2500
den =
1.0000 0.7500 0.5000
(Again, the 'v' is useful for SISO systems.) This returns the following transfer function representation
which is equal to the original transfer function before all the conversions (although both the
numerator and denominator are scaled by a factor of 4)
State-Space to Transfer Function

In addition to using system variable to convert between representations, you can convert between
representations directly.
Suppose you have a set of state-space equations and you would like to convert them to the equivalent
transfer function. This is done using the command
[num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D)

OUTPUT:
num =
0 0.5000 0.2500
den =
1.0000 0.7500 0.5000
For example, suppose you had the following set of state equations:
(25)
(26)
with
m = 100 kg
b = 50 Ns/m
u = 500 N
If you want to change this to a transfer function, just run the following m-file:
A = [0 1
0 -0.05];
B = [0;
0.001];
C = [0 1];
D = 0;
[num,den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
num =
1.0e-03 *

0 1.0000 0
den =
1.0000 0.0500 0
Here are some notes about ss2tf:
The numerator, num, will have as many rows as there are outputs (or rows in the matrix C).
The numerator and denominator are returned in descending powers of s
Care must be taken to check the numerator and denominator, as zeros at infinity may produce
erroneous transfer functions.
Zeros at Infinity
This last point needs some further explanation. We say that a system has zeros at infinity if the limit
as s->infinity of the value of the transfer function is equal to zero; this happens whenever you have
more poles than zeros. You will see this in the root locus plot as asymptotes which go to infinity (the
number of asymptotes is equal to the number of zeros at infinity). MATLAB sometimes computes
these zeros at infinity as being large finite numbers.When this happens, some of the coefficients in
the numerator that are supposed to be zero end up being very small numbers. It may not seem like a
big deal, but it can cause errors when trying to use the transfer function later on. You should always
check your transfer function, and if numbers that are 0.0000 show up that are supposed to be zero,
rewrite the numerator into MATLAB to compensate.
A good example follows:

A = [0 1 0 0
0 -0.1818 2.6727 0
0 0 0 1
0 -4.545 31.1818 0];
B = [0
1.8182
4.5455];
C = [1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0];

D = [0
0];
[num,den]=ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
num =
0 0 1.8182 -0.0000 -44.5460
0 0 4.5455 -7.4373 -0.0000
den =
1.0000 0.1818 -31.1818 6.4786 0
If you look at the numerator, the first and last element of each row are 0, while the second and fourth
element in each row are 0.0000. If you look closer at each of these elements, you will find that they
are not zero, but in fact some very small number. To see this, enter any of the following commands
into the MATLAB command window: num(1,2), num(1,4), num(2,2) or num(2,4). You should get
something similar to the following as an answer: 7.1054e-15, -6.2172e-15, 1.2434e-14, or 4.4409e-15.
Look at the roots of the numerator polynomials using roots(num(1,:)) and you will see the roots of the
numerator which are almost at infinity but not quite.
This numerical inconsistency can be eliminated by adding the following line after the ss2tf command
to get rid of the numbers that are not supposed to be there:
num = [num(1,3) 0 num(1,5)
num(2,3) 0 num(2,5)];
Now all of the small numbers have been replaced with zeros. Always make sure to look at your transfer
function and understand what it means before you use it in the design process.
Transfer Function to State-Space

The reverse of the command ss2tf is the tf2ss command, which converts a transfer function of a
system into state-space form. The command is issued like this:
[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)
OUTPUT:

A =
-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0
1.0000 0 0 0
0 1.0000 0 0
0 0 1.0000 0
B =
C =
0 1.8182 0 -44.5460
0 4.5455 0 -0.0000
D =
One important fact to note is that although there is only one transfer function that describes a system,
you can have multiple state-space equations that describe a system. The tf2ss command returns the
state-space matrices in control canonical form. Therefore, if you take a set of state-space equations,
convert them into a transfer function, and then convert it back, you will not have the same set of
state-space equations you started with unless you started with matrices in control canonical form.
As an example, take the numerator and denominator created above and convert it back to state-
space. This can be done with the following MATLAB code:
[A,B,C,D] = tf2ss(num,den)
OUTPUT:
A =
-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0
1.0000 0 0 0
0 1.0000 0 0

0 0 1.0000 0
B =
C =
0 1.8182 0 -44.5460
0 4.5455 0 -0.0000
D =
This is obviously not the same set of matrices that were initially used, but the input-output behavior
of this system is the same as that of the previous one. There are infinitely many ways to represent a
given transfer function in state-space form; MATLAB chooses the control canonical form. The states
will not have the same meaning as they originally did.
State-Space to Zero/Pole and Transfer Function to Zero/Pole:

There is also a third way to represent a dynamic system, and that is the pole-zero model. This model
is basically the same as the transfer function model, except that the polynomials have been factored
so the poles are all in the denominator and the zeros are in the numerator. The basic format looks like
the following:
(27)
Remember that for a proper transfer function, the number of poles n is greater than or equal to the
number of zeros m. MATLAB can make the transformations from either state-space or transfer
function to the pole-zero representation. The commands to get the system into zero-pole form are:
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)
OUTPUT:

z =
4.9498 0.0000
-4.9498 -0.0000
p =
-5.7753
5.3851
0.2083
k =
1.8182
4.5455
if you have a transfer function, and:

[z,p,k] = ss2zp(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
z =
4.9498 0.0000
-4.9498 -0.0000
p =
-5.7753
5.3851
0.2083
k =
1.8182
4.5455
if you have a state-space model
Both of these commands should return three variab: z, p, k. The variable z returns all of the zeros in
columns. There should be one column for every row in the transfer function numerator or every

output, y (rows in the C matrix). The variable p returns all of the poles in a column. The variable k
returns a column of gain values. The column should have as many rows as numerator rows or outputs,
y. For example, using t he state space model and transfer function above, enter either of the following
m-files:
num = [1.8182 0 -44.5460;
4.5455 -7.4373 0];
den = [1 0.1818 -31.1818 6.4786 0];
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)
OUTPUT:
z =
4.9498 0
-4.9498 1.6362
p =
-5.7753
5.3851
0.2083
k =
1.8182
4.5455
or
A = [0 1 0 0
0 -0.1818 2.6727 0
0 0 0 1
0 -4.545 31.1818 0];
B = [0

1.8182
4.5455];
C = [1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0];
D = [0
0];
[z,p,k] = ss2zp(A,B,C,D)
OUTPUT:
z =
4.9498 1.6362
-4.9498 -0.0000
p =
-5.7753
0.2083
5.3851
k =
1.8182
4.5455
There are two columns of zeros, and therefore the k matrix has two rows (one for each z column).
Pole/Zero to State-Space and Pole/Zero to Transfer Function

As you may have already guessed, if you have a system described by the pole-zero method, you can
convert that to either the state-space model or the transfer function. To get the state-space model,
enter the following command:
[A,B,C,D] = zp2ss(z,p,k)
OUTPUT:
A =
-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0
1.0000 0 0 0
0 1.0000 0 0
0 0 1.0000 0
B =
C =
0 1.8182 -0.0000 -44.5460
0 4.5455 -7.4373 -0.0000
D =
Again, it is important to note that more than one set of state-space matrices can describe a system.
The state-space matrices returned from this command are also in control canonical form. For example,
take the z, p, and k matrices you just created and convert them back to state-space:
[A,B,C,D] = zp2ss(z,p,k)
OUTPUT:
A =
-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0
1.0000 0 0 0

0 1.0000 0 0
0 0 1.0000 0
B =
C =
0 1.8182 -0.0000 -44.5460
0 4.5455 -7.4373 -0.0000
D =
Again, it is important to note that more than one set of state-space matrices can describe a system.
The state-space matrices returned from this command are also in control canonical form
You will recognize this as the same set of matrices you got using the command, tf2ss.
To get a system described by a pole-zero model into a transfer function model, use the following
command:
[num,den] = zp2tf(z,p,k)
OUTPUT:
num =
0 0 1.8182 -0.0000 -44.5460
0 0 4.5455 -7.4373 -0.0000
den =
1.0000 0.1818 -31.1818 6.4786 0
You will recognize this as the same transfer function we started out with.

Reference:
[1] Ctms.engin.umich.edu, "Control Tutorials for MATLAB and Simulink - Introduction:
System Modeling", 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction&section=Syst
emModeling. [Accessed: 7- Feb- 2016].
[2] Ctms.engin.umich.edu, "Control Tutorials for MATLAB and Simulink - Extras:
Converting Between System Representations", 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?aux=Extras_Conversions. [Accessed:
7- Feb- 2016].


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ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Student Name: ____________________________________________

Registration Number: ____________________________________________

UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LAHORE

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Visit this link to get idea about experiment

Introduction: System Modeling [1]

Key MATLAB commands used in this tutorial are: ss , tf

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Transfer Function Representation

The Laplace transform of this equation is given below:

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Example: Mass-Spring-Damper System

Department of Electrical Engineering,

The state equation in this case is as follows:

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Entering State-Space Models into MATLAB

k spring constant 1.0 N/m

b damping constant 0.2 Ns/m

F input force 1.0 N

Create a new m-file and enter the following commands.

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Continuous-time state-space model.

Entering Transfer Function Models into MATLAB

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Continuous-time transfer function.

Continuous-time transfer function.

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Example: RLC Circuit

Department of Electrical Engineering,

The state equation is therefore:

We choose the current as ouput as follows:

Key MATLAB Commands used in this tutorial are: tf , ssdata

1. By a set of state-space equations and the corresponding matrices

3. By a list of poles and zeros and the associated gain

Department of Electrical Engineering,

System variable conversions [2]

Continuous-time transfer function.

or equivalently by assigning the numerator and denominator coefficient vectors as follows:

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Continuous-time transfer function.

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Continuous-time state-space model.

Department of Electrical Engineering,

(s^2 + 0.75s + 0.5)

Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model.

1.0000 0.7500 0.5000

State-Space to Transfer Function

Department of Electrical Engineering,

1.0000 0.7500 0.5000

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Here are some notes about ss2tf:

A good example follows:

0 -4.545 31.1818 0];

Department of Electrical Engineering,

0 0 1.8182 -0.0000 -44.5460

0 0 4.5455 -7.4373 -0.0000

1.0000 0.1818 -31.1818 6.4786 0

num = [num(1,3) 0 num(1,5)

Transfer Function to State-Space

Department of Electrical Engineering,

-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0

-0.1818 31.1818 -6.4786 0