2K16-MSE Lec-6 Behavior of Materials

Lecture-06
Materials Science & Engineering

(ME 202)
References:-
Mechanical Behavior of Materials; William F. Hosford; University of Michigan;
Cambridge University Press 2005
Chapter -8, An Introduction To Materials Science and Engineering; 8th Edition; By
William D.Callister, Jr. & David G. Rethwisch
5-Minute Metallurgy Lesson; What is the difference between strength and
toughness? ;Michael Pfeifer, Ph.D., P.E. President, Industrial Metallurgists, LLC;
mpfeifer@imetllc.com
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MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Todays Topic
Mechanical Behavior of
Materials
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Catastrophic Failure Example 1
Brittle Failure Of A Ship
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Oil tanker struck under sea causing growth of a small crack resulting in brittle failure
Catastrophic Failure - Example-2
Failure Of Plane In Coastal Humid And Salty Environment
An explosive decompression and structural failure on April 28,

1988 in Boeing 737-200 commercial aircraft (Aloha Airlines
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flight 243) Fatigue failure due to compression decompression
Behavior of Materials
Response of materials to
Forces
Temperature
Chemicals
Electric field
Magnetic field
Light energy
Behavior of a material is studied to assess its availability for
intended purposes
Inability to perform intended purpose is termed as failure
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Materials Response to Forces
Stress and Strain
Elastic deformation
Isotropic Elasticity
Anisotropic Elasticity
Plastic deformation
Already discussed in detail in lecture-5
Fracture
Brittle No plastic deformation
Ductile Extensive plastic deformation
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Fatigue
Stress and Strain
Stress
Intensity of force at a point, = F/A A0
For same state of stress at all points, = F/A
Normal Stress (Compressive or Tensile)
Force is normal to area on which it acts
Shear Stress
Force is parallel to area on which it acts
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Stress and Strain
Strain
Change of length, L, of a line on the surface of the material
Infinitesimal normal strain, = dL/L (LLo)
Integrating from Lo to L, = = ln (L/Lo )
ln(L/Lo) = True Strain, Natural or Logarithmic Strain
Engineering or normal strain, e=L / Lo (L=L-Lo)
For small strains, engineering strain true strain
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Stress and Strain
Example problem 11.1:
Elastic Deformation
Isotropic Elasticity
Same property in all directions
For uniaxial tension in x-direction,
ex = x/E , where E is Young's Modulus
Lateral strains, ey = ez = - ex , where is Poissons
ratio
Generalized Hooks law
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ex = 1/E {x (y + z )}
Elastic Deformation
Shear strain, yz = yz / G
Summarizing:-
ex = (1/E)[x (y + z)]; yz = yz/G
ey = (1/E)[y (z + x )]; zx = zx/G
ez = (1/E)[z (x + y)]; xy = xy/G
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain in the

direction of stretching force.
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= -trans /axial
Elastic Deformation
Example Problem-11.3:- A wide sheet of
steel (1 mm thick) is bent elastically to a
constant radius of curvature, = 50 cm,
measured from the axis of bending to
the center of the sheet, as shown in
opposite figure. Find the stress in the
surface E = 208 GPa, and = 0.29 for
steel. Assume no net force in the plane
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of the sheet.
Elastic Deformation
Stress normal to a free surface, z = 0
The sheet is wide relative to its thickness => ey = 0
Geometrically, ex = (t/2)/ = (1/2)/500 = 0.001
Substituting into Hookes laws,
ey = 0 = (1/E)[y (x + 0)] => y = x
ex = t/(2) = (1/E)[x (y + 0)]
= (1/E)(x 2x) = x(1 2)/E
x = [t/(2)]E/(1 2)]
= (0.001)(208 109)/(1 0.292) = 227 Mpa
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and y = x = 0.29 (227 ) = 65.8 MPa
Elastic Deformation
The Elastic behavior of polymers
The elastic strains - largely by straightening of polymer
chains by rotation of bonds rather than by bond
stretching
Youngs moduli generally lower than those of metals
and ceramics
Stretching of covalent bonds in highly oriented
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polymers - comparable with metals and ceramics
Isotropic thermal expansion
Fractional change in length due to change in temperature

Thermal Strains, L/L = T ;( = Coefficient of Thermal
Expansion)
Generalization of Hooks law to include thermal strain,
ex = (1/E)[x (y + z)] + T
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Isotropic thermal expansion
Elastic constants and thermal expansion coefficients for various materials

Note:- Bimetallic strips used for sensing temperature depend on the differences of
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the thermal expansion of the two materials
Anisotropic elasticity
Materials are generally assumed isotropic, whereas,

In single crystals, elastic properties vary with crystallographic
direction
In poly crystals
Preferred growth directions during solidification
Lattice rotation during deformation
Re-crystallization - the grains orientation changes but does
not eliminate
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Fracture
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Ductile Fracture vs Brittle Fracture
Ductile Brittle
Slow crack propagation and Rapid and spontaneous crack

responds on increase in applied propagation not requiring
load increase in applied load
Plastic deformation gives warning Occurs suddenly and
that failure is imminent, allowing catastrophically without any
preventive measures to be taken warning
More strain energy is required to Less strain energy is required to
induce ductile fracture induce brittle fracture
Most of the metal alloys are Ceramics are generally brittle
ductile
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Ductile Materials Are Generally Preferred Over Brittle Materials
Fracture
Highly Ductile Materials

100% RA at fracture
Examples: Pure metals including
Gold, Lead, Aluminum, Copper and
iron at room temperature and
polymers including polyethylene,
polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE,
Teflon) at room temperature
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Moderately Ductile Materials
Fracture
25% RA at fracture
Examples: Aluminum alloys, Copper alloys and
Titanium alloys, Nylon and Polycarbonate etc
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Fracture
Brittle Materials
No RA
Examples: NaCl, MgO, Al2O3, ZrO2 ,
glass, chalk, concrete, diamond,
germanium and silicon
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Stages of Ductile Fracture
Initial Necking
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Formation of Small
cavities,
Initial Neckingor
microvoids
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Enlargement of microvoids
Small cavities,
coalesce to formor
an
Initial Necking
elliptical crack
microvoids
Long axis perpendicular to
the stress direction
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Rapid propagation of
crack resulting in
fracture
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Final shear fracture at

45 angle (at max
Rapid propagation of
shear stress) relative
crack resulting in
to the tensile
fracture
direction
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Fractured Shapes
Brittle fracture
in a mild steel
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Fractured Shapes
Ductile fracture in
Cup and cone fracture in
Aluminum (Cup and cone
aluminum
fracture)
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Transgranular Fracture
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Intergranular Fracture
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Principles of Fracture Mechanics
The critical stress c for crack propagation in a
brittle material
where
E = Modulus of elasticity
s = Specific surface energy*
a = One-half the length of an internal crack
*Specific surface energy, also known as surface free energy, is the increase in
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free energy when the area of a surface increases by every unit area.
Equation mentioned in a previous slide shall be used here. Rearrangement
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Modes of Cracked Surface Displacement
Mode I, opening Mode II, Mode III,

or tensile mode sliding mode tearing mode
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Determining Fracture Toughness of a Material
Critical stress for crack propagation (c) and crack length (a)
determine fracture toughness of the material as
Where,
Kc is the fracture toughness
Y is a dimensionless parameter, depends on both crack, specimen
size, geometry and the manner of load application 35
Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)
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An Example of Improving The Material Behavior
Heat Treatment of Steel
Steel properties are improved through heat-

treatment, which involves
Heating to a suitable temperature
Soaking
Cooling rate
Essential heat treatment processes are briefly
discussed in following slides
37
Heat Treatment of Steel Annealing
The material is exposed to an elevated temperature

for an extended time period then slowly cooled
Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to

Relieve stresses
Increasing softness, ductility, and toughness
Produce a specific microstructure
A variety of annealing heat treatments are possible;

depending upon desired microstructure and
physical properties
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Heat Treatment of Steel Normalizing
Steel is heated above upper transformation temperature

and is cooled in still air
The purposes of normalizing are
To relieve internal stresses caused by forging, bending,
machining, etc.
To produce a uniform grain structure in the metal
Steel that has been normalized is soft and ductile but harder
than steel that has been fully annealed
Normalizing is sometimes followed by tempering,
particularly in the case of certain steels that tend to become
brittle when normalized
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Heat Treatment of Steel Quenching
Heating above upper transformation temperature

Soaking
Rapidly cooling
Final structure produced in the steel is very hard, known
as martensite
Cutting tools, chisels, twist drills, etc must be hardened
to retain cutting edges. Surfaces of roller bearings, and
armor plate etc must be hardened to prevent wear and
penetration
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Heat Treatment of Steel Tempering
Tempering is done to reduce brittleness

and relieve internal stresses developed
normally during hardening the steel
It involves heating steel below the lower

transformation point and then slowly
cooling in still air
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Heat Treatment of Steel Case Hardening
A process by which steel can be given a hard,

wear-resistant surface while retaining a softer but
tougher interior than would be possible if the
whole piece were hardened
Steels may be case hardened by

Carburizing
Cyaniding
Nitriding
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(Carburizing)
Carbon is introduced into the surface layer of the steel by
following process
Steel is heated in contact with a substance that has a
high carbon content
Held at a temperature above the upper transformation
temperature for a suitable length of time
Quenched rapidly to produce a hardened outer layer or
case over a softer, tougher core
As a rough indication, a carburized depth of about 0.030 to
0.050 inch can be obtained in about 4 hours at 1,700F,
depending upon the type of carburizing agent, which may
be a solid, liquid, or gas
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(Cyaniding)
Carbon and nitrogen both are introduced into the surface
layers of the low-carbon steel by following process:
Steel is heated in a molten bath of cyanide carbonate-
chloride salts
Quenched in brine, water, or mineral oil
Temperature of operation is generally within the range of
1,550 to 1,600F
The depth of the case is a function of time, temperature, and
composition of the cyanide bath
The time of immersion usually varies from 15 minutes to 2
hours
The maximum case depth is rarely more than about 0.020
inch and the average depth is considerably less
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Heat Treatment of Steel Case Hardening (Nitriding)
Nitrogen is introduced into the surface of the steel through

following process
The piece is heated between 950 and 1,200F and, at the

same time, is exposed to ammonia gas
The heat of the furnace causes the ammonia to break
down into nitrogen and hydrogen
Some of the nitrogen combines with the elements in the
steel to form chemical compounds called nitrides in the
outer layer of the steel
Nitriding makes the steel surface hard and wear resistant
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MATERIAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
Next Topic (Tentative)
Ceramic Materials
46

2K16-MSE Lec-6 Behavior of Materials

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Lecture-06

Materials Science & Engineering

An explosive decompression and structural failure on April 28,

Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain in the

Fractional change in length due to change in temperature

Elastic constants and thermal expansion coefficients for various materials

Materials are generally assumed isotropic, whereas,

Slow crack propagation and Rapid and spontaneous crack

Highly Ductile Materials

Final shear fracture at

Equation mentioned in a previous slide shall be used here. Rearrangement

Mode I, opening Mode II, Mode III,

Steel properties are improved through heat-

The material is exposed to an elevated temperature

Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to

A variety of annealing heat treatments are possible;

Steel is heated above upper transformation temperature

Heating above upper transformation temperature

Tempering is done to reduce brittleness

It involves heating steel below the lower

A process by which steel can be given a hard,

Steels may be case hardened by

Nitrogen is introduced into the surface of the steel through

The piece is heated between 950 and 1,200F and, at the

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