COMMUNICATION AND MEDIA

RESEARCH

Dr. Ananya Roy

Senior Consultant
Department of Communication Research
Email: ananyar@gmail.com
 RESEARCH ORIENTATION

At the widest level of meaning, this refers to the overall approach

within which the researcher is working, including his/her
notion of reality, which should be made explicit.

It is the overall approach the researcher adopts to

undertake the investigation. The various paradigms
operate at this level, showing the world view of the
researcher, and thus the beliefs and values which inform
the researchers activities. Everything which is done in the
research is ruled by this over-arching mindset.
 RESEARCH ORIENTATION

The research orientation works at the level of

the researchers consciousness, that is, how s/he
thinks about the world.

This may be from a scientific, interpersonal, or

activist point of view, or even in the context of a
great philosophers insights into the nature of
reality.
 PARADIGMS

A research orientation can take the form of a

paradigm.
A paradigm is a set of theories, ideas,
abstractions, beliefs that provide models from
which spring particular traditions of scientific
research (Kuhn, 1996).
A paradigm is the entire constellation of beliefs,
values, techniques, and so on shared by the members
of a given community.
 PARADIGMS

A paradigm may be viewed as a set of basic

beliefs (or metaphysics) that deals with
ultimates or first principles.
It represents a worldview that defines, for its
holder, the nature of the world, the
individuals place in it, and the range of
possible relationships to that world and its
parts. For example, cosmologies and theologies
(Guba and Lincoln 1994: 107)
 BASIC HUMAN PARADIGMS

Empirical/analytic (technical/ deduction and theory

testing)
Hermeneutic (practical, interpretation and
understanding)
Critical (emancipatory/realities are socially
constructed and influenced by power relations within
society).
As paradigms describe the ways in which we view reality, they
are thought to be unable to be disproved, as no one way of
viewing reality can be considered superior to or closer to the
truth than any other.
 THEORY

A theory is any explanation offered for

why/how something exists or works. The
earliest kinds of theories explaining natural
phenomena were myths. With the advent of more
scientific thinking, theories tended to be more logical
as well as complex, often using mathematical-type
formulae to appear more rigorous.
 CATEGORIES OF THEORY

Normative theory says how the world ought to be

and provides ideas about how to achieve this state.
Prescriptive theories concern themselves with
how to go about things or the means.
Empirical theory explains and interprets reality
and focuses on causal relationships and
dependent and independent variables.
Hypotheses form part of empirical theory which
allow it to be tested and adjusted.
Levels at which various elements
operate in research

TERM EXAMPLES
ORIENTATION Paradigm, philosophy,
approach

THEORY Theoretical framework,

conceptual framework,
conceptual underpinnings
 The Philosophy of Science

Epistemology: What constitutes valid Knowledge

and how can we obtain it?
Ontology: What Constitutes Reality and How Can
We Understand Existence?
Two Main Positions Considered Here:
Positivism & Interpretivism
Underpins the Qualitative Versus Quantitative
Debate
The Scientist Versus Detective Debate
The Research Process
Basic Approaches to Research Methods

Positivism is the perspective that an objective

reality exists and that the scientific method
(deductive methods) can be used to know that
objective reality.
It is an approach to the study of society that
relies specifically on scientific evidence, such
as experiments and statistics, to reveal a true nature
of how society operates.
Interpretivism: An approach to social science that
opposes the positivism of natural science.

Interpretive researchers assume that access to

reality (given or socially constructed) is only
through social constructions such as
language, consciousness, shared meanings,
and instruments.
Subjectivism: The theory that perception (or
consciousness) is reality, and that there is no underlying,
true reality that exists independent of perception. E.g.
Morality is not dependent on society but only on the
individual.
Relativism: The belief that theres no absolute truth,
only the truths that a particular individual or culture happen
to believe. If you believe in relativism, then you think
different people can have different views about whats moral
and immoral. E.g. The theory that there are no universally
valid moral principles binding on all people at all times, but
rather all are valid relative to culture.
Constructivism: Also known as Constructionism is a
relatively recent perspective in Epistemology that views all of
our knowledge as constructed; it is contingent on
convention, human perception and social experience.
 Differences between Positivism and
Interpretivism

Assumptions Positivism Interpretivism

Nature of reality Objective, tangible, Socially constructed,

single multiple

Goal of research Explanation, strong Understanding,

prediction weak prediction
Focus of interest What is general, What is specific,
average and unique, and deviant
representative
Knowledge Laws
generated

Source: Pizam & Mansfeld, 2009