Bio 11 Lab Exam 3 Reviewer
tissue cells are composed of amorphous ground
A. Histology
Types of Tissues
a. Epithelial Tissues
forms outer coverings and inner linings of body surfaces; Parts:
tightly packed cells
function: protection, selective absorption secretion
a.1 Covering and lining epithelial membranes (outer body
surfaces)
i. Squamous Epithelium
- tile-like flattened cells
- found in the epidermis of the skin (upper layer)
ii. Ciliated Epithelium
- may be columnar or cuboidal
- found in epithelia lining of upper respiratory tract
iii. Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelia
- found lining many internal cavities
- cuboidal: bile duct = columnar: intestine
a.2 glandular epithelium (inner body surfaces)
function: production of secretory subtances
i. Unicellular: goblet cells (lining of the intestine and
respiratory tracts) secretes mucin (becomes mucus when
dissolved in water) which has protective function against
infectious agents and toxins
ii. Multicellular glands: surface epithelia that grew inward or
became infolded; for large amounts of secretions
Simple: cutaneous gland; gastric gland
Compound: salivary gland; mammary gland; exocrine d. Vascular (blood) Tissues
(with ducts) and endocrine (ductless) glands
b. Muscular Tissues Types:
function: movement through contraction of muscle fibers
Parts:
Sarcoplasm- muscle cell cytoplasm
Sarcolemma- muscle cell membrane
Myofibrils- contractile element of muscle cells
Muscle fibers- muscle cells (long, spindle-shaped thread-like
structures) with oval-shaped nuclei Kinds of WBC
Myofilaments- finer filaments within myofiblrils made up of i. Lymphocytes
proteins actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments)
Types:
i. Smooth Muscles (Non-Striated) ii. Monocytes
- found in the visceral organs except the heart; involuntary
ii. Striated Muscles
ii.a Skeletal Muscles
- attached to the bones; voluntary
- characterized by the presence of dark bands (anistropic or iii. Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes or Polymorphs
A-discs) and light bands (isotropic or I-discs)
- has syncytium (occurs when cell divides without
undergoing cytokinesis)
ii.b Cardiac Muscles
- involuntary; has functional syncytium but NOT structurally
syncytial
- has intercalated disc fibers; form an intricate network
c. Connective Tissues
Characterized by the presence of a large amount of
intercellular material and paucity of cells
function: attach or connect parts, support or bear
weight and provide a medium through which tissue
fluids containing nutrients and wastes may diffuse
Types:
i. Loose Connective Tissue
- formed by fibrocytes (connective tissue cells) that has
ovoid nuclei
- intercellular material that is secreted by the connective
substance (matrix) and connective tissue fibers
ii. Cartilage
chondrocytes- cartilage cells
*Young (less differentiated): flattened = fully differentiated:
big and round
lacunae- spaces where chondrocytes are located
solid intercellular substance (matrix)
- hyaline: ventral ends of ribs; larynx, trachea and bronchi;
articular surface of bone
- fibrous: tendons and ligaments
- elastic: outer ear and epiglottis
iii. Bones
mineralized connective tissues
Parts:
Osteocytes- bone cells
Cannaliculi tiny canals where protoplasmic processes of
immature bone cells used to pass
function: passageway of materials from blood vessels
Haversian canal- tiny, interconnecting, longitudinal channels in
bone tissue through which blood vessels, nerve fibers and
lymphatics pass
Volkmanns canals- interconnect Haversian canals
Lamella- thin plates of bone matrix; lines creating ring-like
appearance represent periods of inactivity of bone formation
function: provides nourishment to peripheral tissue via
fluid medium
i. Erythrocytes (RBC)
function: transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from
the lungs to other body tissues
hemoglobin- color pigment in erythrocyte
ii. leucocytes (WBC)
function: engulfs pathogens via phagocytosis
20-25% of total WBC; smallest of the WBC
nuclei are large and spherical; there is only narrow rim of
cytoplasm around the nucleus
3-8% of total WBC; largest of the blood vessesls
nuclei varies from slightly indented ovals to horseshoe-
shaped structures
larger amounts of cytoplasm than lymphocytes
irregular nuclei with variety of shapes
iii.a Neutrophils
60-75% of total WBC
nuclei is made up of 2 to 5 or more thin lobes
connected by slender chromatin thread
granules are fine and does not stain well at neutral
pH
iii.b Eosinophils
2-5% of total WBC
nuclei is made up of 2 oval lobes linked by thread like
chromatin
granules are coarse and stain pinkish red with acid
stains
iii.c Basophils
0.5-2% of total WBC
nuclei stains very faintly
has coarse cytoplasmic granules that stain blue with
basic dye
Comparison: c. Intestine- where digestion takes place
RBC WBC Parts:
No nuclei; biconcave Larger in size than human Valves of Kerking- circular folds of inner wall of intestine
Human
disk RBC, fewer in # Tunica Mucosa- mucous coat; innermost layer; lines cavity of
lumen; made up of: simple columnar epithelial cells & goblet
Smaller in size than frog
Frog Darkly stained nuclei cells
RBC, fewer in #
Tunica Submucosa
i. Stratum Circulare: thick inner circular layer; where spindle-
e. Nervous Tissues shaped smooth muscle cells are observed
ii. Stratum Longitudinale: thin outer longitudinal layer;
neuron- nerve cells where cross-sections of muscle cells can be seen
nerve fibers- elongated outgrowth of neuron; carry sensory Tunica Serosa- outermost covering; covered with mesothelium
stimuli and motor impulses from central nervous system to an * Mesothelium- pavement epithelial cells; lines internal cavity;
effector derived from mesoderm
nerve- bundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissues
d. Stomach
Parts of neuron: Parts:
dendrites- carry impulses toward the cell body Rugae- foldings of inner wall of stomach
axon- carries impulses away from the cell body Comparison of Intestines and Stomach:
circular folds are both present
Parts of Nerve: both contain tunica mucosa
Epineurium- loose connective tissue covering the nerves both lining are composed of alternating muscular and
Fascicles- number of nerve fibers connective tissue
Perineurium- covering of each fascicle Tunica Mucosa- composed of columnar cells (innermost) and
Endoneurium- covering of each nerve fiber lamina propria (outermost); where chief and parietal cells are
found
B. Microscopic Anatomy of Frog Organs Parietal cells: secrete gastric acid w/c lowers pH and activates
pepsinogen into pepsin
a. Skin Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen and rennin
2 Main Regions: Muscalaris Mucosa- outer to the lamina propria; consists of
Epidermis- outermost layer inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer of smooth
Layers: muscles
i. Stratum Corneum function: contains mucous glands and gastric pits
- outermost layer of epidermis; squamous; non-living Tela Submucosa- contains large blood and lymph vessels
ii. Stratum Germinativum Tunica Muscularis- thick and made of circular layer of smooth
- columnar cells; living and growing layer muscle
- cells continuously divide and replace the constantly shed off function: facilitates movement of food particles
stratum corneum Subserosa- narrow layer w/c contains longitudinal muscle
Dermis strands; outer to the muscular layer
Layers: function: secretion of blood vessels
i. Stratum Spongiosum Tunica Serosa- outermost covering covered by the
i.a Chromatophore- pigment granules mesothelium
function: produce and control skin coloration in frogs
i.b Cutaneous Glands- formed by infolding of stratum e. Kidney- eliminates water, ions, nitrogenous waste and
germinativum metabolic wastes of protein, carbohydrates and fat
function: secrete mucus to keep skin moist metabolism; ventral border (concave)
ii. Stratum Compactum- deeper layer of dermis; made of Parts:
connective tissue with alternating vertical connective tissue Adrenal Gland- part of endocrine system
strands Malpighian Bodies/ Renal Corpuscles- round masses on
ventral part of the kidney
loose subcutaneous connective tissue- found below stratum Glomerulus- network of capillaries of Malpighian bodies
compactum Bowmans Capsule- cup-shaped double membrane of
function: connect the skin with the underlying muscle glomerulus
Uniferous Tubule- where reabsorption of water, amino acid,
b. Liver- largest gland of the body glucose and other subs. occurs
secretion: bile Collecting Tubule- where uniferous tubule continue; fewer
function: aids in absorption of fats and neutralizes acidity of Mesonephric Duct- where collecting tubules open to
chime(digested food) Renal Portal Vein- adheres to lateral side of kidney
renal vein- thin-walled; carries deoxygenated blood
Parts: renal artery- thick-walled; carries oxygenated blood
Liver Cells- polygonal; darkly stained spherical nuclei
Pigment Granules- scattered irregularly Path of blood:
Arteries- thicked-wall glomerulus Bowmans capsule Glomerular artery
Veins- thinned-wall Uniferous Tubules Collecting Tubules Mesonephric Duct
Bile Duct- lined with cuboidal epithelium
function: emulsify fats f. Spinal Cord
Arterioles and Venules- smaller blood vessels Parts:
Sinusoids- endothelial tubes occurring in-between liver cells; White Matter- outer layer made up of loosely arranged
appears like spaces between liver cells medulatted nerve fibers and neuroglia
 Gray Matter- inner layer made up of cell bodies of neurons Insect Chitinous integument Chitin
and neuroglia Shark Skin Placoid Scales
Dosal Cornua- 2 dorsal projection Fish Skin Scales
Ventral Cornua- wider and farther apart Snake Skin Scales
Central Canal- found in the center of spinal cord; contains Frog Skin (naked) Gland
cererbrospinal fluid Bird Skin Feather/ Claws
Ependymal Cell- lines the central canal Man Skin Hairs/ Nails
Neuroglia- small oval bodies scattered over spinal cord
Motor Cells- most prominent neurons; concentrated in ventral E. Skeletal Muscle
gray horn; bigger than neuroglia; have chromophilic bodies
Dura Mater- cylindrical covering of spinal cord Exoskeleton:
Subdural Space- lies beneath dura mater Corals: calcareous
Pia Mater- Closely investing the spinal cord; thin layer of Mollusks shells: calcareous-made of calcium carbonate; single
connective tissue (with a number of blood vessels) piece (univalve) or two piece (bivalve)
Dorsal and Ventral Fissure Crustaceans and Insects: chitinous
Ventral fissure- contains ventral spinal artery w/c supplies Turtle Shells: Dorsal Carapace (bony) and Ventral Plastron
most of the blood in the spinal cord (horny)
Fishes: Bony Scales
C. Animal Forms Snakes, Lizards, and Crocodiles: Horny shields form a continuous
mat
Type of Symmetry: Birds: Plumage (feathers)
a. Universal: exhibited by animals with spherical bodies; can be Mammals: Pelage (covering of hairs)
divided into 2 or more symmetrical parts by cutting thru the Cattle, Buffalos: True Horns; hollow
center of body ex. sea urchin Deer: Antlers; bony, shed periodically
b. Radial: similar parts regularly arranged about central axis; can Lizards, birds, cats, and dogs: claws
be divided into 5 radial lines running from the center of the Monkeys, apes, man: nails
body Horses and cattle: hooves
orientation: oral/aboral (bears mouth faces the substratum)
c. Bilateral Endoskeleton:
longitudinal: dorsal (back) and ventral (front) function: constitutes principal support of the body; leverage for
transverse: anterior (head end) and posterior end (tail end) locomotion; protection of delicate organ
sagittal: lateral sides (left and right) Squid and Cuttlefish: Pen
Sea Urchin: Test or Corona calcerous w/c composed of dermal
Metamerism/ Segmentation- regular repetition of body parts plates and covered by integument
along anterio-posterior axis locomotory organ: tube feet
* annelids and arthropods exhibit metamerism Vertebrate: bone (principal element); cartilage (flexibility);
ligament (connects the bone together)
Regionalization
Having parts of the body more or less differentiated into Skeletal System of Frogs:
recognizable zones, such as the head, trunk and tail Parts:
Cephalization: The nervous system and sense organs tend to a. Skull- chief skeleton of the head
concentrate in the head i. Cranium- hollow median portion of the skull
function: encloses the brain and sense organs
Appendages *separated by jagged lines (sutures)
Cephalic appendages may be in the form of antennae, tentacles, *synarthrosis- immovable type of joint
horns, antlers, lophophores (ciliated tentacles), limbs, wings, etc Parts:
May be segmented or unsegmented Olfactory Capsules- anterior to the cranium
Otic Capsules- lodges inner ear; posterior to the cranium
D. Animal Integuments Occipital Region- posterior end of skull
function: waterproof, cushion and protect the deeper tissues; Foramen Magnum- large hole at the center through which
excrete wastes; regulate temperature; attachment site for spinal cord passes
sensory receptors to detect pain, sensation, pressure and Occipital Condyles- articulated with the 1st vertebra;
temperature ventrolateral to the foramen magnum

Thin, slimy epithelium of Planaria- simplest form of integument; ii. Maxillary Arch- borders the orbit laterally; anterior part of
allows diffusion of gases into the body the teeth; constitutes upper jaw and is immovably fused
Epithelium of earthworm- secretes cuticle; allows diffusion of to cranium
gases Parts:
Mantle of Mollusks- secretes shell Premaxillary Proccess- adjoins paired triangular bones of the
Arthropods- with chitin cranium
Crabs and Lobster- arthropods with chitinous integument
impregnated with lime or calium carbonate b. Lower Jaw/Mandible- bony arch that articulates with posterior
Echinoderms- comparable to vertebrate skin end of skull
c. Vertebrate- longitudinal row of irregular bones forming a
Animal Kind of Integument Skin Derivatives column (vertebrate column)
st
Planaria Slimy epithelium Cilia Atlas- 1 vertebra; cervical vertebra; articulates occipital
Cuticle secreting condyles
Earthworm Setae nd th
epithelium 2 to 10 vertebra (Trunk vertebra)
Mollusk Mantle Shell
 nd th
Typical Vertebra- composed of 2 to 8 vertebrae Tibio-fibula (thigh bone)- slightly longer bone distal to the femur
Parts: Tarsals (ankle bones)- consisting of a proximal row of two elongate
i. Centrum- body of vertebra; front (concave) and back bones and a distal row of two or three short bones
(convex) Metatarsals (sole bones)- a row of five elongate bones
ii. Neural arch- dorsal to the centrum Phallanges
iii. Neural canal- contains the spinal cord
iv. Neural spine- posteriorly directed F. Musculature
v. Transverse Processes- extend laterally and help support the *Muscles- contractile
body wall (junction of centrum and neural arch) function: for motion and locomotion
vi. Zygapophyses- posterior and anterior of neural arch
Pre-zygapophyses (hidden); Post-zygapophyses (covers the 2 Types of Muscles:
pre) 1. Skeletal - attached to skeletons; comprising the bulk of the
th
Sacral- 9 vertebra body
th
Urostyle- 10 vertebra *fascia: connective tissue that bound skeletal muscles
2. Visceral- those that form part of the wall of internal organs
Typical
Structure Atlas Sacral Urostyle Origin: point of attachment that is fixed
Vertebra
Neural spine + + + + Insertion: point of attachment that is movable
Neural arch + - + + Head: more than one point of origin
Neural canal + - - + Slips: Several points of insertion
Centrum + + + +
Pre-zygapophyses - + + - Muscle Origin Insertion Function
Post-zygapophyses + + - - Posterior
Transverse Raises lower
- + + - Temporalis mid- dorsal line region of
Processes jaw
mandible
Depressor Angle of lower
mid-dorsal line Lowers the jaw
d. Hyoid- flat skeleton Mandibulae jaw
e. Pectoral Girdle- arch of bones and cartilages at shoulder Raises the floor
Mylohyoid Median raphne -
region of mouth
Parts: Median Raphne - - -
Taper towards
Suprascapula- most dorsal, flat trapezoidal and cartilaginous Coccygeosacralis - -
anus
Scapula- articulating the suprascapula; smooth concavity on its
Taper towards
proximal end Coccygeoilacus - -
anus
Glenoid fosa- where the upper arm bone fits Taper towards
Fenestra- articulate with the scapula on its proximal end Longissimus Dorsi - -
anus
Clavicle- anterior to the fenestra; where an inverted y-shaped Beneath
bone belonging to the sternum rests External Oblique
Lumbo-dorsal muscles on
-
Coracoid- posterior to the fenestra and shaped like the scapula; fascia ventral side of
contributes also to the glenoid fossa abdomen
Epicoracoid cartilages- joins the two halves Compresses
Rectus Abdominis Pubis Sternum
the abdomen
Compresses
f. Sternum- series of bones and cartilages anterior and posterior Linea Alba - -
the abdomen
to pectoral girdle on its mid-ventral aspect Inscriptiones
Parts: - - -
Tendinae
Episternum- flat, rounded cartilage Draw arm
Fascia on Shoulder joint
Omosternum- inverted y-shaped bone, with its two arms resting Latissimus Dorsi away from
anterior trunk and humerus
on the clavicle body
Mesosternum- bone wedged between the coracoids in its Sterno-Radialis Episternum
Proximal end
-
anterior end of radio-ulna
Xiphisternum- cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternum Pectoral girdle
(1), sternum (2)
Draws arm
th Pectoralis & fascia of Humerus
g. Pelvic Girdle- U-shaped structure with lateral processes of 9 toward chest
th rectus
vertebra and posterior tip of the elongate 10 abdominis (3)
function: strengthens posterior region of body and provides Proximal end Draws arm
Deltoid Coracoid
support to hind limbs of humerus toward chest
*os innominatum- each half of pelvic girdle Humerus and
Straightens
Parts: Triceps Brachii Scapulocoracoid proximal end
forearm
Acetabulum- cup-shaped depression; where the proximal end of of radio-ulna
the thigh bone (femur) fits; formed by the convergence of the Posterior
Straightens
Triceps Extensor border of ilium; Proximal end
raised edges of the bones comprising the girdle shank and
Femoris anterior border of tibia-fibula
Ilium- forms the anterior border of the acetabulum and of acetabulum
bends thigh
articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra Proximal end Draws thigh
Ischium- fan-shaped bone contributing to the posterior border Semimembranous Ischium of tibia-fibula, medially and
of the acetabulum and wedged between the ilium and the pubis back of knee bends shank
Pubis- triangular bone (cartilaginous in young frogs) wedged Draws thigh
ventrally between the ilium and ischium Biceps Femoris - - medially and
bends shank
Hindlimb Posterior
Proximal end
Parts Gracilis Major margin of Bends the leg
of tibia-fibula
Femur- long bone whose rounded proximal end articulates with the ischium
acetabulum Sartorius - - -
 Lower end of Proximal end
Adductor Magnus Bends the leg
ilium of tibio-fibula
Bends shank
Small head and Tendons of
Gastrocnemius and extends
big head Achilles
foot
Distal end of
Straightens
Distal end of tibia-fibula
Peroneus shank and
femur and Proximal
bends foot
end of tarsals
2 tendons
Distal end of
Tibialis Anticus onto the Bends foot
femur
tarsals
Entire length of Proximal end
Tibialis Posticus Extends foot
tibia-fibula of tarsals

G. Movement and Locomotion

Antagonist: actions are OPPOSITE

Synergist: actions in concert
Adductor: moves part TOWARDS axis of the bosy
Abductor: produces OPPOSITE action
Flexor: BENDS a part
Levator: RAISES a part
Depressor: LOWERS a part
Constrictor: CLOSES an aperture
Dilator: OPENS an aperture
Rotator: ROTATES a part

Synergistic muscles:
1. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus extends foot
2. Peroneus and tibialis anticus bends foot
3. Rectus abdominis and external oblique compress abdomen
4. Sterno-radialis, pectoralis, and deltoid draw arm toward chest

Antagonistic muscles:
1. Depressor mandibulae (lowers jaw) vs temporalis (raises lower
jaw)
2. Latissimus dorsi (draw arm away from body) vs sterno-radialis,
pectoralis, and deltoid (draw arm toward chest)
3. Gastrocnemius and tibialis posticus (extends foot) vs peroneus
and tibialis anticus (bends foot)

Locomotion of Vertebra
a. Undulatory Swimming- body is thrown into waves from head
to tail due to contraction of trunk musculature; for fishes
FISHES
trunk and tail: propulsive fore
pectoral and pelvic fins: brakes
caudal fin: rudder
dorsal fin: stabilizer

b. Pedal Locomotion- due to contraction of the limb muscles

c. True Flight- for birds and bats

Locomotion in Gastropod Mollusks

Locomotion: flattened muscular foot through pedal
locomotory waves
Foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm but while
the flatworm body has a constant volume, the gastropod foot
may be inflated by blood

Locomotion in Earthworms
exemplify the highest form of a locomotor system dependent
on a hydrostatic skeleton
contraction of the circular muscles on the anterior end of the
body extends to a number of segments
contraction of the circular muscles makes the segments longer
and thinner, while contraction of the longitudinal muscles
shortens the segments in preparation for next phase of muscle
contraction