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Contents
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1History
2Definition of CGS units in mechanics
o 2.1Definitions and conversion factors of CGS units in mechanics
3Derivation of CGS units in electromagnetism
o 3.1CGS approach to electromagnetic units
o 3.2Alternate derivations of CGS units in electromagnetism
o 3.3Various extensions of the CGS system to electromagnetism
o 3.4Electrostatic units (ESU)
3.4.1ESU notation
o 3.5Electromagnetic units (EMU)
3.5.1EMU notation
o 3.6Relations between ESU and EMU units
o 3.7Practical cgs units
o 3.8Other variants
4Electromagnetic units in various CGS systems
5Physical constants in CGS units
6Advantages and disadvantages
7See also
8References and notes
9General literature
History[edit]
The CGS system goes back to a proposal in 1832 by the German mathematician Carl Friedrich
Gauss to base a system of absolute units on the three fundamental units of length, mass and time.
Gauss chose the units of millimetre, milligram and second.[1] In 1874, it was extended by the British
physicists James Clerk Maxwell and William Thomson with a set of electromagnetic units and the
selection of centimetre, gram and second and the naming of C.G.S.[2]
The sizes of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes. For example,
many everyday objects are hundreds or thousands of centimetres long, such as humans, rooms and
buildings. Thus the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of science. Starting
in the 1880s, and more significantly by the mid-20th century, CGS was gradually superseded
internationally for scientific purposes by the MKS (metre–kilogram–second) system, which in turn
developed into the modern SI standard.
Since the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the SI standard in the 1960s,
the technical use of CGS units has gradually declined worldwide, in the United States more slowly
than elsewhere. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific
journals, textbook publishers, or standards bodies, although they are commonly used in
astronomical journals such as The Astrophysical Journal. CGS units are still occasionally
encountered in technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of material
science, electrodynamics and astronomy. The continued usage of CGS units is most prevalent in
magnetism and related fields, as the primary MKS unit, the tesla, is inconveniently large, leading to
the continued common use of the gauss, the CGS equivalent.
The units gram and centimetre remain useful as prefixed units within the SI system, especially for
instructional physics and chemistry experiments, where they match the small scale of table-top
setups. However, where derived units are needed, the SI ones are generally used and taught
instead of the CGS ones today. For example, a physics lab course might ask students to record
lengths in centimetres, and masses in grams, but force (a derived unit) in newtons, a usage
consistent with the SI system.
(definition of velocity)
CGS Equiva
Sym CGS unit Definit lent
Quantity
bol unit abbrevi ion in SI
ation units
1/100
length, centim =
L, x cm of metr
position etre 10−2 m
e
1/1000
=
mass m gram g of kilog
10−3 kg
ram
secon 1
time t s =1s
d second
centim
etre =
velocity v per cm/s cm/s 10−2 m/
secon s
d
=
acceleration a gal Gal cm/s2 10−2 m/
s2
=
force F dyne dyn g·cm/s2
10−5 N
erg pe
r g·cm2/s =
power P erg/s
secon 3
10−7 W
d
g/(cm· =
pressure p barye Ba
s2) 10−1 Pa
=
dynamic vis g/(cm·
μ poise P 10−1 Pa
cosity s)
·s
=
kinematic vi
ν stokes St cm2/s 10−4 m2/
scosity
s
kayser = 100
wavenumber k cm−1[3] cm−1
(K) m−1
,
therefore the unit of electric charge, the coulomb (C), is defined as 1 C = 1 A⋅s.
where r and are the length and the unit vector in the direction of
vector r respectively.
These two laws can be used to
derive Ampère's force law above, resulting in
Electrosta
tic[4] CGS
c− c− c− 4 4
(ESU, 1 1 1
2 2 2
π π
esu, or
stat-)
Electrom
agnetic[4]
CGS c− 4 4
c2 1 1 1 1
(EMU, 2
π π
emu, or
ab-)
Gaussian[ c− c− c− 4 4
1 1 1
4]
CGS 1 2 1
π π
Lorentz–
Heaviside 1 1 c− 1 1
1
[4]
CGS
SI 1 1 1
.
The unit of current is defined as:
.
Dimensionally in the ESU CGS
system, charge q is therefore
equivalent to m1/2L3/2t−1. Hence,
neither charge nor current is an
independent physical quantity in
ESU CGS. This reduction of units
is the consequence of
the Buckingham π theorem.
ESU notation[edit]
All electromagnetic units in ESU
CGS system that do not have
proper names are denoted by a
corresponding SI name with an
attached prefix "stat" or with a
separate abbreviation "esu".[7]
Electromagnetic units
(EMU)[edit]
In another variant of the CGS
system, electromagnetic
units (EMU), current is defined
via the force existing between two
thin, parallel, infinitely long wires
carrying it, and charge is then
defined as current multiplied by
time. (This approach was
eventually used to define the SI
unit of ampere as well). In the
EMU CGS subsystem, this is
done by setting the Ampere force
.
The unit of charge in CGS
EMU is:
.
Dimensionally in the EMU
CGS system, charge q is
therefore equivalent to
m1/2L1/2. Hence, neither
charge nor current is an
independent physical
quantity in EMU CGS.
EMU notation[edit]
All electromagnetic units
in EMU CGS system that
do not have proper
names are denoted by a
corresponding SI name
with an attached prefix
"ab" or with a separate
abbreviation "emu".[7]
Relations between
ESU and EMU
units[edit]
The ESU and EMU
subsystems of CGS are
connected by the
fundamental
relationship (see
above), where c =
29,979,245,800 ≈ 3·1010 is
the speed of light in
vacuum in centimetres
per second. Therefore,
the ratio of the
corresponding "primary"
electrical and magnetic
units (e.g. current,
charge, voltage, etc. –
quantities proportional to
those that enter directly
into Coulomb's
law or Ampère's force
law) is equal either
to c−1 or c:[7]
and
.
Units derived
from these may
have ratios equal
to higher powers
of c, for example:
.
Practical
cgs
units[edit]
The practical
cgs system is
a hybrid
system that
uses
the volt and
the ampere a
s the unit of
voltage and
current
respectively.
Doing this
avoids the
inconvenientl
y large and
small
quantities
that arise for
electromagne
tic units in the
esu and emu
systems. This
system was
at one time
widely used
by electrical
engineers
because the
volt and amp
had been
adopted as
international
standard
units by the
International
Electrical
Congress of
1881.[8] As
well as the
volt and amp,
the farad (cap
acitance), oh
m (resistance
), coulomb (el
ectric
charge),
and henry are
consequently
also used in
the practical
system and
are the same
as the SI
units.
However, inte
nsive
properties (th
at is, anything
that is per
unit length,
area, or
volume) will
not be the
same as SI
since the cgs
unit of
distance is
the
centimetre.
For
instance elect
ric field
strength is in
units of volts
per
centimetre, m
agnetic field
strength is in
amps per
centimetre,
and resistivity
is in ohm-
cm.[9]
Some physici
sts and electri
cal
engineers in
North
America still
use these
hybrid
units.[10]
Other
variants[ed
it]
There were at
various points
in time about
half a dozen
systems of
electromagne
tic units in
use, most
based on the
CGS
system.[11] Th
ese also
include
the Gaussian
units and
the Heaviside
–Lorentz
units.
Electro
magneti
c units
in
various
CGS
systems[
edit]
Conversio
n of SI
units in
electroma
gnetism to
ESU, EMU,
and
Gaussian
subsystem
s of CGS[7]
c=
29,979,245
,800
G
a
Q u
E E
u SS s
S M
a yI s
U U
n mu i
u u
t bn a
n n
i oi n
i i
t l t u
t t
y n
i
t
(
1
(
0
− 1
e 1 0
l −
e 1
c
c
)
t c
r )
o
i (
r
c 1 o
c q r
( 0
h 1 −
4 1
a / (
π
r C ) 4
g Φ
×
π
E 1 a
e ×
0 b
− 1
/ 1 C0
−
1
f c
l )
u c
x )
s
t
F
a
r
t
C
e
l 1( ( (
e I 1 1 1
c A0 0 0
t − − −
1 1 1
r
i )
c c c
c ) a )
u b
r s A F
r t r
e a ⋅
n t s
−
t A 1
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c ( (
p 1 1
o 0 0
t
8 ( 8
e φ 1
n 1− 0
c c
8 −
t / 1
) 1
i V) )
a V a
l s b s
t Vt
/ a a
t t
v V V
o
l
t
a
g
e
e
l ( ( (
e 1 1
10 1 0
c 6
0 6
t 6
EV )
r
/ c c
i
m− a −
c 1 1
f ) b )
i V
e s / s
l t c t
d a ma
t t
V V
/ /
c c
m m
e
l
e
c
t (
r 1
i (
0 (
c − 1
1
d 5 0
0 −
i −
5
s 1c 5
p ) )
c
l DC )
a / s a
m
c 2 t b F
e a C
r
m t /
/
e Cc
c
n / m
2 m
t c 2
f m
2
i
e
l
d
e
l
e (
(
c 1
1 (
t 0
0 1
r 1
) 0
i c 1
9
c p C)
a
d ⋅
b c
i ms
C)
p t
⋅
o a
c D
l t
m
e C
m ⋅
o
m c
e m
n
t
m
a
g (
n 1
e 0 (
t 3
1 (
i 0 1
c 1c 3 0
d ) ) 3
i A )
μ
p ⋅ s a
o mt b e
l 2
a Ar
e t ⋅ g
m A c /
o ⋅ mG
m c 2
e m
2
n
t
m
a (
g 1
n 0
4
e ( (
t 1 1
1 c
i − 0 0
B
c 1
4 4
T
B ) ) )
f s
i t GG
e a
l t
d T
m
1
a ( ( (
g 4 4 4
HA
n π π π
/
e × × ×
m
t 1 1 1
i 0 0 0
− − −
c 3 3 3
H
f ) )
i c
e ) OO
l e e
d s
t
a
t
A
/
c
m
(
m 1
a 0
g 8
n ( (
e 1c 1 1
t Φ − 0 0
8 8
1
i m W ) )
c b)
f s
l t MM
u a x x
x t
W
b
( (
r 1 1
e 0 ( 0
9 9
s 1
i
1c 09 c
s
R − ) −
t 2 2
Ω
a ) )
n a
c s b s
e / Ω/
c c
m m
r ρ1
e ( ( (
s Ω1 1 1
i ⋅ 0 0 0
s m 11 11 11
t
i )
v c c
− −
i 2
a 2
t b
) Ω)
y
⋅
s c s
m
c ( (
a 1 ( 1
p 0 1 0
a −
0 −
c 19 − 9
9
i C
t Fc ) c
2 2
a
n ) a )
c b
e c Fc
m m
( (
1 1
i 0 0
9 9
n (
d c 1 c
u
12 0
− −
9 2
c
L
t ) ) )
H
a
n c a c
c mb m
−
e H−
1 1
⋅ ⋅
s s
2 2
In this
table, c =
29,979,245,8
00 is the
numeric
value of
the speed of
light in
vacuum when
expressed in
units of
centimetres
per second.
The symbol ""
is used
instead of "="
as a reminder
that the SI
and CGS
units
are correspon
ding but
not equal bec
ause they
have
incompatible
dimensions.
For example,
according to
the next-to-
last row of
the table, if a
capacitor has
a capacitance
of 1 F in SI,
then it has a
capacitance
of (10−9 c2) cm
in ESU; but it
is usually
incorrect to
replace "1 F"
with "(10−9 c2)
cm" within an
equation or
formula. (This
warning is a
special
aspect of
electromagne
tism units in
CGS. By
contrast, for
example, it
is always corr
ect to replace
"1 m" with
"100 cm"
within an
equation or
formula.)
One can think
of the SI
value of
the Coulomb
constant kC a
s:
This
explains
why SI to
ESU
conversio
ns
involving
factors
of c2 lead
to
significan
t
simplifica
tions of
the ESU
units,
such as
1 statF =
1 cm and
1 statΩ =
1 s/cm:
this is the
conseque
nce of
the fact
that in
ESU
system kC
= 1. For
example,
a
centimetr
e of
capacitan
ce is the
capacitan
ce of a
sphere of
radius
1 cm in
vacuum.
The
capacitan
ce C bet
ween two
concentri
c spheres
of
radii R an
d r in
ESU
CGS
system
is:
.
By
takin
g the
limit
as R
goes
to
infinit
y we
see
C eq
uals r
.
Ph
ysi
cal
con
sta
nts
in
CG
S
uni
ts[e
dit]
Co
mm
onl
y
use
d
phy
sic
al
con
sta
nts
in
CG
S
uni
ts[12]
C
oS
V
ny
a
sm
l
t b
u
ao
e
nl
t
1
.
6
A 6
t 0
o
m 5
i 3
c 8
m
u 7
a
s 8
s 2
u ×
n 1
i 0
−
t 2
4
B 9
oμ .
B
h 2
r 7
m 4
a
g 0
n 0
e 9
t
o 1
n 5
×
1
0
−
2
1
e
r
g
/
G
(
E
M
U
,
G
a
u
s
s
i
a
n
)
2
.
7
8
0
2
7
8
0
0
×
1
0
−
1
0
s
t
a
t
A
·
c
m
2
(
E
S
U
)
5
.
2
9
1
B 7
o 7
h 2
r
r a 0
a0 8
d 5
i 9
u ×
s 1
0
−
9
c
m
B 1
o .
l 3
t 8
k
z 0
m
a 6
n 5
n 0
c 4
o ×
n 1
s 0
−
t 1
a 6
n
t e
r
g
/
K
9
.
1
0
E 9
l
e 3
c 8
t 2
r m
oe 1
n 5
m ×
a 1
s 0
s −
2
8
4
E .
l 8
e 0
m 3
e
n 2
t e 0
a 4
r
y 2
c 7
h ×
a 1
r 0
−
1
g 0
e
F
r
(
E
S
U
,
G
a
u
s
s
i
a
n
)
1
.
6
0
2
1
7
6
4
8
7
×
1
0
−
2
0
a
b
C
(
E
M
U
)
F
i
n 7
e .
- 2
s 9
t 7
r α
u 3
c≈ 5
t 1 2
u/
r 1 5
e3 7
c7 0
o ×
n 1
s 0
t −
3
a
n
t
6
G .
r 6
a 7
v 4
i
t 2
a 8
t ×
i 1
o 0
−
n G8
a
l
c
c
m
o 3
n /
s (
t g
a ·
n s
t 2
)
Ph 6
l .
a 6
n 2
c 6
k
c 0
o 6
n 8
s
t 8
a 5
n ×
t 1
0
−
2
7
e
r
g
·
s
1
.
0
5
4
5
7
1
6
ħ×
1
0
−
2
7
e
r
g
·
s
S ≡
p
c
e 2
e .
d 9
o 9
f 7
l
i 9
g 2
h 4
t
i 5
n 8
v ×
a 1
c 0
1
u 0
u
m
c
m
/
s
Ad
van
tag
es
an
d
dis
adv
ant
age
s[edi
t]
While
the
abse
nce
of
expli
cit
prefa
ctors
in
some
CGS
subs
yste
ms
simpl
ifies
some
theor
etical
calcu
lation
s, it
has
the
disad
vanta
ge
that
some
times
the
units
in
CGS
are
hard
to
defin
e
throu
gh
exper
iment
.
Also,
lack
of
uniqu
e unit
name
s
leads
to a
great
confu
sion:
thus
"15
emu"
may
mean
either
15 ab
volts,
or 15
emu
units
of ele
ctric
dipol
e
mom
ent,
or 15
emu
units
of ma
gneti
c
susc
eptibi
lity,
some
times
(but
not
alwa
ys)
per g
ram,
or
per
mole.
On
the
other
hand,
SI
starts
with
a unit
of
curre
nt,
the a
mper
e,
that
is
easie
r to
deter
mine
throu
gh
exper
iment
, but
whic
h
requi
res
extra
multi
plicat
ive
factor
s in
the
electr
omag
netic
equat
ions.
With
its
syste
m of
uniqu
ely
name
d
units,
the
SI
also
remo
ves
any
confu
sion
in
usag
e: 1.0
ampe
re is
a
fixed
value
of a
speci
fied
quant
ity,
and
so
are
1.0 h
enry,
1.0 o
hm,
and
1.0
volt.
A key
virtue
of
the G
aussi
an
CGS
syste
m is
that
electr
ic
and
magn
etic
fields
have
the
same
units,
4πϵ0 i
s
repla
ced
by 1,
and
the
only
dime
nsion
al
const
ant
appe
aring
in
the M
axwe
ll
equat
ions i
s c,
the
spee
d of
light.
The
Heav
iside
–
Lore
ntz
syste
m ha
s
these
desir
able
prop
erties
as
well
(with
ϵ0 eq
ualin
g 1),
but it
is a
"ratio
naliz
ed"
syste
m (as
is SI)
in
whic
h the
charg
es
and
fields
are
defin
ed in
such
a
way
that
there
are
many
fewer
factor
s of
4π a
ppea
ring
in the
form
ulas,
and it
is in
Heav
iside
–
Lore
ntz
units
that
the
Max
well
equat
ions
take
their
simpl
est
form.
In SI,
and
other
ration
alize
d
syste
ms
(for
exam
ple,
Heav
iside
–
Lore
ntz),
the
unit
of
curre
nt
was
chos
en
such
that
electr
omag
netic
equat
ions
conc
ernin
g
charg
ed
spher
es
conta
in
4π,
those
conc
ernin
g
coils
of
curre
nt
and
straig
ht
wires
conta
in 2π
and
those
deali
ng
with
charg
ed
surfa
ces
lack
π
entire
ly,
whic
h
was
the
most
conv
enien
t
choic
e for
appli
catio
ns
in ele
ctrica
l
engin
eerin
g.
How
ever,
mode
rn ha
nd
calcu
lators
and
perso
nal
comp
uters
have
elimi
nated
this
"adv
antag
e". In
some
fields
wher
e
form
ulas
conc
ernin
g
spher
es
are
com
mon
(for
exam
ple,
in
astro
physi
cs), it
has
been
argu
ed[by
whom?]
t
hat
the
nonr
ation
alize
d
CGS
syste
m
can
be
some
what
more
conv
enien
t
notati
onall
y.
In
fact,
in
certai
n
fields
,
speci
alize
d unit
syste
ms
are
used
to
simpl
ify
form
ulas
even
furth
er
than
either
SI or
CGS
, by
elimi
natin
g
const
ants
throu
gh
some
syste
m
of nat
ural
units.
For
exam
ple,
those
in par
ticle
physi
cs us
ea
syste
m
wher
e
every
quant
ity is
expre
ssed
by
only
one
unit,
the el
ectro
nvolt,
with
lengt
hs,
times
, and
so on
all
conv
erted
into
electr
onvol
ts by
insert
ing
factor
s
of c a
nd
the
Planc
k
const
ant ħ.
This
unit
syste
m is
very
conv
enien
t for
calcu
lation
s
in par
ticle
physi
cs,
but it
woul
d be
impra
ctical
in all
other
conte
xts.
The MKS system of units is a physical system of units that expresses any given measurement
using base units of the metre, kilogram, and/or second (MKS).[1]
Historically the use of the MKS system of units succeeded the centimetre–gram–second system of
units (CGS) in commerce and engineering, (1889). The metre and kilogram system served as the
basis for the development of the International System of Units, which now serves as the international
standard. Because of this, the standards of the CGS system were gradually replaced with metric
standards incorporated from the MKS system.[2] The exact list of units used in the MKS system
changed over time. It incorporated base units other than the metre, kilogram, and second in addition
to derived units. An incomplete list of the base and derived units appears below. Since the MKS
system of units never had a governing body to rule on a standard definition, the list of units
depended on different conventions at different times.
Cycle (This dimensionless quantity became synonymous with the term "cycle per second" as an
abbreviation. This circumstance confused the exact definition of the term cycle. Therefore, the
phrase "cycle per metre" became ill-defined. The cycle did not become an SI unit.)
Cycle per second[3]
Cycle per metre (This measure of wavenumber became ill-defined due to the abbreviation of
"cycle per second" as "cycle".)
In 1901, Giovanni Giorgi proposed to the Associazione elettrotecnica italiana (it) (AEI) that this
system, extended with a fourth unit to be taken from the units of electromagnetism, be used as an
international system.[4]
The foot–pound–second system or FPS system is a system of units built on three fundamental
units: the foot for length, the (avoirdupois) pound for either mass or force (see below), and
the second for time.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1Variants
o 1.1Pound as mass unit
o 1.2Pound-force as force unit
o 1.3Pound as force unit
2Other units
o 2.1Molar units
o 2.2Electromagnetic units
o 2.3Units of light
3Conversions
4See also
5References
Variants[edit]
Collectively, the variants of the FPS system were the most common system in technical publications
in English until the middle of the 20th century.[1]
Errors can be avoided and translation between the systems facilitated by labelling all physical
quantities consistently with their units. Especially in the context of the FPS system this is sometimes
known as the Stroud system after William Stroud, who popularized it.[2]
v
t
e Force Weight Mass
Base
2nd law of
motion
m = F/a F = W⋅a/g F = m⋅a
British Gravitational English Engineering
System Absolute English (AE)
(BG) (EE)
Acceleration (a) ft/s2 ft/s2 ft/s2
Mass (m) slug pound-mass pound
Force (F),
pound pound-force poundal
weight (W)
pound-force per square
Pressure (p) pound per square inch poundal per square foot
inch
The international standard symbol for the pound as unit of mass rather than force is lb.[5]
Everett (1861) proposed the metric dyne and erg as the units of force and energy in the FPS
system.
Latimer Clark's (1891) "Dictionary of Measures"
contains celo (acceleration), vel or velo (velocity) and pulse (momentum) as proposed names for
FPS absolute units.
In the context of the gravitational FPS system, the pound-force (lbf) is sometimes referred to
as the pound (lb).
Other units[edit]
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Molar units[edit]
The unit of substance in the FPS system is the pound-mole (lb-mol) = 273.16×1024. Until the
SI decided to adopt the gram-mole, the mole was directly derived from the mass unit as
(mass unit)/(atomic mass unit). The unit (lbf⋅s2/ft)-mol also appears in a former definition of
the atmosphere.
Electromagnetic units[edit]
The Electrostatic and Electromagnetic systems are derived from units of length and force,
mainly. As such, these are ready extensions of any system of containing length, mass, time.
Stephen Dresner[7] gives the derived electrostatic and electromagnetic units in both the foot–
pound–second and foot–slug–second systems. In practice, these are most associated with
the centimetre–gram–second system. The 1929 "International Critical Tables" gives in the
symbols and systems fpse = FPS electrostatic system and fpsm = FPS electromagnetic
system. Under the conversions for charge, the following are given. The CRC Handbook of
Chemistry and Physics 1979 (Edition 60), also lists fpse and fpsm as standard
abbreviations.
Electromagnetic FPS (EMU, stat-)
1 fpsm unit = 117.581866 cgsm unit (Biot-second) [clarification needed]
Electrostatic FPS (ESU, ab-)
1 fpse unit = 3583.8953 cgse unit (Franklin)
1 fpse unit = 1.1954588×10−6 abs coulomb
Units of light[edit]
The candle and the foot-candle were the first defined units of light, defined in
the Metropolitan Gas Act (1860).[8] The foot-candle is the intensity of light at one
foot from a standard candle. The units were internationally recognised in 1881,
and adopted into the metric system.[9]
Conversions[edit]
Together with the fact that the term "weight" is used for the gravitational force in
some technical contexts (physics, engineering) and for mass in others
(commerce, law),[10] and that the distinction often does not matter in practice, the
coexistence of variants of the FPS system causes confusion over the nature of
the unit "pound". Its relation to international, metric units is expressed in
kilograms, not newtons, though, and in earlier times it was defined by means of
a mass prototype to be compared with a two-pan balance which is agnostic of
local gravitational differences.
In July 1959, the various national foot and avoirdupois pound standards were
replaced by the international foot of precisely 0.3048 m and the international
pound of precisely 0.45359237 kg, making conversion between the systems a
matter of simple arithmetic. The conversion for the poundal is given by 1 pdl
= 1 lb·ft/s2 = 0.138254954376 N(precisely).[1]
To convert between the absolute and gravitational FPS systems one needs to
fix the standard acceleration g which relates the pound to the pound-force.
While g strictly depends on one's location on the Earth surface, since 1901
in most contexts it is fixed conventionally at
precisely g0 = 9.80665 m/s2 ≈ 32.17405 ft/s2.[1] Therefore, the slug is
about 32.17405 lb or 14.593903 kg.