Regulatory Measures and Practices for

Radioactive Waste Management in BARC Facilities

K. Jayarajan
Head, BARC Safety Council Secretariat
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
Trombay, Mumbai, India
Email: kjayaraj@barc.gov.in

Abstract

Activities related to production or use of radioactive materials generates radioactive waste.

As the waste is a potential hazard, it has to be isolated or disposed into the environment,
without any adverse effect on the public and the environment. Safety codes and guides are
available at national and international levels for management of radioactive waste. In India,
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board and BARC Safety Council regulate radioactive waste
management activities. The article describes the regulatory aspects of radioactive waste
management, particularly those applicable to BARC Facilities. Waste management policies
and practices followed in India are also described.

1. Introduction

Radiation and radioactive substances are used for many applications, such as power
production, health care, industry, agriculture and research. Any activity related to production
or use of radioactive material generates radioactive waste, which is a potential hazard.
Radiation exposure to the workers and the general public shall remain within the prescribed
limit, during normal, abnormal and accident conditions. The exposure shall also be as low as
reasonably achievable (ALARA). Future generations also have to be protected from
radiation. Public acceptance of nuclear energy largely depends on the public assurance for
safe management of radioactive wastes. Therefore, radiation risks have to be assessed and
regulated by government agencies to protect human health and the environment. As certain
radioactive waste, such as disused high-active radioactive sources, could pose security threat,
security measures are to be taken to prevent usage of the waste with harmful intent.

In our nuclear programme, safe management of nuclear waste has been assigned a high
priority. Waste management facilities have been operating at various nuclear installation sites
for many decades. They operate on well-established safety standards. Major considerations in
radioactive waste management are protection of human and environment; concern for future
generation; establishment of legal framework; minimisation of waste; and safety of facilities.

Waste management involves handling, segregation, characterisation, treatment, conditioning,

transport, storage and monitoring, before the final disposal. India has adopted closed nuclear
fuel cycle, where the spent fuel from nuclear reactor is reprocessed to recover plutonium and
unused uranium for recycling. The waste generated from reprocessing contains most of the
radioactivity of the fuel cycle. Different methods are adopted for storage and disposal of
radioactive waste, based on the type and quantity of waste.

This article describes the rules and regulations applicable for radioactive waste management,
classification of waste, waste management practices in India and the role of regulatory bodies
for ensuring safety of the workers, the public and the environment.

2. Legal Framework: Acts, Rules and Regulations

International organisations, such as International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), develop standards, guidelines
and recommendations, related to radiation and radioactive materials. National policies,
legislation and regulations are developed from these standards, guidelines and
recommendations. IAEA Safety Fundamentals are followed for all activities for radioactive
waste management [1].

2.1 Acts and Rules

Atomic Energy Act, 1962 enacted by the central government provides the basic regulatory
framework for all activities pertaining to atomic energy programme in India [2]. Discharge
of radioactive waste to the environment is governed by the Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of
Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987 (also called as GSR-125) [3]. The Rules restrict disposal of
radioactive waste without obtaining authorisation from the competent authority. Radiation
Protection Rules, 2004 [4] specifies the functions and responsibilities of the employer, the
licensee, the workers and radiological safety officers. Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996
[5] enable statutory authorities to enforce regulatory control over inspectors, workplace
hygiene, safe use of machinery, workers, protective equipment, etc.

2.2 Regulatory Bodies, Safety Codes and Guides

In India, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) and BARC Safety Council (BSC),
constituted under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, are the regulatory bodies entrusted with the
responsibility of protecting workers, public and the environment against harmful effects of
ionising radiation. While BSC regulates safety of BARC Facilities, AERB regulates nuclear
and radiological facilities in public domain. AERB and BSC were constituted in the years
1983 in 2000 respectively.

AERB code on „Management of Radioactive Waste‟ covers the requirements of various

safety aspects related to management of radioactive waste arising out of all practices [6].
AERB has also prepared many other codes and guides, related to management of radioactive
wastes, in conformity with the principles of radiation protection formulated by the ICRP and
IAEA. The dose limit to radiation workers prescribed by AERB is more conservative than
that of ICRP. BSC also has prepared many safety guides for BARC Facilities. A few of them
are applicable to radioactive waste management [10]-[13]. Wherever BSC documents are not
available, compliance of relevant safety codes and guides of AERB are followed in BARC
Facilities.
3. Classification of Radioactive Wastes

Classification helps in segregation, selection of treatment process, storage and disposal of

the radioactive waste. Wastes are classified based on level of radioactivity, dominant type of
radiation, half-life, physical characteristics and heat generation.

Radioactive wastes have different levels of activity concentration and decay properties. Based
on the activity concentration, radioactive liquid wastes are categorised as Low Level Waste
(LLW), Intermediate Level Waste (ILW) and High Level Waste (HLW). They are also sub-
categorised as short-lived and long-lived, based on their half lives.

Most of the radioactive wastes contain beta or gamma emitters, with minor alpha emitters. To
aid authorisation for transfer and disposal, radioactive wastes are categorised as follows.

 Beta-gamma emitting solid wastes, bearing alpha activity less than 4000 Bq/gm, are
classified into three (I to III) categories, based on the radiation dose rate on the surface of
the waste package. Category-III has highest surface dose rate. Solid wastes, bearing alpha
activity greater the 4000 Bq/gm are classified as Category-IV.
 Liquid wastes with beta-gamma activity are classified into five (I to V) categories, based
on the activity level.
 Gaseous wastes with beta-gamma activity are classified into three (I to III) categories,
based on the activity level.

AERB recommended a new scheme for classification of radioactive waste, through the Safety
Guide, “Classification of Radioactive Waste” [7]. It will be implemented shortly.

4. Effluent Discharge and Dose Apportionment

AERB and BSC, in line with the recommendation of ICRP, have prescribed an effective dose
limit of 1 mSv per year to the member of public, at the boundary of a radiological facility
during normal operating conditions. As BARC is a multi-facility site, total prescribed dose to
member of public is apportioned among the different facilities, keeping reserve for the
facilities that may come up in future. This apportioned dose is further divided among
atmospheric, aquatic and terrestrial path ways; and further among the radionuclides, which
are specific to the installation. For estimating the dose to the public from released activity,
appropriate environmental modelling and studies are conducted. Conversion from activity to
committed effective dose is based on conversion factors approved by international bodies,
like ICRP.

It is mandatory to get dose apportionment for all nuclear or radiological facilities. Effluent
discharge requirement of a radiological facility is reviewed right from siting stage;
regulatory authority grants siting clearance, only after reviewing potential radiological
impacts, including nuclear waste disposal facility. Prior to commissioning and regular
operation of the facility, the operating organisation shall specify the limit of the levels for
gaseous and liquid discharges for all operational states. The main principles for effluent
releases are source control, application of dose limit and release as low as reasonably
achievable.

Effluents are discharged to the environment, only after monitoring by continuous monitoring
or by batch sampling. Environmental Survey Laboratory (ESL) is set up at every nuclear
power plant site for environment monitoring to demonstrate compliance with the prescribed
limits. Before commissioning the plant, ESL conducts pre-operational survey to establish
base line data.

5. Waste Transport/ Transfer

Transport of radioactive waste in public domain is governed by AERB Safety Code on

Transport of Radioactive Materials [8]. Solid waste packages are classified and tested as per
the Code. The major issues addressed in design of transport packages are containment,
shielding, classification of package, heat dissipation and criticality safety. Safety aspects of
radioactive material transport are reviewed by Committee on Safe Transport of Radioactive
Material (COSTRAM) in AERB; and by Safety Review Committee for Transport of
Radioactive Materials (SRC-TRM) in BSC.

Clear guidelines are available for transfer of solid waste and liquid waste through pipeline or
tankers. Applicable safety measures, such as designing the container, limiting surface dose,
detecting leak, preventing spillage, accounting material and sticking radiation symbols, are
implemented for personnel protection.

6. Implementation of Procedures
6.1 Issuance of Authorisation
Regulatory bodies have established procedures for authorising transport and disposal of
radioactive waste [18]. The waste generating facility has to furnish adequate information for
assessing suitability of the installation for direct disposal of the waste or transfer of the waste
to another agency.

6.2 Record Keeping and Reporting

Waste accounting has to be done at the stages of its generation, treatment and final disposal
to the environment. Records of the disposed radioactive waste shall contain information
about quantity, physical state, chemical characteristics, mode of disposal, concentration of
radioactive material, site of disposal and data on periodic surveillance around the site.

6.3 Ensuring Compliance

Safety performance of radiation facilities is closely monitored through periodic submission of
radioactive wastes returns, by the facility to regulatory body. In addition, regulatory body
conducts periodic Regulatory Inspection (RI) for safety verification. RIs are also conducted
before reviewing application for regulatory clearance.
7. Role of BARC Safety Framework in Regulation of Waste Management
BARC regulatory framework consists of a three-tier system, with BSC as the apex body in
the first tier. The second tier has Operating Plants Safety Review Committee (OPSRC),
Conventional and Fire Safety Review Committee (CFSRC), Physical Protection Safety
Review Committee (PPSRC), Committee to Review Application for Authorisation of Safe
Disposal of Radioactive Waste (CRAASDRW) and many Design Safety Review Committees
(DSRCs). The third tier has 16 Unit Level Safety Review Committees (ULSCs), covering
safety review of all radiological and non-radiological facilities of BARC. BSC also have
many expert committees, such as Dose Apportionment Committees and Safety Review
Committee for Transport of Radioactive Materials (SRC-TRM). BARC Safety Council
Secretariat (BSCS) provides secretarial support to BSC.

7.1 CRAASDRW
CRAASDRW conducts safety review of the proposals and applications from BARC facilities
for safe transfer and disposal of radioactive waste. Application from the facility or project to
CRAASDRW is routed through respective DSRC, OPSRC or respective ULSC, after review.
CRAASDRW, after assessing adequacy of the information and the necessity and capability
of the installation, makes suitable recommendations to Chairman, BSC, who is the competent
authority. Authorisation for transfer and disposal of the radioactive waste is issued as per the
provisions of GSR-125 [3]. CRAASDRW also reviews inspection reports, regarding safe
disposal/ transfer of radioactive wastes.

7.2 Dose Apportionment Committees (DACs)

BSC has three DACs for different sites and type of activities, for reviewing and
recommending dose apportionment for a BARC Facility. Total environmental discharges
from BARC facilities correspond to only a small fraction of the exposure limit set by AERB/
BSC.

7.3 Design Safety Review Committees (DSRCs)

BSC has many DSRCs for reviewing safety features of a project, during siting, construction
and commissioning stages. DSRCs assess the adequacy of provision for waste disposal for a
new project, during the siting stage itself. They also ensure that necessary safety features are
considered in the design of the facility.

7.4 Safety Committees Related to Nuclear Recycling

In India, the major facilities for processing and storage of radioactive waste are managed by
Nuclear Recycle Board (NRB) and Nuclear Recycle Group (NRG) of BARC. Safety
regulation of these facilities is the responsibility of BSC. The safety of the operating waste
management facilities is reviewed by ULSC-NRB and ULSC-NRG, which is further
reviewed by OPSRC. DSRC-NRB and DSRC-NRG and their working groups carry out the
design review of all waste management projects under BARC and NRB, respectively. DSRC-
SNRF reviews the safety of the upcoming safe-guarded nuclear recycle facility. Integrated
Nuclear Recycle Facility (INRP), Tarapur is the major upcoming nuclear recycle facility.
7.5 Other BSC Committees
BSC has also constituted many Task Forces and Working Groups for specific tasks, such as
preparation of safety codes and guides; review of an incident; etc.

In addition to the safety committees in three tiers of BSC, Plant Level Safety Committees
(PLSCs), Local Safety Committees (LSCs), Radiological Safety Officers (RSOs), etc. play
significant roles in safe management of waste and control of radioactive discharge to the
environment. RSOs are designated by the facility with the approval of the competent
authority. However, the responsibility of safety of a facility lies with the facility authority.

8. Radioactive Waste Management in India

8.1 Waste Management Philosophy in India
Generally, radioactive waste management philosophy is based on the following options [15].

1. Concentrate and contain radioactivity, as much as practicable

2. Dilute and disperse low level radioactive waste within authorised limits of activity
3. Delay and decay short-lived radionuclides

In addition to the above, recycle and reuse philosophy is adopted in Indian waste
management programme. The stages of radioactive waste management include waste
characterisation, treatment, conditioning, storage, disposal, surveillance and monitoring.
Utmost care is given to waste minimisation at all stages of using radioactive materials.
The practices followed for waste management are described below [16].

8.2 Gaseous Waste Handling

Gaseous waste is treated at the source of generation. To minimise discharge of activity into
air, facilities have elaborate off-gas cleaning systems, such as cyclone separators, adsorbers,
high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters and scrubbers. The treated gaseous wastes are
diluted and discharged through tall stack with monitoring.

8.3 Liquid Waste Treatment

Low Level Liquid Wastes (LLWs) are generated from reactors, reprocessing plants, research
laboratories and the plants processing HLW. Filtration, chemical treatment, ion-exchange,
thermal/ solar evaporation and membrane processes are used for treating LLWs.

8.4 Waste Immobilisation

Generally, ILW and HLW are converted into solid form for handling, transportation, storage
and disposal. Immobilised matrices form the primary barrier for waste isolation. ILWs are
immobilised by cementation and polymerisation, where as HLWs are vitrified.

8.5 Volume Reduction of Solid Wastes

Volume reduction is a key factor for effective confinement of the waste. The volume of
compressible low active solid waste is reduced by compaction. Incineration of combustible
waste reduces its volume by a factor of about fifty.
8.6 Discharge of Low Level Waste
A single point discharge/ disposal concept is followed for all BARC sites. Only waste
management agency is authorised to discharge/ dispose-off any liquid and solid waste at the
site. Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP), Trombay is a LLW waste treatment facility, to which
liquid wastes are transferred from the waste generating plants through pipelines. The liquid
effluent, after separating radionuclides by chemical treatment and monitoring radioactivity, is
discharged into the Mumbai Harbour Bay.

8.7 Organic Liquid Waste Management

Organic liquid wastes are generated from reprocessing plants in the form of spent PUREX
solvent. ETP, Trombay processes the solvent and incinerates the separated diluents. It also
immobilises the active aqueous portion from alkaline hydrolysis in cement.

8.8 Managing Spent and Disused Radiation Sources

Hospitals, industries and research institutes use different types of radioactive sources. After
use, they are sent back to the original supplier abroad or handed over to the waste
management agency. AERB coordinates collection and transfer of the sources from the users
to Waste Management Division (WMD), BARC. Reuse of the source for alternate
application and extraction of useful isotope from the source are also explored. Recently,
WMD has demonstrated extraction of Am-241 from Am-Be neutron sources.

8.9 Alpha Waste Storage

The major alpha waste in the PHWR fuel cycle is zircalloy hulls generated during chopping
of fuel bundles for reprocessing. Hull waste will be stored in hull drums, till deep geological
repository is ready for disposal. At INRP, the hulls will be compacted for volume reduction.

Solid wastes with alpha-contamination below 4000 Bq/gm can be disposed at NDSF. Other
alpha-contaminated wastes (Category-IV) are stored at Alpha Waste Transit Storage Facility
(AWTSF), Trombay and other such storage facilities. At AWTSF, alpha wastes are stored in
drums, which are over-packed in air tight steel containers. NRB is setting up a Solid Waste
Treatment Facility (SWTF) at Tarapur for processing the waste to separate alpha
contamination [13].

8.10 Management of High Level Waste

PHWR spent fuel bundles are stored in deep water pools at reactor site for a few years for the
short-lived radionuclides to decay. Later, they are transferred to the water pools (such as
Spent Fuel Storage Facility (SFSF), Tarapur) of reprocessing facilities. Water is used as a
medium for cooling and shielding. Later, the Fuel bundles are taken up for reprocessing to
extract uranium and plutonium. The reprocessed waste (HLW) from spent fuel contains about
99% of the radioactivity in the fuel cycle.

In India, a three-step strategy is adopted for management of HLW:

1. Immobilise into stable and solid matrices

2. Interim storage
3. Dispose into deep geological repositories
Each reprocessing plant has a co-located vitrification plant (Trombay, Tarapur and
Kalpakkam). HLW is vitrified in borosilicate matrix in Induction Heated Metallic Melters
at Waste Immobilisation Plant (WIP), Trombay and Joule Heated Ceramic Melters at
Advance Vitrification System (AVS), Tarapur & Kalpakkam. These vitrification facilities
are housed in hot cells with remote viewing and handling arrangements.

8.11 Separation of Useful and Harmful Isotopes from HLW

Certain isotopes in the fission produces are beneficial for societal applications. Recently,
BARC has developed the technology for manufacturing Caesium-137 pencils from HLW and
supplied them to BRIT for blood irradiation.

HLW contains a small quantity of minor actinides (Np, Am, Cm) that have very long half-
lives. Radio-toxicity of the waste can be significantly reduced by separating them, followed
by transmutation. Recently, Actinide Separation Demonstration Facility (ASDF) is
commissioned at BARC, Tarapur [17].

8.12 Waste Storage and Disposal

Radioactive waste disposal refers to placing the waste into a facility or a location, with no
intention of retrieving. Radioactive waste storage refers to retention of the waste in a facility
or a location, with an intention of retrieving. Disposal and storage facilities are designed to
contain the waste and to isolate it from the accessible biosphere. Multiple barriers are
provided around the waste. The duration of isolation of the waste from the public is
determined by the half-life and energy of the radionuclides in the waste.

8.12.1 Near Surface Disposal Facility (NSDF)

Solid wastes of category I, II and III are disposed at NSDF [9]. Earthen Trench (ET), Stone
Lined Earth Trench (SLT), Reinforced Concrete Trench (RCT) and Steel Lined Tile Hole
(TH) are different types of NSDFs. As a national policy, each nuclear facility has its own
NSDF. At BARC, Trombay, Radioactive Solid Waste Management Site (RSMS), Trombay
is a NSDF for disposing assorted beta-gamma solid wastes.

8.12.2 Storage and Disposal of HLW

Vitrified wastes are stored in canisters and over-packs for 30-40 years with surveillance.
Decay heat of the waste in removed by natural convective cooling. Solid Storage
Surveillance Facility (SSSF), Tarapur has storage capacity of about 1700 over packs.

8.12.3 Deep Geological Repositories

All solidified high level radioactive wastes have to undergo final disposal in deep
repositories at the depths of hundreds of meters below the surface [14]. A programme for
deep geological repository is being pursued.

8.13 Surveillance
All disposal facilities have provisions for monitoring and surveillance. Groundwater samples
from boreholes are monitored periodically. Soil and vegetation samples from the site are
investigated for uptake of radioactivity. Radiation survey of the site is carried out
periodically. Disposal site is closed by physical security wall to avoid unauthorised access.
Radiation Hazards Control Unit (RHCU) of Radiation Safety Systems Division (RSSD),
BARC provides support for radiation safety surveillance for all the waste management
operations at Trombay.

9. Conclusion

Regulatory control mechanism with legal framework is established to control generation and
disposal of radioactive waste. The policy of waste management is aimed at protection of
human health and the environment, without imposing undue burdens on future generations.
The regulators and facility authorities take utmost care to minimise waste during operation
and maintenance. In India, waste management facilities have been operating safely at
various nuclear installation sites for many decades. Safety of the public and the environment
is achieved by suitable treatment, conditioning, storage and disposal of waste. The
environmental discharges from BARC facilities correspond to only a small fraction of the
exposure limit set by AERB/ BSC.

10. Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges Shri Y. K. Taly, Chairman, BSC for his regulatory activities,
including preparation of regulatory documents. Contributions of Shri S. S. Prasad, Member-
secretary, CRAASDRW; Smt. Sumathi E.; and other BSCS staff are acknowledged for their
support for preparation of the article.

11. References
[1] IAEA, Fundamental Safety Principles, SF-1, 2006
[2] Atomic Energy Act, 1962
[3] Atomic Energy (Safe Disposal of Radioactive Wastes) Rules, 1987
[4] Atomic Energy (Radiation Protection) Rules, 2004
[5] Atomic Energy (Factories) Rules, 1996
[6] Management of Radioactive Waste, AERB/NRF/SC/RW, 2007
[7] Classification of Radioactive Waste, AERB/NRF/SG/RW-1, 2011
[8] Safety Code on Safe Transport of Radioactive Material, AERB/NRF-TS/SC-1 (Rev.1),
2016
[9] Near Surface Disposal of Radioactive Solid Waste, AERB/NRF/SG/RW-4, 2006
[10] Procedure for Renewal of Authorisation for Operation of Radiation Installations, BSC/
SG/2015/2
[11] Authorisation for Procurement, Use and Transfer for Safe Management of Radioactive
Sources in BARC Facilities, BSC/SG/2015/3
[12] Authorisation Procedure for Safe Transfer/ Disposal of Radioactive Waste from BARC
Facilities, BSC/SG/2016/1 (under publication)
[13] Report on Solid Alpha Waste Management in BARC Facilities, BSC/SR/2016/1 (under
publication)
[14] Geological Disposal Facilities for Radioactive Waste, SSG-14, 2011
[15] P. K. Wattal and S. Basu, Radioactive Waste Management Practices in India:
Achievements and Challenges, Science and Culture, Vol. 79, Nos. 1-2, 2013, pp. 46-51
[16] S. D. Misra, Strategies for Safe Management of Radioactive Waste: Present and Future,
Book of Abstracts of the Theme Meeting on Regulatory Aspects of Radioactive Waste
Management, Mumbai, 2007, pp. 9-33.
[17] Smitha Manohar, Actinide Separation Demonstration Facility: A Step towards Making
Nuclear Energy Safer, BARC Newsletter, March-April 2016, pp. 4-7
[18] S. K. Chande, Regulatory Aspects of Radioactive Waste Management in the Nuclear
Power Plants and Associated Facilities, Book of Abstracts of the Theme Meeting on
Regulatory Aspects of Radioactive Waste Management, Mumbai, 2007, pp. 34-41.