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Philosophy and Communication Final Essay

Kyrsten Mitkowski

Christopher Newport University

Philosophy and Communication 1:30-2:45

PHILOSOPHY AND COMMUNICATION FINAL ESSAY 2

Philosophy and Communication Final

Communication studies encompass a variety of different disciplines within its

scholarship including rhetoric, media studies, and interpersonal communication. Rhetoric

is the study of words and thought that influence or persuade the receiver (Mazzotti, 2017,

p. 109). Communication studies began in ancient Greece with the introduction of rhetoric

as a way to function in society. In the Greek culture, trials were held, and typically the

more persuasive citizen would win their case. These jury trials led to the teaching and

studying of different forms of persuasion.

Another branch of the communication discipline is media studies. As technologies

increased, there became an importance to begin studying the media and its effects on

society. These technologies allowed for the dissemination of information, culture, and

values more easily and quickly. Media studies allow for students to analyze better and

criticize the media placed before them every day.

The last branch of communication studies that Christopher Newport University

offers is the interpersonal communication sector. Interpersonal communication focuses

on the connection between individuals, and how to be effective in interaction with one

another. As our society has taken a shift towards a more digital world, interpersonal

communication has become important because there is an increased amount of social

anxiety that comes along with face-to-face interaction, as we have become accustomed to

communicating online (Pierce, 2009).

A Brief History of Communication

Beginning in ancient Greece with the development of the alphabet by Phoenicians,

the alphabet was a technology that allowed for a new standard of communication (Rico &
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Attucci, 2015). Rather than strictly communicating orally, the alphabet enabled dialogue

to be written down, and become disseminated through the masses. Before this

technology, the only way that people could spread ideas was through conversation. In

ancient Rome, the Acta Diurna began as the first known newspaper, which allowed for

only the elite to speak at this time (Author removed at the request of the original

publisher, 2016). Because the news came exclusively from the elite, they were able to

shape the view of the public within the news stories they covered.

As history progressed, the world entered a time known as the industrial revolution.

During this revolution, there was a significant invention that had a monumental effect on

how communication was created. This design was the printing press. The printing press

allowed for a transition from connection through dialogue to communication through

dissemination. The printing press establishes a way for printed communication to be

distributed to the masses more quickly, efficiently, and for little cost (Fussel, 2001).

Access to these resources became more natural, allowing for the spread of different

cultures, religions, and ideas to locations around the globe.

The idea of mass media still exists today; however, as technology has increased

there are multiple mediums that allow for the spread of communication. As we have

moved to a digital age, the creation of the Internet has allowed for the masses to

participate in the spread of values, ethics, ideas, and morals online. It has created a space

for the masses to disseminate information to people of other cultures, in hope to educate

and inform those who differ from one another.

Defining Communication
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Communication involves a broad spectrum of definitions that are difficult to

capture in one description. Of the many meanings, communication can encapsulate, this

essay will focus on communication as a culture. Communication has helped to define

humanity through its characterization of culture. The interaction of words, values, and

ideas - either through face-to-face interactions or social media - make up the context of

the world we live in. Communication as a culture can be seen through technological

advances, participatory culture, and social movement.

Without one, the other does not exist: communication defines culture, and culture

defines communication. Without communication, there is no creation of culture. People

would not be able to share ideas, values, morals, or ethics that make our society think the

way we do today. This is true vice versa as well; culture describes how we will

communicate with one another, what diction will be used when communicating, and the

context of our communication.

Technology has made much advancement throughout history in regards to how

humans communicate and how culture is spread. The alphabet was the first major

advancement in communication as a way to disperse information out to others. Before the

alphabet, the transmission of information was predominantly oral, meaning that the

credibility of this message came from the person speaking to the receiver. The alphabet

led to the formation of written words, and along with those words were meanings that had

to be made. Because the use of the alphabet wasn’t isolated to one specific city, different

meanings came to the same word, according to the cultural origin. The alphabet allowed

for more accuracy and precision when communicating, because the message could be

written down and delivered from sender to receiver without any room for error.
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When the first newspaper began to impact the Roman society, only the elite was

able to speak on what information would be included in this stone-tablet publication

(Author removed at request of original publisher, 2016). Although the report was

mediated and chosen by the wealthy, the Roman culture began a way of communicating

within their society through dissemination. Rather than having to get news via dialogue

with another person, they were able to go straight to the source of information, and gather

the knowledge themselves.

This later shaped history in the industrial revolution with the invention of the

printing press. The printing press allowed for a shift in the way cultures could be spread

from all over the world. The printing press allowed for more materials to be printed at a

lower cost, meaning that more books were printed for the masses. Because of the lower

price, people of all social classes were able to purchase these books and learn about the

way people of other cultures live (Effect of the printing press on Culture and Religion,

n.d.). Information could be spread more quickly to others, which helped to shape the

public's view of “cultural norms” and concepts relating to religion and social groups. For

example, the Bible was able to be printed a multitude of times, allowing for the spread of

Christianity around the world (Fussel, 2001).

Technology has pushed society towards a digital culture, with the invention of the

Internet. Our societal norms have shifted to fit the technology. In our culture, people are

consumed in their digital spaces and have certain expectations as to how communication

will go, according to the medium it is transacted through. This has had an impact on our

culture, and how we view ourselves, and each other. Through mediated spaces, such as

social media, society can create the image of who they want to be, or who culture tells
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them they should be online. As humans, we want to be included in different societal

groups; therefore we try to conform to others we see online.

Another example of an expectation technology would be how in digital culture, we

value speed when it comes to responses from one another. We expect that they will have

access to a smartphone, tablet or other tools at all times, and therefore must respond to us

at any hour of the day. All of these technologies have shaped the world we live in, and

how communication plays a role in that world.

The increase in digital technologies in our world has led to the rise in participatory

culture. This digital culture has shaped our society to become “prosumers, “ who are

“recipients [who] frequently occupy the role of senders, capable of transmitting and

sharing content without renouncing the role of media consumer” (García-Galera &

Valdivia, 2014). Because the media, which helps to shape how we view our cultures, and

our world in general, is run by a few producers, they can be gatekeepers of information.

However, with participatory culture, the prosumers are allowed to fill their digital spaces

with information so much so that the media has to cover the stories, allowing for a more

bottom-up type of communication (Flowerdew, 2017, p. 583). These voices can create a

louder “volume” on the information they are trying to push out when they come together,

and get a discussion flowing online.

One way that these prosumers get conversations to begin is through the use of

memes. Memes are “cultural corollaries to genes, deterministic on a social level

analogous to genes’ biological determinism over individual traits” (Milner, 2016). In

today’s culture, there is a hypermemetic logic, in which any major cultural event, whether

it be in news, popular culture, religion, politics, and so on, will be turned into a meme
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(Sharbaugh, n.d., p. 154). Memes are made by prosumers with three main intentions, for

the meme to be created, distributed, and shared by the public (García-Galera & Valdivia,

2014). As these memes propagate in the online world, they enforce specific views on

situations happening in our culture, and encourage conversation about these events.

One issue that comes from this participatory culture is the issue of power. Our

culture has hegemonic views, meaning we value one culture, society or trait, over the

rest, which gives power to this favored group. Hegemony “illustrate[s] how the state and

civil society produce and maintain consent to the class hierarchies of capitalist society”

(Stoddart, n.d.). Our hegemonic culture favors straight, Caucasian, able-bodied, young,

attractive males (Anderson & White, 2017). According to Carey, “news is a historic

reality. It is a form of culture invented by a particular class at a particular point in

history” (1989). Because this group has a higher power than those who do not fall into

the previously stated categories, their views are more widely accepted by the public. As

media users are putting information out, the stories that align with the hegemonic culture

are more likely to be presented to the mediated audience, rather than a story that will go

against the status quo. This, therefore, reinforces the hegemonic values in our culture, as

the mass media is giving attention to these traits.

As a result of these encouraging conversations about cultural references often

comes social movement. People create communication in our society to make a change in

the political, religious, and societal worlds in areas with which they disagree. This

conversation can be both online through digital spaces, or the coming together of a group

face-to-face. Digitally, one can see social movement through social media spaces, where

people take their opinions online to seek support from other like-minded people. The
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more populated in an online community that an issue becomes, the more attention it will

get.

One way that people draw attention to their issue is through the use of hashtags on

social media. Hashtags allow for other online users to find conversation about a specific

subject more easily. An example of a hashtag used in our culture today is

#BlackLivesMatter. People flood information and conversation onto their digital sites,

forcing the media to converse about this topic as well. Participators do not have to do

anything other than post on their digital spaces to make their voices heard in our digital

world, making social movements easier and cheaper than ever before, and just as

effective (Harcourt, 2011).

These online interactions can facilitate face-to-face movements as well as people in

these communities converse. Through social media, planned protests, marches, and so

forth can be set up, and a larger group can participate in these rallies then would have

been reached without the use of social media. These social movements have helped to

change the way society views our world, and are aided by communication.

These social movements tend to demonstrate the hierarchical power within our

society. The cause associated with the movement displays a non-dominant group within

the culture. Many of the social movements today go against the traits we value in our

hegemonic culture. The hegemonic values each have an opposing social movement that

goes along with them; Caucasian (#BlackLivesMatter movement), straight (LGBTQ

#LoveWins movement), male (Feminist movement) to name a few. Because the culture

has made them be the lesser, they have to use these movements to fight back against the

social norms and create a new benchmark for our cultural views, values, and beliefs.
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Epistemology, Ontology, and Axiology

The way in which a person can identify himself or herself within a culture is

through epistemology. Epistemology is essentially the study of knowledge. Epistemology

tries to explain what humans know and how they know that they know it (Arneson, 2009,

p.349). It is when a person discovers what knowledge they believe to have, that they can

formally decide to be a part of a culture in society. This philosophical theme is broken up

into multiple viewpoints; however, this essay will only focus on a few.

The first viewpoint is rationalism. Rationalists form their body of knowledge based

on innate things, such as logic and reason. Rationalists believe that humans are born with

all the knowledge they need to survive, which is also known as a priori knowledge

(Arneson, 2009, p. 350). Another viewpoint of epistemology is empiricism. Empiricists

base their knowledge solely on senses and experiences. Unlike the rationalists, they do

not believe that people are born with the knowledge they need to understand the world

around them, but rather, believe that humans gain knowledge through past experiences,

which is also known as a posteriori knowledge (Arneson, 2009, p. 350). The last branch

of epistemology that this essay will focus on is realism. Realists believe that “things are

essentially what they seem to be, and furthermore, in our knowledge they are just the

same as they were before entering our consciousness, remaining unchanged by our

experiencing them” (Maheshwari, 2015).

The culture in which one grows up will set the standard for how communication

should be executed, will provide rules for communication, and will exemplify how a

member of society should behave. Because of the influence that the culture one lives in

has over its people, a posteriori knowledge is used. People within a certain culture will
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learn through their experiences with other society members what the “correct” “attitudes”

and “predispositions” to different situations and behaviors should be (Nastasia & Rakow,

2006. Pp. 15-16).

To communication scholars, epistemology, and the way humans create knowledge

works to not only shape their idea of what communication is but will also define how

their research will be conducted. Epistemology gives an idea of what can be truth versus

what is untrue about the surrounding world, and how we view it. Without epistemology,

communication studies would not necessarily be a discipline of study, as we would have

no distinction between truth and falsehood, and how theories would prove themselves to

be correct.

A scholar’s beliefs on knowledge can be tested through the research they

undertake. Research can be conducted in one of two ways; qualitatively and

quantitatively. Qualitative data focuses on “categorical variables,” or variables that are

analyzed through words, categories, and characteristics (“Quantitative and Qualitative

Data,” 2013). Quantitative data on the other hand focuses on the “numerical variables,”

or variables that can be understood through the use of “measurable” numbers

(“Quantitative and Qualitative Data,” 2013). Based on how the scholar views truth will

determine how they chose to conduct their research. If they view truth as measurable,

they will use quantitative data, whereas if they believe that truth is gained through

experience, they are more likely to use qualitative data (Nastasia & Rakow, 2006, pp. 15-

16).

As an emerging scholar in the field of communication, the importance of a

definitive answer, rather than a subjective answer, is something extremely valued when
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conducting research and analyzing data. As someone who likes a right and wrong answer

when analyzing data, quantitative data has proven to be more useful. According to Kover

(2008), and many other scholars, researchers must use both qualitative and quantitative

data when conducting research (p. 664). When a scholar asks the right questions

throughout a study, both “distributions and insights” can be predicted (Kover, 2008, p.

664). When one uses this fact-based method of gathering data, the truth can come to light,

based on proven methods that can be observed by others.

One concept that is closely related to epistemology is ontology, which is the study

of reality. Ontology explains how we view our reality, and how we think of our reality

differently than others (Arneson, 2009, p. 695). Ontology can be looked at from three

different viewpoints; nominalism, realism, and social constructionism. Nominalists view

the objects in the world as abstract and believe that a specific word for an object does not

represent an individual matter. They believe that we construct these objects names with

the actual object in our mind, so it is not the “capital T” truth. Opposing the nominalists

are the realists, who view reality knowledge as independent from human construction.

Social constructionism is the middle ground between nominalism and realism. Social

constructionists believe that the world is constructed by both reality and perceptions

(Arneson, 2009, pp. 696-697).

Within the communication studies major, ontology can be seen throughout the

different perspectives of communication theory. Although many communication scholars

are studying similar topics, the way they conduct their research or view their results may

differ as a result of their ontology. As a former psychology major, the brain, and we view

reality, was something that was frequently studied. When it comes to nature and nurture,
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both play a role in the shaping of one’s world. The nature argument demonstrates how

humans are genetically predisposed to certain knowledge, which shapes how the person

will communicate. Steinem (2005), states that it is in a child’s nature to “expect…

empathy and cooperation [to] help the species survive” (p. 142). The nurture argument

looks further into how society, and the pressures and influences that children face

growing up, shape the way these children view communication, and ultimately how they

decide to communicate (Steinem, 2005, p. 142). Without both nature and nurture playing

a role in one’s life, humans would not be able to adapt to their environment, and the

communication styles needed to successfully converse with another.

Within the nurture argument, one can connect communication theories that play out

in our society. For example, Vygotsky’s “sociocultural theory” explains how “social

interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition” (UNESCO, n.d.).

This theory states that culture plays a key role in the child’s development, and how they

will function on his or her own. Children learn from watching individuals interact and

model behaviors. Therefore, if a child grows up in a certain cultural society, they will

model the language, behaviors, and morals that are communicated to them (UNESCO,

n.d.). This theory further proves the nurture argument of communication.

Another theory that supports the nurture argument in nature versus nurture is

Bandura’s “social learning theory.” The social learning theory states “learning occurs in a

social context with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person, environment, and

behavior” and media examples (LaMorte, 2016). Like the sociocultural theory, this

theory believes learning comes from modeling behaviors that are communicated (Conner

& Norman, 1995). However, this theory involves viewing the reinforcements and
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consequences that come from these behaviors, actions, and beliefs and using them to

guide one’s behavior (Conner & Norman, 1995). Because these individual’s are modeling

things such as the media, these hegemonic values, as stated previously, are reinforced to

the individual, as powerful.

Lastly, the nurture argument goes along with the sociopsychological tradition of

communication, as stated in Craig’s “Communication Theory as a Field.” The

sociopsychological tradition of communication states that communication is the “process

by which individuals interact and influence one another” (Craig, 1999, p. 133). It is

defined by “expression, interaction, and influence” which all play a role in how the child

is going to view communication (Craig, 1999, p. 133). Technology is a channel in which

the few can influence the masses, therefore creating a conformed society with the same

views, beliefs, and communication behaviors.

The driving force behind epistemology and ontology is axiology, as it pushes us to

look further into how we look at how we know what we know, and our reality. Axiology

is the study of value and ethics. Its goal is to explain what our values are and where our

values come from (Arneson, 2009, pp. 69-70). Axiology has two main components,

ethics, and aesthetics. Ethics has to do with one’s morality, while aesthetics has to do

with beauty.

Axiology can be seen within the field of communication within the rhetoric

approach to communication studies. Axiology can be seen when looking at what is

valued in a scholar’s studies and how they choose to advance their position as a student.

Communication scholars will use their axiology when conducting research, to find what

they would like to study, and how they choose to conduct their studies. For example,
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communication scholars who may be interested in researching how the media plays a role

in culture would have to find the most ethical way to use human participants in their

study. These scholars have to decide on which group they are going to represent in their

research, and if it is ethically correct to be a representation of the said group.

As a scholar, the categorical imperative has resonated most in academic work. The

categorical imperative goes against what is morally wrong, and states that you should do

the right thing every time (Johnson, 2005, p. 141). This perspective values honesty,

respect, and integrity. Within the academic world, scholars should be following these

guidelines when turning in their work. As stated previously, truth comes from data that

can be proven observationally through experimentation, and the categorical imperative

coincides with this belief. The categorical imperative states that humans may be used as

resources, however, they should “never be considered solely as tools,” therefore scholars

need to use other means, such as science, as the way to gather data and analyze the

outcomes (Johnson, 2005, p. 142).

As an emerging scholar in the field of communication, axiology has helped to

influence the quality of work produced on assignments, and the academic honesty used

throughout the academic world. Academics are highly valued within our culture. We

come from a world where grade point averages matter for future employment and the

higher the degree one earns, the more power they receive in society. Therefore

schoolwork is always a top priority along with academic honesty. The work produced

from this academic honesty has allowed me to produce work that has challenged the

existing beliefs of society respectably, without placing bias into my work.

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One problem that may emerge when using the categorical imperative perspective is

one’s ethics. People differ in their ethics, so what one may view as wrong, another person

may view as acceptable. Although people have different ethics, Kant states that if one

feel’s guilt, then the action or behavior that they just performed, was morally wrong

(Johnson, 2005, p. 141).

Tensions

One tension in which we must be aware of is dialogue versus dissemination. The

media is present in our every day lives, from the television people watch, the

advertisements seen on the streets, buses, and in magazines, and on the radio listened to

on the way to work. This form of one-way communication allows for a dissemination of

information to the masses, as society cannot speak back to these sources. This constant

disseminated message allows for societal influence over our culture. As hegemonic

messages are being advertised, the power towards this already privileged group increases

as the media reinforces them as the “norm.” Dialogue is not a popular form of

communication within the media. This can be dangerous, as questions about how we

communicate culturally cannot be asked to the one-way form of communication. To

ensure better communication, the dialogue is made from intercultural individuals, who

can explain why we value what we do, behave in the manner we do and communicate in

the fashion we do.

Dialogue versus dissemination pushes us to further analyze our technological

communication versus face-to-face communication. As we make a shift further into a

digital culture, one must evaluate the issues that are consequential to this new world.

Many of the technologies that the media presents are one-way communication. However,
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there are technologies such as “chatbots” or “robots,” like Sophia,” in which one is

having communication with a computer program. As communication scholars, we must

analyze if this, now cultural norm, is two-way or one-way communication. There is a

sender, and a receiver, but the receiver in the “chatbot” scenario is a programmed

response system. Our culture has become normalized to these technologies, but our

studies have yet to find the research behind these new “normal” technologies.

Conclusion

This essay has further analyzed the communication studies discipline, the view of

communication as culture, and the epistemological, ontological, and axiological views of

communication as culture. The three philosophical commitments help to shape a person’s

worldview within a specific culture. Epistemology focuses on how truth is viewed, and

how truth is achieved. Ontology is one’s reality, and how they perceive the world around

them. Lastly, axiology is a person’s values and how those values influence their

epistemology and ontology. Epistemology, ontology, and axiology can all be seen within

the three branches of communication studies; media, interpersonal communication, and

rhetoric. The communication studies discipline has enabled the teaching of culture

through theories, such as the sociocultural theory and social learning theory. Some

studies, such as rhetoric, interpersonal, and media courses, and its teachings about how to

analyze the messages the media sends our society, enabling us to further analyze the role

communication plays in our culture. Through technology, participatory culture, and

social movement, communication can be viewed as furthering the political, religious,

newsworthy, societal values, beliefs, and ethics of our world today. These three branches

of philosophy have given way to communication in our culture.

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