Distance

Distance is the cost of reaching a destination, usually based on the number of hosts the path
passes through, or the total of all the administrative metrics assigned to the links in the path.
Vector
From the standpoint of routing protocols, the vector is the interface traffic will be forwarded
out in order to reach an given destination network along a route or path selected by the
routing protocol as the best path to the destination network.

SMTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is used when email is delivered from an
email client, such as Outlook Express, to an email server or when email is delivered from one
email server to another. SMTP uses port 25.

POP3
POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol. POP3 allows an email client to download an email from an
email server. The POP3 protocol is simple and does not offer many features except for download.
Its design assumes that the email client downloads all available email from the server, deletes
them from the server and then disconnects. POP3 normally uses port 110.

IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. IMAP shares many similar features with POP3.
It, too, is a protocol that an email client can use to download email from an email server.
However, IMAP includes many more features than POP3. The IMAP protocol is designed to let
users keep their email on the server.

Non-persistent

 HTTP/1.0

 server parses request, responds, and closes TCP connection

 2 RTTs to fetch each object

 Each object transfer suffers from slow start

Persistent

 default for HTTP/1.1

 on same TCP connection: server, parses request, responds, parses new request,..

 Client sends requests for all referenced objects as soon as it receives base HTML.

 Fewer RTTs and less slow start.

"When the name space is large, searching a name in hierarchical structure (tree) is much faster
that searching it in a flat structure (linear). The first can use a binary search; the second needs
to use a sequential search."

Segmentation :

1. Segmentation takes place at Layer 4 i.e Transport Layer.

2. This occurs during the original creation of the packets when a set of data doesn’t fit within the
“Maximum Segment Size (MSS)”. The data is then chopped into multiple segments referred
as “Protocol Data Unit”. This process is known as segmentation.
3. Something about MSS : MSS is set as a TCP option initially in the TCP SYN packet during
the 3 way handshake. This value cannot be changed after the connection is established.
Default Maximum TCP segment size = 576 Bytes.
4. In order to avoid Fragmentation (which we will see further) ,
note that (Number of bytes in the data segment + the header) < MTU

B] Fragmentation :

1. Fragmentation takes place at Layer 3 i.e Network Layer.

2. This occurs during the original creation of frames where the network layer must send packets
down to the Data Link Layer for transmission. Some Data Link Layer technologies have
limits on the length of the data that can be sent. Inshort some links have smaller MTU
(Maximum Transmission Unit).
3. If the packet that is to be sent is larger than the MTU then it is chopped. This process is
known as fragmentation. These pieces are reassembled once they arrive at the network layer
of the destination.

advantages of circuit switching

Following are the benefits or advantages of circuit switching type:

➨As there is very less delay for the call to be established and also during the conversation, the circuit switching

network is widely used for realtime voice services throughtout the world since years. There is almost no waiting time

at voice switches used for the call.

➨It will have realistic voice communication and consecutively speaking persons are easily identified due to higher

sampling rates used.

Advantages of virtual circuit switching are:

 Packets are delivered in order,

since they all take the same route;

 The overhead in the packets is smaller,

since there is no need for each packet to contain the full address;

 The connection is more reliable,

network resources are allocated at call setup so that even during times of congestion,
provided that a call has been setup, the subsequent packets should get through;

Advantages of Datagram Approach

1. Datagrams can contain the full destination address rather than

using some number.
2. There is no set up phase required for the datagram circuits. This
means that no resources are consumed.
3. If it happens during a transmission that one router goes down, the
datagrams that will suffer will include only those routers which would
have been queued up in that specific router. The other datagrams will
not suffer.

Advantages of flooting in routing

 If a packet can be delivered, it will (probably multiple times).
 Since flooding naturally utilizes every path through the network, it will also use the shortest path.
 This algorithm is very simple to implement.[citation needed]

Disadvantages[edit]
 Flooding can be costly in terms of wasted bandwidth. While a message may only have one
destination it has to be sent to every host. In the case of a ping flood or a denial of service
attack, it can be harmful to the reliability of a computer network.
 Messages can become duplicated in the network further increasing the load on the networks
bandwidth as well as requiring an increase in processing complexity to disregard duplicate
messages.
 Duplicate packets may circulate forever, unless certain precautions are taken:
 Use a hop count or a time to live (TTL) count and include it with each packet. This value
should take into account the number of nodes that a packet may have to pass through on
the way to its destination.
 Have each node keep track of every packet seen and only forward each packet once.
 Enforce a network topology without loops.