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Chapter 8 – Growing Pains: The New Republic, 1790-1820

8.1 Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans


**Focus – Describe the competing visions of the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans,
identify the protections granted a citizen under the Bill of Rights, Explain Alexander Hamilton’s
financial programs as secretary of the treasury
 New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the federal constitution, and a new plan
for a strong central government went into effect
 Elections for the first U.S. Congress were held in 1788 and 1789, and members too seats
in March 1789

Federalists in Power
 Federalists adhered to a British notion of social hierarchy
 Federalists did not, at first, compose a political party, but held certain share assumptions
o Believed political participation was linked to property rights, which barred many
citizens from voting or holding office
o Believed the Revolution hadn’t changed the traditional social roles between
women and men, or between races
o Believed women, blacks and natives were secondary to white male citizens
o Feared equality, and felt it would destroy the republic
 Architects of the Constitution were committed to leading the new republic
 In 1789, Congress passed the Judiciary Act, creating a Supreme Court of six justices
headed by those who were committed to the new national government
 Tariff Act passed in 1789 which was intended to raise revenue to address the country’s
economic problems
 Passed the fifty-cent-per-ton duty on foreign ships coming into America ports, a move
designed to give commercial advantage to American ships and goods

The Bill of Rights


 Americans opposed the 1787 Constitution because they felt it was a dangerous
concentration of centralized power that threatened the rights and liberties of ordinary
U.S. citizens
o These people were also known as Anti-Federalists (not a political party), that
united, demanding protection for individual rights
o Several states made the passing of a bill of rights a condition of their acceptance
of the Constitution
 James Madison introduced the Bill of Rights which was approved by Congress
o Adopted in 1791, the bill consisted of the first ten amendments to the
Constitution, and outlined many of the personal rights state constitutions already
guaranteed
o This softened the Anti-Federalists’ opposition to the Constitution and gave the
new federal government greater legitimacy among those whom had distrust in the
new centralized power

Alexander Hamilton’s Program


 Hamilton believed a strong federal government could solve many of the new country’s
financial problems
o Knowledgeable of the Atlantic trade, and used it for setting policy
 In 1789, he took up post, and the federal debt was over $53 million; the US was unable to
pay for debts, and was seen as a credit risk to European countries
 Wrote three reports offering solutions to the economic crisis: public credit, banking, and
raising revenue

The Report on Public Credit


 Hamilton believed it was essential to have support of those to whom it owed money: the
wealthy, domestic creditor class as well as foreign creditors
 Hamilton delivered his “Report on Public Credit”, addressing the need of the new
republic to become creditworthy
o Recommended the federal government to honor all its debt, including paper
money issued by the Confederation and the states during the war
o Wanted wealthy American creditors who held large amounts of paper money to
be invested in the future and welfare of the new national government
 Proposed that the federal government sell bonds to the public; this would yield interest
payments
 Heated debate in Congress – Madison felt it cheated poor soldiers, and original note-
holders
 States with large debt supported Hamilton, while states with less debt did not
 Hamilton’s plan to convert notes to bonds worked extremely well to restore European
confidence in the U.S. economy

The Report on a National Bank


 Hamilton hoped to establish a national bank
 Proposed that the new national bank buy up on large volumes of state bank notes and
demanding their conversion into gold
 December 1790, he proposed a Bank of the United States, modeled on the Bank of
England
o Issue loans to American merchants and bills of credit while serving as a
repository of government revenue from the sale of land
o Stockholders and the federal government would own the bank
 Many opposed his proposition, but Washington supported Hamilton, and signed
legislation

The Report on Manufactures


 Addressed the need to raise revenue to pay interest on national debt
 Using the power to tax under the constitution, Hamilton put forth a proposal to tax
American-made whisky
 Knew the importance of promoting domestic manufacturing so they would not have to
rely on imported manufactured goods
o Advocated tariffs on all foreign imports to stimulate production of American-
made goods
o Also proposed federal subsidies to American industries
 With the support of Washington, the entire Hamiltonian economic program received the
necessary support in Congress to be implemented
 In the long run, it helped to rescue the US from its state of near-bankruptcy in the late
1780s
o Marked the beginning of an American capitalism, making the republic
creditworthy, promoting commerce, and setting for the nation a solid financial
foundation
o Facilitated the growth of the stock market

The Democratic-Republican Party and the First Party System


 Madison and Jefferson felt the federal government had overstepped its authority by
adopting Hamilton’s plan; felt it was immoral and offensive – arguing that it turned the
reins of government over to the class of speculators who profited at the expense of
hardworking citizens
 Jefferson believed that yeoman farmers held the key to success and longevity of the
American Republic; felt Hamilton’s program seemed to encourage economic inequalities
and work against yeoman
 Jefferson organized the effort through the publication of the National Gazette as a
counter to the Federalist press – Freneau’s partisan paper attacked Hamilton’s program
and Washington’s administration
 Opposition to the Federalists led to the formation of Democratic-Republican societies
o Democratic-Republicans supported limited government
 Their political efforts against the Federalists were a battle to preserve republicanism, to
promote the public good against private self-interest
 Some Democratic-Republican clubs denounced slavery

Defining Citizenship
 179- Naturalization Act defined citizenship in stark racial terms
 An immigrant had to be a “free white citizen” of good character
o This laid the foundation for the US as a republic of white men
 Citizenship included the right to vote
o However, this only included male property owners or taxpayers
o Not available to women

8.2 The New American Republic


**Focus – identify the major foreign and domestic uprisings of the early 1790s, explain the
effect of these uprisings on the political system of the United States
 France and the United States had a relationship in which they had defeated their common
enemy, Great Britain
 American opinions regarding France diverged because they had undergone their own
revolution; Federalists saw the French Revolution represented as pure anarchy

The French Revolution


 Two ideological camps – Federalists vs Democratic-Republican
 France had become a republic after the fall of their monarchy
o The American Revolution served as an inspiration for French revolutionaries
 After the French King’s execution, the next two years became known as the Terror, a
period of extreme violence against perceived enemies of the revolutionary government
o Advocated direct representative democracy, dismantled Catholicism
 Americans felt the radicalism of the French may affect thinking of those in America
 The French declared war on Great Britain and Holland, demanding the US to repay their
money that was borrowed from France to fund the Revolutionary War
o However, Washington declared the US as neutral because Great Britain would
judge any aid given to France as a hostile act
o Democratic-Republican groups denounced neutrality and declared their support
for French republicans

The Citizen Genet Affair and Jay’s Treaty


 In 1793, the revolutionary French government sent Edmond-Charles Genet to the US to
negotiate an alliance with the US government
o Letters of marque issued – documents authorizing ships and their crews to engage
in piracy – to allow French to arm captured British ships in American ports with
US soldiers
o Organized volunteer American militias to attack Spanish holdings in Americas,
then traveling to Philadelphia to gather support for the French cause
o Washington and Hamilton denounced Genet, knowingly that the French were
trying to start war between the US and Great Britain
 Citizen Genet affair, spurred Great Britain to instruct its naval commanders in the West
Indies to size all ships trading with French, capturing American ships and their cargoes –
ultimately raising tension between the two countries
o in effort to reduce tensions with the US, Great Britain offered to pay for captured
cargoes
o Hamilton was opportunistic and recommended Washington to negotiate; Supreme
Court Justice John Jay was sent to Britain to secure compensation for captured
American ships, and ensure the British leave the Northwest outposts they still
occupied despite the 1783 Treaty of Paris
 1794, Jay’s treaty would cause the British to turn over the frontier posts in the Northwest
and American ships would be allowed to trade freely in the West Indies, as well as
assemble a commission charge to settle colonial debts between US citizens and British
merchants
o Democratic-Republicans saw this as a betrayal of republican France, asserting
that the Federalists favored the idea of aristocracy and monarchy
o Newspapers tried to sway public opinion, by explaining the benefits of commerce
with Great Britain

The French Revolution’s Caribbean Legacy


 French Revolution inspired slave rebellions in the Caribbean
 Thousands of slaves overthrew the brutal system of slavery, taking control of a large
section of the island, burning sugar plantations and killing white planters
 In 1794, French revolutionaries abolished slavery in the French empire
o Toussaint L’Ouverture, a former domestic slave, emerged as a leader in the fight
against Spain and England to secure a Haiti free of slavery and European
colonialism
o Toussaint aligned himself with France
o White refugee planters from Haiti and other French West Indian islands, along
with slaves and free people of color fled to the US and for Louisiana, which was
controlled by Spain at the time
o Refugees raised fear among Federalists that they would bring French radical
ideology to the US; especially among slaveholders and southern whites near the
coastline where refugees fled to

The Whiskey Rebellion


 In 1791, Congress authorized a tax of 7.5 cents per gallon on whiskey and rum, as part of
Hamilton’s financial program
o Sparked the Whiskey Rebellion in four western Pennsylvania counties
o Farmers depended on the sale of whiskey, but some citizens viewed the new tax
as a new national government favoring the commercial class on the Eastern
seaboard, in expense of farmers in the West
o Supporters argued that it helped stabilize the economy
 Whiskey rebels used violence and intimidation to protest policies
o Tarred and feathered federal officials, and intercepted federal mail, as well as
intimidate wealthy citizens
o Their discontent found expression in their plan to form an independent western
commonwealth, beginning negotiations with British and Spanish representatives
to secure support for independence; circulating an idea of succession
 Whiskey rebels aligned themselves w/Democratic-Republican party
o Party saw this as turning the US into a monarchy and stripping away republican
liberty
o The federal government ultimately lowered the tax, but when federal officials
tried to subpoena those distillers who remained intractable, trouble escalated
o Washington issued a 13,000 militia to put down the rebellion; demonstrated that
the government would ensure the survival of the US

Washington’s Indian Policy


 1790 Naturalization Act made clear, that Indians were not citizens
 After independence, white settlers poured into lands west of the Appalachian Mountains
o State of war existed on the frontier against white settlers and Indians
o For the most part, the Shawnee and Miami defender their land against increasing
numbers of white settlers
 Washington appointed General Anthony Wayne to bring the Western Confederacy to
heel – Battle of Fallen Timbers, Wayne was victorious yielding the Treaty of Greensville,
giving up their claims to Ohio
8.3 Partisan Politics
**Identify key examples of partisan wrangling between the Federalists and Democratic-
Republicans, describe how foreign relations affected American politics, assess the importance of
Louisiana Purchase
 Washington refused to settle for a third term, setting a future precedent for future
presidents
 Federalists and Democratic-Republican competed for the first time

The Presidency of John Adams


 American republic had no control over European events, and no real leverage to obtain its
goals of trading freely in the Atlantic
 French directory issues decrees stating that any ship carrying British goods could be
seized on the high seas
 French foreign minister, Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, sent emissaries who told the
American envoys that the US must repay all outstanding debts, lend 32 million guilders
(Dutch currency), and pay a 50,000-pound bribe
o The bribe was known as XYZ affair, which President Adams released to
Congress, which outraged the American public which shed light to the Federalist
in which they were correct with their interpretations
 In order to capitalize upon trade, and undermine France’s hold on the island, Congress
ended the ban with Haiti

The Alien and Sedition Acts


 Alien and Sedition acts, aimed to increase national security against the French menace
o Gave the president the power to deport new arrivals who appeared to be a threat
to national security
 Imposed harsh penalties – up to five years of imprisonment and a massive fine – on those
convicted of speaking or writing against the government of the US
 These acts raised constitutional questions about freedom of the press under the First
Amendment
o Democratic-Republicans argued that they were acts of Federalists’ intent to deny
individual liberties and centralizing power to the government
 Jefferson and Madison responded to the acts by statements known as the Virginia and
Kentucky Resolutions arguing against the acts in that they were illegal and
unconstitutional
o Introduced the idea of nullification
o Advanced argument of state’s rights
o Many states rejected the idea because they believed in a strong national
government
 Quasi-War with France ended when President Adams secured the Treaty of
Mortefontaine – opening talks France, and reopened trade between the US and France

The Revolution of 1800 and the Presidency of Thomas Jefferson


 Revolution of 1800 refers to the first transfer of power from one party to another in US
history – The Democratic-republican party
 Speculation that there would be a violent dilemma in the transfer, but did not occur
o Passing of a political party to another without bloodshed set an important
precedent
 Jefferson favored participatory democracy, a departure from the Federalist view
o Granted participation to the white yeoman farmers in which he placed great trust
o Believed in majority rule, to the majority of yeoman more specifically
o Cheered the French revolution, but redacted his support when Napoleon seized
power to create a dictatorship
 Reelected in 1804, effectively reversing the policies of the Federalist Party
 Believed in fiscal austerity – pushing congress to end all internal taxes, such as those on
whiskey and rum
 Did not believe in maintaining a costly military
 Became a period of one party national politic – Historians refer these years between
1815-1828 the “Era of Good Feelings”

Partisan Acrimony
 Controversy was imminent during President Adam’s reign of many Federalists serving as
judicial appointments; Jefferson refused to have Federalist justices
 Judicial review granted the Supreme Court asserted power to review the actions of
Congress and the president

The Louisiana Purchase


 Jefferson purchased the Louisiana territory from France for $15 million – a bargain price,
considering the amount of land involved
 Enhanced Jefferson’s vision of the US becoming an agrarian republic in which yeomen
farmers worked the land
 Geographical knowledge was limited at the time, and how long it would take to get to the
Pacific – Jefferson selected two Virginians, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead
an expedition to the new western land
o Purpose was to discover the commercial possibilities of the new land and
potential trade routes

8.4 The United States goes Back to War


**Focus – Describe the causes and consequences of the War of 1812, identify the important
events of the War of 1812 and explain the significance
 War of 1812 often called the Second War of American Independence, are unresolved
issues between the US and Great Britain
 British still practiced impressment, whereby American sailors were taken at sea and
forced to fight on British warships – unresolved by Jay’s Treaty in 1794
 British in Canada supported Indians in their fight against US expansion in the Great
Lakes region

The Embargo of 1807


 In 1807, the HMS Leopard, a British warship fired at the Chesapeake, a US naval ship,
ultimately boarding the ship and taking four US sailors
o Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act, prohibiting American ships from
leaving their ports until Britain and France stopped seizing them on the high seas;
American commerce came to a halt
o In theory, the embargo would cut off all trade severely hurting Britain and France;
however, the embargo had some effect on the British economy, but also hurt the
Americans
 The embargo affected American farmers, whom could no longer sell goods overseas, and
seaport cities experienced an increase in unemployment and bankruptcy
 American business declined by 75 percent from 1808-1809
 Smuggling was widespread – especially, in British Canada
 At the end of Jefferson’s second term, he signed the Non-Intercourse Act of 1808, lifting
the unpopular embargoes on trade except with Britain and France

Tecumseh and the Western Confederacy


 Another underlying cause of the War of 1812 was British’s support to native resistance to
US expansion
 Under Jefferson, two Indian policies existed:
o Forcing Indians to adopt American ways of agricultural life
o Aggressively driving Indians into debt in order to force them to sell their lands
 William henry Harrison, the governor of the Indiana Territory, attempted to eliminate the
native presence – the Battle of Tippecanoe, US forces destroyed the settlement, finding
British supplies (weapons)

The War of 1812


 Congress authorized the president to declare war against Britain in June 1812
 At first, this hurt Americans, losing control of half the Northwest; Americans regained
ground the following year with Captain Oliver Hazard Perry defeating the British on
Lake Erie, the battle of Thames in Ontario, opening the Michigan and Indiana territories
 British gained the upper-hand during the Napoleonic Wars, so they diverted their skilled
combat troops from Europe to the US
o In July 1814, 45,000 troops sailed to the Chesapeake Bay, and burned
Washington DC to the ground, forcing president Madison to flee
 The War of 1812 was very unpopular in New England, inflicting further economic harm
o Federalists resented the power of slaveholding Virginians; the depth of their
discontent were further illustrated by the proceedings of December 1814 Hartford
Convention
o 26,000 Federalists in CT issued New England to secede from the US,
undermining the party, leading to its downfall

Epilogue: The Battle of New Orleans


 last battle in the War of 1812 happened after the Treat of Ghent, ending the war
 Andrew Jackson devastated the British, killing over two thousand – successfully
defending New Orleans and the vast Mississippi River Valley
 The Battle of New Orleans launched Jackson to national prominence as a war hero,
emerging him as the head of the new Democratic Party

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