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WV
σ = (1)
vgr
1
energies infinitesimally close to the energy of the initial state—the result for
the rate of the reaction corresponds to the Golden Rule.2
The algorithm
Solving this or that scattering (or decay) problem involves the following steps:
2. Write the Golden Rule for the rate (total or differential) in the form of
summation over the momenta of the products of reaction. Restore ~.
3. Replace the summation over the momenta with integrals [see solution to
the Problem 4 for details]. Upon restoring ~, it is slightly more convenient
to integrate over the wave vectors rather than momenta.4
4. If you need the cross-section, find it from the rate by the formula (1).
5. Restore V. For the cross-section, this step is irrelevant since the cross-
2
A slight reservation should be made for resonant scattering of two particles, where
the semi-perturbative treatment should be upgraded by applying the general theory of
resonant scattering developed in corresponding section of the lecture notes.
3
The formalism of second quantization is extremely convenient/visual, even if we are
talking of one particle only. Furthermore, even for solving a purely classical problem of
kinetics of weakly-nonlinear classical Hamiltonian field, it makes a perfect sense to treat
the field as a bosonic field with large occupation numbers.
4
Since at ~ = 1, the momentum and the wave vector is the same, yet another natural
option is to delay restoring ~ till the very end of calculation.
2
section does not depend on the volume.
Let us see how the above-described algorithm works for the problem of scat-
tering a particle by a weak potential. Let U be a typical value of the potential
and R0 be a typical range of the potential. Let the wave vector of the particle
satisfy the condition
k . R0−1 . (2)
Under this condition, the criterion of applicability of the Born approximation
can be immediately established by dimensionless analysis. Indeed, for the
scattering interaction to be appropriately small, U has to be much smaller
than a certain characteristic quantity having the dimensions of energy. Since
we have only three parameters to construct such a quantity: particle mass m,
the range of the potential R0 , and the Planck’s constant ~. The combination
of the three is unique, and we get:
~2
U . (3)
mR02
Obviously, at k R0−1 , the criterion gets only milder. Hence, condition (3)
is sufficient for the applicability of Born approximation at any k.
In the second-quantized form, the interaction part of our Hamiltonian
3
reads5 Z
V = d3 r Ψ̂† (r)U (r)Ψ̂(r). (4)
where Z
Uq = e−iq·r U (r) d3 r (6)
is the Fourier transform of the potential. This completes Step 1 of the algo-
rithm.
Step 2 gives the following result for the (total) rate:
2 0 2
~2 k 2
2π X 2 ~ (k )
W = |Uk0 −k | δ − .
~ k0 2m 2m
Here k and k0 are the wave vectors before and after the scattering, respec-
tively.
Step 3 brings us to
2 0 2
~2 k 2 d3 k 0
Z
2π 2 ~ (k )
W = |Uk0 −k | δ −
~ 2m 2m (2π)3
Z
m
= 2 3 |Uk0 −k |2 δ[(k 0 )2 − k 2 ] d3 k 0 .
2π ~
Recalling that
d3 k 0 = (k 0 )2 dk 0 dΩk0 ,
5
For definiteness, we work in 3D.
4
where Ωk0 is the solid angle of the vector k0 , we see that we can integrate
over k 0 and get
Z
mk
W = 2 3 |Uk0 −k |2 dΩk0 , (k 0 = k).
4π ~
Incidentally, in many cases we are interested in the differential rather than
total rate. For the differential rate (of scattering into an infinitesimal solid
angle dΩk0 along the vector k0 ) we have
mk
dWk0 = 2 3
|Uk0 −k |2 dΩk0 (k 0 = k).
4π ~
Step 4 yields
m2
dσ = 2 4 |Uk0 −k |2 dΩk0
k0 (k 0 = k) (7)
4π ~
(for the differential cross-section) and
m2
Z
σ= 2 4 |Uk0 −k |2 dΩk0 (k 0 = k) (8)
4π ~
(for the total cross-section).
Step 5 proves trivial for the cross-section, since the cross-section is not sup-
posed to depend on the volume. The volume appears only if we go back from
the cross-section to the rate, using (1). The algorithm is completed.
A dramatic simplification of the scattering picture takes place at
k R0−1 .
In this limit, Uk0 −k ≈ U0 , where
U0 ≡ Uq=0 .
The momentum-independence of Uk0 −k means that the scattering is isotropic
(the so-called s-scattering):
m2 |U0 |2
dσ = dΩk0 (k R0−1 ). (9)
4π 2 ~4
The integral over the solid angle becomes trivial, and for the total cross-
section we get
m2 |U0 |2
σ= (k R0−1 ). (10)
π~4
5
Problem 24. A particle of the mass m and the wave vector k interacts
with a two-level system (TLS). In its eigenstate basis, the non-interacting
Hamiltonian of TLS is
∆ 0
HTLS = (∆ > 0).
0 0
In the same basis, the interaction with the particle is described by the inter-
action Hamiltonian
0 1
V = U (r) ,
1 0
where U (r) is a short-ranged weak (i.e. Born) potential (r is the particle’s
coordinate). The range R0 of the potential is such that
kR0 1.
Use the Golden Rule—justified by the weakness of the potential—to find the
scattering cross-section for the particle in two characteristic cases:
(i) When the initial state of TLS is the state with the energy ∆,
(ii) When the initial state of TLS is the state with the zero energy.
Observe that—and explain why (!)—in the case (ii) [but not necessarily in
the case (i)] the actual potential U (r) can be replaced with U0 δ(r). In both
cases (i) and (ii), discuss two characteristic limits: (a) k 2 /m ∆ and (b)
∆ k 2 /m.
Consider the whole perturbative series using the following technical trick.
Introduce time dependence of the perturbation by V → V eλt , with λ > 0,
and work in the interaction picture starting from t0 = −∞. The idea behind
the trick is the quasi-instant rate, Wλ (t), taking place at small λ:
Wλ (t) = e2λt W [1 + O(λt∗ )],
where W is the (constant) rate at λ = 0 and t∗ is the characteristic time
given by
k2
−1 1
t∗ ∼ max , .
mR02 m
6
The leading effect of the exponential pre-factor is simply rescaling the am-
plitude of the perturbation. In the end of calculations, we are supposed to
take the limit λ → +0.
We have
X
Vt = eλt Uk0 −k â†k0 âk (Schrödinger’s picture) (11)
k,k0
k2
. k = (13)
2m
For the evolution operator, U(t, t0 ), in the interaction picture we have (see
Problem 14; set t0 = −∞):
Z t Z t Z t1
1 2
U(t, −∞) = 1 + (−i) dt1 V (t1 ) + (−i) dt1 dt2 V (t1 )V (t2 ) + . . .
−∞ −∞ −∞
Z t Z t1 Z tn−1
n
+ (−i) dt1 dt2 · · · dtn V (t1 )V (t2 ) · · · V (tn ) + . . . .
−∞ −∞ −∞
Let |qi be the state in the Fock space with only one particle in the system
occupying the mode with the momentum q. Using (12), for the matrix
element of the operator U(t, −∞) between two states, |ki and |k0 i, we find
Z t
0
hk | U(t, −∞)|ki = δk0 ,k − iUk0 −k dt1 e(ik0 −ik +λ)t1 +
−∞
XZ t Z t1
+ (−i) 2
dt1 dt2 Uk0 −p1 e(ik0 −ip1 +λ)t1 Up1 −k e(ip1 −ik +λ)t2 + . . .
p1 −∞ −∞
The integration over time can be readily performed. In the n-th term, we
integrate sequentially, starting from tn , and observing that each next inte-
gration deals with (and results in) a similar exponential function:
Z t Z t1 Z tn−1
(−i) n
dt1 dt2 · · · dtn e(ik0 −ip1 +λ)t1 e(ip1 −ip2 +λ)t2 · · · e(ipn−1 −ik +λ)tn
−∞ −∞ −∞
7
e(ik0 −ik +λ)t 1 1 1
= ··· .
k − k + iλ k − p1 + iλ k − p2 + iλ
0 k − pn−1 + iλ
We see that each of the terms of the series—apart from the very first delta-
functional one—share one and the same factor
e(ik0 −ik +λ)t
.
k − k0 + iλ
All by itself, this proves the semi-perturbative character of the process. In-
deed, pulling out this factor, we get
m2
dσk0 =2 4
|F (k0 , k)|2 dΩk0 (k 0 = k), (16)
4π ~
m2
Z
σ= 2 4 |F (k0 , k)|2 dΩk0 (k 0 = k). (17)
4π ~
One can even introduce a (k-dependent) pseudo-potential for which F (k0 , k)
will formally look like the Born amplitude.
Problem 25. Derive (16) directly from (14), without resorting to the Golden
Rule analogy.7 Hint. Start with the relation (1) between the cross-section
6
Note the macroscopic smallness—controlled by an arbitrarily large system volume—of
the second term in the r.h.s. of (14).
7
Other way around, the analogy between (14) and (15) means that here we automati-
cally re-derive the Golden Rule (Born) result (7).
8
and the rate. Then calculate the rate—via probability—from (14) and take
the limit λ → +0.
F (k0 , k) = Uk0 −k + Uk0 −p1 G(p1 )Up1 −k + Uk0 −p1 G(p1 )Up1 −p2 G(p2 )Up2 −k + . . .
. . . + Uk0 −p1 G(p1 )Up1 −p2 G(p2 )Up2 −p3 · · · G(pn )Upn −k + . . . , (18)
with
1
G(p) = . (19)
k − p + iλ
[For clarity, we do not show the dependence of G on k, since k, as opposed
to p, is a fixed parameter.] In some cases, this series is convergent and can
be used for practical calculations of F (k0 , k).
Algebraically, the structure of the expansion is similar to the geometric
series. In particular, we have:
Uk0 −p1 G(p1 )Up1 −k + Uk0 −p1 G(p1 )Up1 −p2 G(p2 )Up2 −k + . . . =
Replacing summation with integration, using explicit form for G, and also
recalling that we need to take the limit λ → +0, we arrive at the following
integral equation for F (k0 , k):
d3 p Uk0 −p F (p, k)
Z
0
F (k , k) = Uk0 −k + lim . (20)
λ→+0 (2π)3 k − p + iλ
8
To compactify the expression, we omit the summation signs, adopting the convention
that there is a summation over all the momenta different from k and k0 .
9
A very instructive case is the k → 0 limit for a short-ranged potential.
Here we have
d3 p Uk0 −p F (p, 0)
Z
0
F (k , 0) = Uk0 − . (21)
(2π)3 p
then Eq. (21) will look like a relationship between the genuine and pseudo
potentials:
(psd)
d3 p Uq−p Up
Z
(psd)
Uq = Uq − . (22)
(2π)3 p
The q → 0 limit is well defined (i.e., it is direction-independent no matter
(psd)
what is the direction dependence of Uq and thus Uq ):
(psd)
d3 p U−p Up
Z
(psd)
lim Uq(psd) ≡ U0 = U0 − .
q→0 (2π)3 p
10
Rather than dealing with the scattering rate and, correspondingly, the
evolution operator, we will start with the wave packet formulation and show
that the problem of finding/analyzing scattering cross-section reduces to un-
derstanding the asymptotic behavior of a stationary solution of the Schr̈odinger
equation with appropriate boundary conditions. In this formulation, we start
with a large plane-wave packet as an initial state and a superposition (with
asymptotically vanishing spatial overlap ) of the plane-wave packet and a
spherical-wave packet in the limit of t → ∞. Let dpr̂ be the probability for
the particle to get scattered into an infinitesimal solid angle of the magnitude
dΩ and the radial direction r̂. From the properties of the Schr̈odinger equa-
tion, we know that dpr̂ can be represented as an integral of the probability
flux through an element of the spherical surface corresponding to the solid
angle in question. The radius of the surface has to be appropriately large
(and otherwise arbitrary). The flux is a product of the local flux density
jout (r, t) and the area r2 dΩ of the element of the sphere. We thus have
Z ∞
2
dpr̂ = r dΩ dt jout (r, t).
−∞
The subscript “out” is to remind that here we are talking of the outgoing
spherical wave created as a result of scattering of the plane-wave packet.
By definition, the differential cross-section dσr̂ is an infinitesimal area of the
surface (normal to the wave-vector of the incident plane wave), such that
the probability dpr̂ is equal to the integral over the time of the plane-wave
probability flux through this area. Hence
Z ∞
dpr̂ = dσr̂ dt jin (t) (defenition of cross-section),
−∞
where jin (t) is the (spatially uniform) flux density in the incident plane wave
in the vicinity of the scattering center.
The size of the wave packet has to be appropriately large to guarantee
the quasi-steady-state regime when jout and jin are related to each other as
Q(r̂)
jout (r, t) = jin (t − t0 ) .
r2
Here t0 is a certain time delay that has no effect on the integral over time.
The denominator r2 takes into account the decrease of the flux density in a
spherical wave so that the numerator Q(r̂) depends only on the direction but
11
not on r. Crucially important is the fact that Q(r̂) does not depend on the
shape of the packet and can actually be found from the stationary solution.
Equating two expressions for dpr̂ , we conclude that
dσr̂ = Q(r̂) dΩ
f (r̂) ikr
ψk (r) → eikz + e (r → ∞). (25)
r
The initial wave packet at the time moment t = 0 has the form
Z ∞
ψpacket (r, t = 0) = Λ(q)ψk+q (r) e−iqz0 dq, (26)
−∞
12
totally neglect it in the t → ∞ limit. The desired ratio of (probability) flux
densities, Q(r̂), is thus given by the the flux density corresponding to the
second term in the r.h.s. of (25)over the flux density corresponding to the
first term in the r.h.s. of (25). Recalling that, for any wave function ψ, the
vector of the probability flux density is given by (here we restore ~)
i~
j= (ψ∇ψ ∗ − ψ ∗ ∇ψ), (27)
2m
which, for the plane-wave part of the stationary solution (25) yields k/m,
and r̂|f (r̂)|2 k/mr2 for the radial part, we conclude that
Q(r̂) = |f (r̂)|2 .
13
In accordance with (25), all the incoming spherical waves ∝ e−ikr are sup-
posed to belong to the plane-wave part of the solution. This fixes the values
of all the coefficients Al . With the known expansion for the plane wave
∞
1 X
ikz
(2l + 1)Pl (cos θ) (−1)l+1 e−ikr + eikr
e → (r → ∞), (31)
2ikr l=0
we get
∞
1 X
(2l + 1)Pl (cos θ) (−1)l+1 e−ikr + Sl eikr
ψk (r) → (r → ∞). (32)
2ikr l=0
On the other hand, calculating the elastic cross-section, σe , for the elastic
channel—in accordance with (30), using (33) and (34)—we get
∞
π X
σe = (2l + 1)|1 − Sl |2 . (36)
k 2 l=0
14
We see that inelastic scattering, if present, inevitably implies elastic one, by
the condition |Sl | =
6 1. Another generic observation is that the cross-sections
σe and σi (and thus σtot ) are sums of independents contributions—called par-
tial cross-sections—for each l-channel.
Problem 26. Perform all the calculations leading to Eqs. (35) through (37).
For each partial cross-section, find its maximal possible value.
15
realizing that at r → 0, a generic solution of (40) diverges, while the physical
solution has to be finite. This leads to the boundary condition at r = 0
requiring that Rkl (r) be finite at r → 0.
16
cross-section, the result should be expressed in terms of either the energy, or
momentum, or velocity, but not the wave vector.
Breit-Wigner resonances
Let the momentum of the particle be small comapred to the inverse range of
interaction:
k R0−1 . (44)
Then, in the range of distances such that R0 r k −1 , equation (40)
simplifies. The potential and the k 2 terms can be neglected:
1 d 2 dRkl l(l + 1)
2
r − Rkl = 0 (R0 r k −1 ), (45)
r dr dr r2
leading to the solution
(l)
(l) c2
Rkl = c1 r l + l+1 (R0 r k −1 ), (46)
r
(l) (l)
where c1 and c2 are certain constants. Then, solving the equation13
1 d 2 dRkl 2 l(l + 1)
r + k − Rkl = 0 (r R0 ). (47)
r2 dr dr r2
13
Because of the absence of the external potential, the solutions are simply the spherical
waves, the eigenstates of the radial part of the Laplace operator.
17
with the boundary condition (46), one finds14
(l)
c2 k 2l+1
tan δl = (l)
. (48)
c1 (2l − 1)!!(2l + 1)!!
k −1 max(|al |, R0 ). (49)
and, applying (39) for the partial cross-section in the l-th channel we have
18
a remarkable contrast to the generic case—a very sharp dependence of |al |
on k, with |al | R0 in the vicinity of the resonance, and, in particular,
|al | = 1/k at the resonance.
Crucially different from Breit-Wigner resonances are the so-called broad res-
onances, when the regime
|al | R0 (53)
occurs in a certain channel l, with k-independent al . Such an anomalous
increase of |al | takes place in the vicinity of the threshold of forming a bound
state in corresponding channel, with |al | = ∞ right at the threshold. For the
resonant condition (53) to take place, the side with respect to the binding
(l)
threshold16 is not important. The threshold corresponds to c1 = 0, the sign
(l) (l)
of the ratio c1 /c2 defining the side with respect to the threshold. For |al |
(l)
to be anomalously large, the coefficient c1 has to be appropriately close to
zero, irrespectively of its sign.
With the condition (53), we have two typical regions of k. The region of
very small k’s is defined by the condition (49). Here Eqs. (50) through (52)
apply. A new type of behavior, specific for the broad resonances only, takes
place in the interval
|al |−1 k R0−1 .
Here from (48) we find
so that the partial cross-section in the l-th channel is equal to its maximal
possible value:
4π(2l + 1)
σl = (|al |−1 k R0−1 ). (55)
k2
To trace how the regime (55) crosses over to the asymptotic regime (51)–
(52), and also to explicitly see the role of the binding threshold, let us explore
16
That is, the presence or absence of a weakly bound state.
19
in more detail the most important case of resonant s-scattering. With the
substitution R(r) = χ(r)/r, we cast Eq. (47) into
χ00 + k 2 χ = 0. (56)
χ0
= −κ, (57)
χ r→0
with
c1 1
κ = − ≡ . (58)
c2 as
Solving the problem (56)–(58) one finds the expression for the phase shift:
κ
cot δ0 = − ,
k
and then the expression for the scattering amplitude17
1 1 1
e2iδ0 − 1 =
f = = − .
2ik k(cot δ0 − i) κ + ik
For the total cross-section we thus get
4π
σ = 4π|f |2 = (59)
κ2 + k2.
Equation (59) is consistent with Eqs. (55) and (52) in the regions of applica-
bility of the latter, and is accurate in the crossover region k|as | = k/|κ| ∼ 1.
At κ > 0, there is a bound state χ(r) = e−κr . Its energy is readily found
2mE ~2 κ 2
χ00 + χ=0 ⇒ E = − .
~2 2m
The resonant condition |as | R0 implies that the wave function of the
bound state is localized mostly outside the range of interaction. Consistent
with that, we have |E| ~2 /(mR02 ), meaning that the binding is weak com-
pared to the characteristic energy scale ~2 /(mR02 ).
17
The total scattering amplitude here essentially coincides with the s-scattering ampli-
tude, because the other channels are suppressed by the smallness of k.
20
Scattering of identical particles
In the center-of-mass frame, in the initial state, |ii, there are two particles
with the opposite momenta, k and −k. In the final state, |f i, there are two
particles with momenta k0 and −k0 . In the Hamiltonian (60), there are four
terms leading from |ii to |f i:
Term 1: k1 = k, k2 = −k, q = k − k0 ,
Term 2: k1 = −k, k2 = k, q = k0 − k,
Term 3: k1 = k, k2 = −k, q = k + k0 ,
Term 4: k1 = −k, k2 = k, q = −k − k0 .
Term 1 equals Term 2 and Terms 3 equals Term 4, so that we are left with
only two different terms:
U|k−k0 | â†k0 â†−k0 â−k âk + U|k+k0 | â†−k0 â†k0 â−k âk .
where the sign plus (minus) is for bosons (fermions). Going from microscopic
interaction Hamiltonian (61) to the effective pseudo-perturbative Hamilto-
nian amounts to the replacement
21
The resulting effective Hamiltonian reads
22
with
4π~2 as
U∗ = (67)
m
playing the role of effective coupling constant.
In the center-of-mass frame, in the initial state, |ii, there are two particles
with the opposite momenta, k and −k. The particle with the momentum
k is in the spin state σa , and the particle with the momentum −k is in the
spin state σb . The spin states can be the same or different.20
In the final state, |f i, there are two particles with momenta k0 and −k0 ,
and the same spin states.21 Without loss of generality, we will assume that
the momentum k0 is associated with the σa spin state, and the momentum
−k0 is associated with the σb spin state. Similarly to the case of spinless
particles, in the Hamiltonian (68), there are four terms leading from |ii to
|f i:
23
As previously, Term 1 equals Term 2 and Terms 3 equals Term 4,22 and we
are left with only two different terms:
U|k−k0 | (σa , σb ; σb , σa ) â†k0 σa â†−k0 σb â−kσb âkσa
where S stands for the total spin of the two particles (say, S = 0 and S = 1,
(S)
if our two particles are spin-1/2 particles), Uq is the Fourier component of
the potential in this channel,23 and
PS (σ4 , σ3 ; σ2 , σ1 )
is the matrix of the projector onto the S-channel. After separating out spin
degrees of freedom, going from microscopic interaction Hamiltonian to the
effective pseudo-perturbative Hamiltonian amounts to the replacement
(S) (S)
U|k−k0 | → F (S) (k0 ,k), U|k+k0 | → F (S) (−k0 , k),
leading to the effective Hamiltonian
X
F (S) (k0 ,k)PS (σa , σb ; σb , σa ) ±
S
22
Here we also take into account that the indistinguishability of the particles implies
Uq (σ4 , σ3 ; σ2 , σ1 ) = Uq (σ3 , σ4 ; σ1 , σ2 ) .
23
Normally, the potential or, speaking generally, interaction, is S-dependent.
24
± F (S) (−k0 , k)PS (σb , σa ; σb , σa ) â†k0 σa â†−k0 σb â−kσb âkσa .
(70)
In terms of the scattering amplitudes f (S) (θ), we have
m X (S)
− f (θ)PS (σa , σb ; σb , σa ) ±
4π~2 S
25