Unit – 1 Understanding Science

NATURE AND SCOPE OF SCIENCE

Science is a body of knowledge

Science is a method of inquiry, a way of investigating
Science is an attitude towards life: a way of thinking.
Science as a body of knowledge – Various types of scientific knowledge exist in the form of facts, concepts,
principles, laws, hypothesis & theories.
Science as a process –
The various processes of science can be classified into five categories:
 Collection of data
 Analysis of data
 Synthesis of data
 Evaluation of data
 Application of generalizations to new situations
Science as a product –The basic components of the product of science are facts, concepts, principles, theories &
laws.
Science as both a process and a product – Science is both a body of knowledge & the process of acquiring it.
Science viewed as a method of inquiry
 Identification of the problem
 Observations
 Hypothesis based on observations
 Testing
 The hypothesis is supported, rejected or modified.
Science as an attitude towards life – a person with scientific attitude will have the following characteristics:
 Open mindedness
 Objectivity
 Freedom from belief in superstitions
 Belief in cause – effect relationship
 Accuracy & truthfulness in reporting observations
 Methodical way of solving problem on hand
 Up-to-dateness
 Respect for other people's opinion, though he may not agree with them
 Ability to distinguish between scientific evidence & scientific proof
 Ability to discern between fact & fiction

AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

 Knowledge :
 Fundamental concepts useful in daily life
 Relationship of different branches of science
 Scientific facts
 Plants & animals
 Natural processes
 Skills : Experimentation, Construction, Observation, Drawing etc.

 Abilities :
 Sense a problem
  Organize & interpret
 Analyse
 Generalise
 Predict
 Organise exhibitions/fairs
 Discuss, argue & express scientific terms
 Improvise & manipulate instruments
 Attitude :
 Critical in observation & thought
 Open minded
 Respectful to others’ viewpoint
 In search of – What/Why/How of things he observes
 Objective approach
 Not a believer in superstition
 Follow cause & effect relationship
 Truthful & Unbiased
 Planned
 Appreciation : of natural beauty, scientific inventions, scientists, scientific mysteries etc.
 Training for better living : prevention of diseases, maintain good health, adjust to domestic, social, economic
& cultural conditions.
 Forming basis of career : to understand his own self & career interest & pursue the same!

SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS OF KNOWLEDGE

Enquiry refers to seeking knowledge or information by asking questions. It is sometimes equated with research,
investigation, or 'search for truth'.

Scientific inquiry generally

 Aims to obtain knowledge

 in the form of Testable explanations that can be used to
 predict the results of future experiments.

With scientific enquiry we can develop skills such as critical thinking, collaborative working, consideration of
alternatives and effective communication.

Enquiry-based learning starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios—rather than simply presenting established
facts across different domains of knowledge:

 History: Why didn’t early man wear clothes? Why did British came to India? Why did Hitler kill Jews? Etc.
 Geography: Why is Shillong colder than Tura? How do seasons change? Why earthquake happens?
 Economics: Why sometimes onion or petrol price rise or fall? Why is India poor & USA rich?
 Computers: Why some computers are faster than others? How is computer becoming smaller?
 Language: Why some English words have silent letters & tricky pronunciations?

SOCIAL, CULTURAL, ETHICAL, VOCATIONAL AND UTILITARIAN VALUES OF SCIENCE

There is an unfortunate common perception that scientists are cold, hard people. That they are only interested in
objective facts and are emotionless.

Work & Discipline:

Science is a difficult field to be successful in. Nothing gets done in science without a great deal of hard work, long
hours, and the discipline.
Honesty:
As scientists, you cannot steal the work of other scientists.

Reason:
Problems aren’t assumed to be solved by tradition, faith, or simply trusting someone’s word. Finding true reasons
helps find true solutions.

Community:
Scientists are part of a larger scientific community.

Questioning & Critical Thinking:

Scientists are encouraged to question and challenge the current theories & beliefs.

Imagination:
Imagination is important because it allows one to think of new possibilities.

Progress & Improvement:

Science works for the betterment of humanity and society, helping us all move forward rather than simply being
content with where we are now.

Methodology over Conclusions:

One must focus on following the proper scientific methodology and reasoning to arrive at the correct conclusions.

Godless Science and the Enlightenment:

Science is often maligned for being godless, but godlessness is largely why science is successful & impartial.

OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING SCIENCE CONCEPTS TO VI CHILDREN

 The child should be engaged in joyfully exploring the world around and harmonizing with it.
 The objectives are to nurture the curiosity of the child about the world (natural environment, artifacts and
people)
 To have the child engage in exploratory and hands on activities to acquire the basic cognitive and
psychomotor skills
 To develop the basic language skills: speaking, reading and writing not only for science but also through
science.
 To develop modeling skills, & encourage them to create their own experimental models like volcano, electric
circuit, human body etc.
 Various concepts which they’re not able to witness directly, they get to know & understand through science
like stars, constellations, comet, atom, cell etc.
 To improve the rational & objective thinking, along with problem solving skills.
 Many persons with VI, have chosen science & got into fields of engineering, medical science & chemical
science. Children should be encouraged to believe in themselves & not to lose interest in science.
 Since a visually impaired person understands impairment the best. If we empower the student, he might be
able to design machines, devices etc. for the benefit of the blind community.
 To make them familiar with the recent advances in science – overall & in the field of visual impairment. Eg:
Tactual graphics, Tactile astronomy, Tactile anatomy kits, DNA models, NASA’s book – ‘Touch the Sun’,
‘Touch the Universe’, ‘Getting the feel of lunar craters’ etc.
UNIT-2 METHODS OF TEACHING

HEURISTIC METHOD OR DISCOVERY METHOD

 Derived from a Greek word “heurisco” meaning “I find out”.
 In this method, the student finds out things for themselves.
 Children are treated as discoverers, instead of being told the facts, they are led to find out facts.
 First time, coined by Dr. H.E. Armstrong.
 First, it was used to teach science; now used with all subjects.
 Aim is to develop scientific attitude & spirit of enquiry.
 There is no “spoon-feeding”.
 In this method, a problem is put in front of students & they are asked to solve it on their own. For this,
essential facilities/ equipments/ guidance are provided by teacher.
 Students are allowed to openly discuss.
 The class atmosphere should be free & encouraging. The teacher should be as curious as the child.
 It opposes dogmatic techniques of learning where students are passive.
 It is a method using “problem solving”
 It is a method of “learning by doing”

Advantages of Heuristic Method

 Pupil as a researcher – learns by doing
 Teacher as a friend & guide
 Involves activity of mind – students become more active & attentive
 Students as detectives/discoverers
 Students become more curious & enquiring
 Power of reasoning is developed
 Students enjoy more as they are actively learning

Limitations of Heuristic Method

 Needs labs, equipments, materials etc. according to the topic
 Expensive method
 Doesn’t work well in crowded classrooms
 Time consuming method – can’t complete syllabus
 Progress is different for each child
 Can’t be applied for all topics

PROJECT METHOD
 Introduced during 18th century into the schools of architecture & engineering
 Student-centric method of teaching
 Very little is taught from text-book, focus is on experiential learning
 Students direct their own learning by their individual interests
 Project means an activity requiring planning, thought & action
 Types : Individual or Group
 Examples : making a model, writing a poem/letter/story, creating a drama, finding about a historical event
etc.

Principles of Project Method

 Purposeful : Project should be purposeful.
 Freedom : There should be freedom of choosing & doing the task.
 Activity : There should be an activity involved.
  Reality : It should be real-life based.
 Social Development : It should develop healthy discussions & team planning.

Advantages of Project Method

 Student centric method
 Activity based method
 Develops problem solving ability
 Students are whole-heartedly involved in learning
 Makes student independent
 Gives real life experience
 Develops social qualities
 Develops planning behaviour

Limitations of Project Method

 Time consuming
 Difficult to complete syllabus
 Costly method
 Not applicable for all classes
 Not applicable for all topics
 Not applicable for all schools

PROBLEM SOLVING
 We constantly solve problems.
 Sometimes the rules are already there to solve them; at other times we feel the need to make new rules to
solve them.
 In doing so, we learn more.
 Teaching through problem solving is not always easy, since many of us were taught by remembering facts –
whether or not they were related, whether or not we were interested – some of us were taught by rote.
 But we learn best by solving problems.
 We learn best when we discover the answers ourselves.
 We learn best when we find the different ways of arriving at the same answer.
 Problem solving as a method of teaching has been highly recommended by leading educators.
 It is a student-centric method, based on active style of learning
 Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, & how & where to
access new information to find the solution.
 The role of teacher is to facilitate learning by supporting, guiding & monitoring
 The teacher must build student’s confidence & encourage them throughout.

Steps for the Problem Solving Process

1. Provide the basis for solving the problem (the background information, tools, knowledge etc.)
2. Discover the interest of the students
3. Present the problem. Make it as close to real life as possible.
4. Make learning fun
5. Show the inter-relationships/examples
6. Multi-explanations/solutions
7. Guide the student but don’t provide the answer
INDUCTIVE – DEDUCTIVE
 Two very distinct and opposing instructional approaches are inductive and deductive.
 An inductive instruction is a much more student-centred approach and makes use of a strategy known as
‘noticing’.
 Instead of explaining a given concept and following this explanation with examples, the teacher presents
students with many examples showing how the concept is used.
 The intent is for students to “notice”, by way of the examples, how the concept works.
 Conversely, a deductive approach to instruction is a more teacher-centered approach.
 This means that the teacher gives the students a new concept, explains it, and then has the students practice
using the concept.
 For example, when teaching a new grammar concept, the teacher will introduce the concept, explain the
rules related to its use, and finally the students will practice using the concept in a variety of different ways.

INDUCTIVE APPROACH DEDUCTIVE APPROACH

Base: Base:
Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning
Proceeds from: Proceeds from:
Particular to general General to particular
Concrete to abstract Abstract to concrete
Method: Method:
A psychological method An unpsychological method
A method of discovery and stimulates intellectual powers A method of presentation and does not develop originality
and creativity.

Learning: Learning:
Emphasis is on reasoning. Emphasis is on memory
Encourages meaningful learning Encourages rote learning.
Level: Level:
Most suitable for initial stages of learning Suitable for practice and application
Class: Class:
Suitable for lower classes Most suitable for higher classes
Participation: Participation:
Enhances active participation of the students Makes the student passive recipient of knowledge
Time: Time:
Lengthy, time consuming and laborious Short, concise and elegant
Facilitates discovery of rules and generalizations Enhances speed, skill and efficiency in solving problems

CONSTRUCTIVE METHOD
 Based on constructivist learning theory
 The learners are actively involved
 The environment is democratic
 The activities are interactive and student-centered
 The teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible and
autonomous
 Learners construct meaning and knowledge
 Encourages critical thinking
 Creates motivated and independent learners.
 Learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows; this prior knowledge is called
aschema.
  The teacher avoids most direct instruction and attempts to lead the student through questions and activities
to discover, discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the new knowledge.

Examples:
 Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss
the results.
 Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to the class.
 Field trips: This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-world context. Field
trips would often be followed by class discussions.
 Films: These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience.
 Class discussions: This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one of the most
important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods

FIELD TRIPS:
 Trip to Museums, Exhibitions, Botanical gardens, Zoo, Wildlife/Bird sanctuaries, Airport, Railway Station,
Dams…
 Before the trip :
 Make them excited about the trip
 Teach the key vocabulary or concepts
 Make all the arrangements
 Predict & Prepare for questions students might ask during the trip
 During the trip :
 Ensure students enjoy & learn
 Encourage curiosity & questions
 Encourage peer & group interactions & discussions
 After the trip :
 Discussions about their experience
 Talk about all the new things they learnt
 Give follow up project or assignment

UNDERSTANDING SCIENCE THROUGH MEDIA

 Use of Audio Visual Aids : To understand various processes through animations
 Use of Internet : To get latest & updated information
 Use of science magazines : To build an interest towards scientific research
 Use of Interactive Models : To give a complete understanding e.g. DNA, Formation of Wave, Whirlpool,
Volcano
 Use of Sensory Models : Use of senses to understand chemical reactions

Unit 3: Conducting Practical Work

SETTING UP THE SCIENCE LAB

Determining the nature of practical work and apparatus requirements for the class
Instructions for carrying out practical work

Laboratory Adaptations: There are many skills and tools that are common to any science laboratory, as well as many
dangers. Thus safety precautions, skills, and tools should be the first considerations when modifying any experiment.

Chemicals:
 Proper identification and use of chemicals
 Chemicals should always be kept organized in the same place.
 They should also be labeled in a way accessible to the students in the class, which includes print, enlarged
letters, and Braille.
Glass: Glass apparatus is used in most chemistry experiments and is both fragile and unstable. To make glass objects
safely accessible, they should be consistently stored in a secure manner.

Heat sources: The obvious danger with heat sources is the possibility for a student to be burned.
The use of matches can be made safer by using long handled ones to keep the student’s hand away from the flame.

Movement: Many physics experiments contain moving objects. A blind or visually impaired student may not be sure
whether there are any obstacles in the path of the object. A sighted partner or instructor should check any setup
arrangements.

Power cords and connecting wires: Power cords are dangerous because they provide an unexpected obstacle for
the blind or visually impaired. Cords can trip people, upset machines or other devices, and cause objects to move or
fall. To avoid these situations, power cords should be kept out of the way.

Balances: The student will need to practice how to read the position of the pointer without moving it.

Building circuits: Student will most likely need a sighted partner to choose the appropriate resistors, capacitors,
transistors, etc. Raised line diagrams can be used to interpret circuit configurations.

Building models: The use of three-dimensional models can be beneficial to the student’s understanding of certain
scientific concepts.

Constructing apparatus with basic parts (test tubes, flasks, stands, clamps): They might need extra time, however,
because much of the positioning cannot be gauged quickly by touch

Estimating units: Students need to have a clear understanding of the sizes of standard units, so they can choose
appropriately sized apparatus.

Identifying and locating apparatus: Most apparatus can be easily identified by touch or with limited sight.

Identifying containers and labels: All students should be taught to place containers in specific locations.

Identifying gas evolution: Because most gases are usually invisible, all students should be able to identify the
evolution of a gas from solution in an experiment by sound and sometimes by smell.

Identifying light patterns and paths: Students with residual sight should be able to participate in experiments
regarding the nature of light, especially if a bright light bulb or laser is used.

Rulers: Students should have rulers with tactual markings at various units

Graduated cylinders, beakers, flasks, etc.: For nontoxic, non-staining liquids, using a finger to measure the depth of
the liquid should be safe. Tactual lines or scratches on the inside of the apparatus would be adequate in this case for
determining liquid level.

Perceiving motion (falling, rolling, flying, etc.): In order to collect measurements of horizontal motion, the student
should be able to mark the starting and finishing positions.

Thermometers: Students with residual vision can often use an alcohol thermometer, which is available in several
colors.

COLLABORATION IN PRACTICAL WORK IN INCLUSIVE SETUP

• Students are encouraged to become active rather than passive learners by developing collaborative and co-
operative skills, and lifelong learning skills.
• It encourages the development of critical thinking skills.
• It allows the sighted students to guide the students with VI with the apparatus & the experiment.
• It promotes student learning and achievement.
• Students have the opportunity to learn from and to teach each other.
• It facilitates greater transfer of previous knowledge and learning.
• The focus is on student centered approach to teaching and learning
• Students are involved in their own learning.
• It enhances social skills and interactions.
• Learning outcomes are improved.
• Large numbers of students can be catered for and work on task simultaneously.
• Interaction and co-operation on a micro scale is facilitated thus decreasing a sense of isolation felt by some.
• Quiet students have an opportunity to speak and be heard in small groups thus overcoming the anonymity and
passivity associated with large groups.
• Teaching effectiveness and efficiency increases, and as a result there is increased enjoyment of teaching by staff
(and students).
• Students get the chance to work on large projects (larger in scope or complexity than individual tasks).
• Students from diverse backgrounds are provided with the opportunity to be heard, share experiences and skills,
and to participate in unique ways (may provide a new perspective).
• It can save time and requires a shared workload.
• Alternative ideas and points of view can be generated.
• It provides a structured learning experience that can prepare students for the realities and diversity of the
workplace, working with people with different skills, cultures, approaches and from different places.
• Students develop and practice skills in: decision making, problem solving, values clarification, communication,
critical thinking, negotiation, conflict resolution, and teamwork.
• It makes the class challenging, interesting, motivating, engaging, and fun (for everyone)!

UNIT 4: USE OF AIDS

Techniques of adapting available teaching aids for children with visual impairment
Preparation of adapted instructional material in teaching science

General Guidelines for Making Adaptations

Adaptations can be applied to activities, items, or environments. Their purpose is to maximize the visually impaired
student’s participation in various functions without making drastic alterations. In general, adaptations can: alter the
physical environment, change the rules, change the strategy, change the routine, reduce the complexity, provide
cues, or offer personal assistance.

Adaptations for Low Vision Students

When working with a student who has low vision, the goal is to optimize the use of their residual vision.

Increasing useful vision

There are four main considerations that can affect the function of the eye. They are illumination, contrast, size, and
the presence of glare.

Illumination - by using different types of bulbs, additional lights or lamps, or by increasing the wattage in existing
lights.
Glare - Glare is the reflection of light. This should be reduced.
Contrast - Some color combinations contrast more sharply than others.
Size - There are many ways to increase size. Simple methods include enlarging papers using a copier and obtaining
large-print textbooks. Mechanical aids are available as well. These devices include telescopes, microscopes,
telemicroscopes, electric-magnifiers, CCTV, and computers with magnification programs. Hand-held magnification
devices are particularly useful in the laboratory.

Adaptations for Blind Students

 Use of real objects as far as possible (e.g. rocks, soil, plants etc.)
 Use of 3D models to make concrete learning happen (e.g. Solar System, Circuit etc.)
 Use of 2D models in case 3D models are not available (e.g. Digestive System)
  Texture can be used in a number of different ways to design science diagrams: A low-tech method of
texturing is simply using different types of materials, such as sandpaper and felt. (e.g. Cell, Atom etc.)
 Raised line drawings are often used in geometry, or any subject in which graphs are prevalent. They can be
made on heavy-weight paper, plastic, or thin metal sheets, but require special devices to make them. You
must be careful when using raised line drawings, however; this is one type of adaptation that is very prone
to miscommunicating information. (e.g. Phases of Moon)
 Audible information in the form of talking books. While these books are useful as a complement to written
text, they are not a replacement, and should not be used exclusively unless no other written material is
available. Tape recorders can be used to record lectures and to take notes, which can be referenced at later
times.

TECHNIQUES OF PREPARING NEW TEACHING AIDS

 Use of locally available material e.g. bamboo, leaves, wood etc.
 Use of waste materials e.g. cardboards, boxes, coconut shells, seeds etc.
 Use of improvisation to prepare low cost teaching aids
 Use of clay to make models
 Use of waste from electric or mechanic shop e.g. wires, motors, circuits etc.
 Use of old machines part to make new science models
 Use of cloth, strings, buttons, texture differences etc. to bring out the contrast

TECHNIQUES OF PREPARING EMBOSSED DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

 Use of Braille embossers to create diagrams made up of embossed dots
 Use of hot embossing technique on metallic templates to create a tactile chart or map or diagram
 Use of strings or wool to outline the diagrams
 Use of textures like beads, buttons, dal etc. to highlight the boundaries from the rest

TECHNIQUES OF USING MULTI SENSORY APPROACH

 To stimulate multiple senses of the student during the teaching learning process
 Use of all senses : residual vision, auditory sense, olfactory sense (smell), gustatory sense (taste) & tactile
sense
 For e.g. While teaching different types of food, the teacher could give sensory training for the smell & taste;
then later proceed to its texture, its sound & finally how it looks like
 Also known as VAKT approach – Visual, Auditory, Kinetic & Tactile approach
 Use of various activities not only facilitate learning but increases interest for science
 Since the learning is through various senses, it is better understood, stored & retrieved
 It not only enhances the participation of the visually impaired student but overall student participation in the
class
 However, it requires much preparation & expertise from the teacher
 Also, the approach could be expensive & time consuming if applied in larger classrooms

Unit 5: Evaluation

CONSTRUCTION OF TEST ITEMS FOR EVALUATING LEARNING OF SCIENCE OF PUPILS

Steps in Constructing a Test

1. Planning the Test

 Selection of Objectives & Sub-units

 Weightage of Objectives: Knowledge, Understanding, Application & Skill
 Weightage of Content: Giving appropriate weightage to sub-units
 Weightage of different types of questions: Subjective vs. Objective; Close ended vs. Open ended; Short
vs. Long
 Scheme of option: Giving optional questions (for V.I.)
 Weightage to difficulty level: Difficult, average & easy questions in right combination
2. Preparing the Test. The process of writing good test items is not simple – it requires time and effort.

3. Reproducing the Test. In reproducing test, the duplicating machine and who will facilitate in typing be considered.

4. Administering the Test. Test should be administered in an environment familiar to the students, sitting
arrangements is observed, corrections are made before the start of the test, distribution and collection of papers are
planned, and time should be written on the board. One more important thing to remember is, do not allow every
testee to leave the room except for personal necessity.

5. Scoring the Test. The best procedure in scoring objective test is to give one point of credit for each correct answer.

6. Evaluating the Test. The test is evaluated as to the quality of the student’s responses and the quality of the test
itself.

7. Interpreting Test Results. Standardized achievement tests are interpreted.

Diagnosing pupil difficulties in learning science

Students say:
 Most students are unhappy with the language and terminology that their teacher uses. Using unknown
words or the using some familiar words that are different in meaning worsens the problems.
 Many students say that the mathematical expressions and content as well as the formula are one of the
main sources behind difficulties.
 All students unanimously agree that most of the time teacher-centered teaching approaches are used
during lessons. There is no active participation to the lessons and they have passive roles. As result, the class
sessions become boring.
 They have problems with the scientific concepts which have no connections with their daily lives.
 Considerable numbers of students have negative attitudes toward science.
Teachers say:
 Students have difficulties with the topics that are abstract in nature, have mathematical expressions and
formulas and unable to relate with their daily life.
 Students come with several misconceptions.
 The time allowed toteach the science topics are not enough.
 To complete the curriculum, teachers have to adopt teacher-centered teaching approaches as the student-
centered teaching approaches take too much time
 The schools are not fully equipped to do scientific experiments in which active participation of the students
 Teachers were not happy with some topics in science curriculum.
 The number of the students in the classroom is one of the major obstacles to apply more student centered
teaching and learning approaches. There are more than forty students in most of the classrooms

Designing remedial teaching

 First step will be to develop a more positive attitude towards science.

 Counsel the student that is he is patient & persistent, he will succeed.
 Work on the foundation or basics first. If basic concepts are weak – they need to be taught first in remedial
teaching.
 Apply more student centric approaches like – Heuristic or Problem solving or Inductive approach. Involve the
students.
 Link the concepts with their daily life.
 Give enough time required to form a good concept, and then only move on.
 Take individual or small group in the remedial teaching to give proper attention.
 Use of more concrete teaching aids.
 For the VI student, use of tactile aids, real objects etc. should be taught with help of a special educator.
 For the VI student, use adapted textbooks & instructional materials could be used