ANSWERS TO EXAMPLE SHEET FOR TOPIC 3 AUTUMN 2013

(Full worked answers follow on later pages)

h σ
Q1.  f( , θ)
d ρgd 2

Q
Q2.  constant
bg H 3 / 2
1/ 2

g
Q3. (a) t  f (θ max )
l
(b) 7.38 s

c A h σ
Q4.  f( , , )
gλ λ λ ρgλ2
σ 2πσ
(a) c  constant  (theory gives c  )
ρλ ρλ
(b) c  constant  gh (theory shows that the constant is 1)

δ I E μ
Q5.  f( 4 , , )
l l ρV ρVl
2

δ EI ρVl
If E and I have to appear in the combination EI then  f( 2 4 , )
l ρV l μ
τ b a 2ω
Q6. (a)  f ( , )
ρa 4 ω 2 a ν
τ b
(b)  f( )
μa ω
2
a
(c) τ is multiplied by 4

Q7. (b) 1.76 N

(d) 36 mm

Q8. (c) 1.12 s

(d) 160 kN

Q9. (c) 0.816

(d) Um = 0.5 m s–1; (Ws)m = 0.15 m s–1
(e) Um = 1.04 m s–1; (Ws)m = 0.631 m s–1
(f) 781 ppt

Q10. (b) 2.15 m

(c) 0.0995 N

Q11. (d) 9.6 MW; 200 L s–1; 120 rpm

Hydraulics 2 A3-1 David Apsley

Q12. (b) Reynolds number
(c) 0.8 m s–1
(d) 312 kW

Q13. (b) U  Cu τ ln y  constant

Q14. (c) 50 K
(d) 160 W m–2

Q15. No numerical answer.

Hydraulics 2 A3-2 David Apsley

Q1.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
h L
d L
g LT–2
ρ ML–3
σ MT–2
θ 1 (or M0L0T0)

Number of variables: n = 6.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (d), kinematic/time-dependent (g), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (h, σ and θ).

h
Π1  (by inspection, since h is a length)
d

Π 2  σd a g b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (MT2 )(L) a (LT 2 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – 2b  b = –1
L: 0 = a + b – 3c  a = –2
σ
 Π 2  σd 2 g 1ρ 1 
ρgd 2

Π3  θ (already non-dimensional)

Hence, dimensional analysis gives

Π1  f ( Π 2 , Π 3 )
i.e.
h σ
 f( , θ)
d ρgd 2
or
σ
hd f( , θ)
ρgd 2

σ
(Balancing forces – see Hydraulics 1 – gives h  4( ) cos θ ).
ρgd

Hydraulics 2 A3-3 David Apsley

Q2.
Since Q is known to be proportional to b we need only consider the rate of flow per unit
width as a single variable, Q/b.

List variables and their dimensions:

Q / b L2T–1
H L
g LT–2

Number of variables: n = 3.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 2 (L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 1.

Choose m (= 2) independent scaling variables:

geometric (H), kinematic/time-dependent (g).

Form a non-dimensional group by non-dimensionalising the other variable (Q / b).

Π1  (Q / b) H α g β
M 0 L0 T 0  (L2 T 1 )(L) α (LT 2 ) β
T: 0 = –1 – 2β  β = –1/2
L: 0=2+α+β  α = –3/2
Q
 Π1  (Q / b) H 3 / 2 g 1 / 2 
bg H 3 / 2
1/ 2

Hence, dimensional analysis yields a single non-dimensional group – which must, therefore,
be a constant. Thus,
Q
 constant
bg H 3 / 2
1/ 2

or, for a given weir,

Q  H3/2

Hydraulics 2 A3-4 David Apsley

Q3.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
t T
l L
m M
θmax 1 (or M0L0T0)
g LT–2

Number of variables: n = 5.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 2.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (l), kinematic/time-dependent (g), dynamic/mass-dependent (m).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (t and θmax).

Π1  tl a g b m c
M 0 L0 T 0  (T)(L) a (LT 2 ) b (M) c
M: 0=c  c=0
T: 0 = 1 –2b  b = 1/2
L: 0=a+b  a = –1/2
g
 Π1  tl 1 / 2 g 1 / 2  t
l

Π 2  θ max (already non-dimensional)

Hence, dimensional analysis gives

Π1  f ( Π 2 )
or
g
t  f (θ max )
l
This can also be conveniently written as
l
t  f (θ max )
g
(In the limit of small oscillations, θmax  0, the function becomes a constant. Detailed theory
shows that its value is 2π; i.e. t  2π l/g ).

(b) Since θmax is the same on earth and moon,

 g  g
Π1   t 
  t
 l 

 l  moon   earth
As l is fixed,
g earth 9.81
t moon  t earth  3
g moon 1.62
 7.38 s

Hydraulics 2 A3-5 David Apsley

Q4.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
c LT–1
A L
λ L
g LT–2
h L
ρ ML–3
σ MT–2

Number of variables: n = 7.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 4.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (λ), kinematic/time-dependent (g), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (c, A, h, σ).

Π1  cλa g b ρ d
M 0 L0 T 0  (LT 1 )(L) a (LT 2 ) b (ML3 ) d
M: 0=d  d=0
T: 0 = –1 –2b  b = –1/2
L: 0 = 1 + a + b – 3d  a = –1/2
c
 Π1  cλ1 / 2 g 1 / 2 
gλ

A
Π2  (by inspection, since A is a length)
λ

h
Π3  (by inspection, since h is a length)
λ

Π 4  σλa g b ρ d
M 0 L0 T 0  (MT2 )(L) a (LT 2 ) b (ML3 ) d
M: 0=1+d  d = –1
T: 0 = –2 – 2b  b = –1
L: 0 = a + b – 3d  a = –2
σ
 Π 4  σλ2 g 1ρ 1 
ρgλ2

Hence, dimensional analysis gives

Π1  f (Π 2 , Π 3 , Π 4 )
i.e.
c A h σ
 f( , , )
gλ λ λ ρgλ2

Hydraulics 2 A3-6 David Apsley

or
A h σ
c  gλ  f ( , , )
λ λ ρgλ2

A h
(a) In the limits of small amplitude (  0 ) and short waves (   ) we have
λ λ
σ
c  gλ  f (0, , )
ρgλ2
or
σ
c  gλ  function of ( )
ρgλ2
and any explicit dependence on A and h vanishes.

If the dependence on g is to disappear then this relationship must be of the form

σ σ
c  gλ  constant   constant 
ρgλ2
ρλ
More advanced theory shows that the constant is 2π

A σ
(b) In the limit of small amplitude (  0 ) and long waves (  0 ),
λ ρgλ2
h
c  gλ  f (0, , 0)
λ
or
h
c  gλ  function of ( )
λ
Any explicit dependence on A and σ vanishes.

h
If is large then c is independent of wavelength (no, this isn’t obvious: take it as read!) and
λ
this must be of the form
h
c  gλ  constant   constant  gh
λ
More advanced theory (see Hydraulics 3) shows that the constant is 1.

Hydraulics 2 A3-7 David Apsley

Q5.
List variables and their dimensions:
δ L
l L
I L4
E ML–1T–2
V LT–1
ρ ML–3
μ ML–1T–1

Number of variables: n = 7.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 4.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (l), kinematic/time-dependent (V), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (δ, I, E and μ).

δ
Π1  (by inspection, since δ is a length)
l

I
Π2  (by inspection, since I is a power of a length)
l4

Π 3  El aV b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML1T 2 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
L: 0 = –1 + a + b – 3c  a=0
E
 Π 3  EV 2 ρ 1 
ρV 2

Π 4  μl aV b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML1T 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –1 – b  b = –1
L: 0 = –1 + a + b – 3c  a = –1
μ
 Π 4  μl 1V 1ρ 1 
ρVl

Hence, dimensional analysis gives

Π1  f (Π 2 , Π 3 , Π 4 )
or
δ I E μ
 f( 4 , , )
l l ρV ρVl 2

Hydraulics 2 A3-8 David Apsley

Your knowledge of structures will tell you that E and I only enter the problem in the
combination EI. This additional constraint means that Π2 and Π3 can be replaced by a single
group; e.g.
 EI
Π 2  Π3Π 2 
ρV 2 l 4
Noting this, and also inverting the last group to make it the conventional Reynolds number,
simplifies the non-dimensional relationship to
δ EI ρVl
 f( 2 4 , )
l ρV l μ

Hydraulics 2 A3-9 David Apsley

Q6.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
τ MLT–2
ω T–1
a L
b L
ρ ML–3
ν L2T–1

Number of variables: n = 6.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L, T).
 Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose scaling parameters:

geometric (a), kinematic (ω), mass-dependent (ρ)

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (τ, b and ν).

Π1  τa α ωβ ρ γ
M 0 L0 T 0  (MLT2 )(L) α (T 1 ) β (ML3 ) γ
 M1 γ L1α 3γ T 2β
M: 0=1+γ  γ = –1
T: 0 = –2 – β  β = –2
L: 0 = 1 + α – 3γ  α = –4
τ
 Π1  τa 4 ω 2 ρ 1  4 2
ρa ω

b
Π2  (Obvious, since b is a length).
a

Π 3  νa α ωβ ρ γ
M 0 L0 T 0  (L2 T 1 )(L) α (T 1 ) β (ML3 ) γ
 M γ L2α 3γ T 1β
M: 0=γ  γ=0
T: 0 = –1 – β  β = –1
L: 0 = 2 + α – 3γ  α = –2
ν
 Π 3  νa 2 ω 1  2
a ω
Inspection shows that this is the reciprocal of a Reynolds number, so define
1 a 2ω
Π 3  
Π3 ν

Hence,
Π1  f (Π 2 , Π3 )
or

Hydraulics 2 A3-10 David Apsley

 τ b a 2ω
 f ( , )
ρa 4 ω 2 a ν

(b) If ρ and ν are only to appear in combination as μ = ρν, then the number of independent
parameters (Π groups) will be reduced by this constraint from 3 to 2. By inspection (i.e., the
only way to get a product of ρ and ν), replace both Π1 and Π3, by the single group
τ a 2ω τ τ
Π1  Π1  Π3  4 2    2
ρa ω ν ρνa ω
2
μa ω
Then
Π1  f (Π 2 )
or
τ b
 f( )
μa ω2
a

τ
(c) If both a and b are doubled, the RHS is left the same, so must be the same. Since a
μa 2 ω
has been multiplied by 2, τ must be multiplied by 4.

Hydraulics 2 A3-11 David Apsley

Q7.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
[ force] MLT2
τc  2
 ML1T 2
[area] L
d L
ρ ML–3
ν L2T–1
g LT–2

Number of variables: n = 5.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (d), kinematic (g), mass-dependent (ρ)

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (τc and ν).

Π1  τ c d a g  b ρ c
M0L0T0 = (ML–1T–2) (L)a (LT–2)b (ML–3)c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –2 –2b  b = –1
L: 0 = –1 + a + b – 3c  a = –1
τ
Π1  τ c d 1 g  1ρ 1  c
ρg d

Π 2  νd a g b ρ c
M0L0T0 = (L2T–1) (L)a (LT–2)b (ML–3)c
M: 0=c  c=0
T: 0 = –1 –2b  b = –1/2
L: 0 = 2 + a + b – 3c  a = –3/2
ν
Π 2  νd 3 / 2 g  1 / 2  1 / 2 3 / 2
g d

We can replace Π1 and/or Π2 by any independent combination of them, so choose:

g d 3
Π2  (Π 2 ) 2
 2
ν

By dimensional analysis,
Π1  f (Π2 )
or, substituting and writing g = (s – 1)g,
τc ( s  1) gd 3
 f( )
ρ( s  1) gd ν2

(b) In the viscosity-independent regime,

Hydraulics 2 A3-12 David Apsley

 τc
 constant
ρ( s 1) gd
Hence, as ρ and g are constants,
τ c1 τ c2

( s1  1)d1 ( s 2  1)d 2
where:
subscript 1 denotes anthracite (s1 = 1.5, d1 = 0.003 m, τc1 = 0.8 N m–2)
subscript 2 denotes sand (s2 = 2.65, d2 = 0.002 m, τc2 = ?)

Rearranging for τc2,

( s  1)d 2 1.65  0.002
τ c2  τ c1 2  0.8   1.76 N m 2
( s1  1)d1 0.5  0.003

Answer: critical shear stress = 1.76 N.

(c) Balancing the friction force (shear stress  area) against the component of weight
downslope for length L and width W of channel, depth h:
τ  area  mg sin θ
where θ is the angle with the horizontal.

For small slopes

sin θ  tan θ  S
whilst
area  WL
m  ρWLh

Hence,
τWL  (ρWLh) gS
Dividing by WL:
τ  ρghS

(d) Rearranging for h and putting τ = 1.76 N, ρ = 1000 kg m–3, S = 0.005,

τ 1.76
h   0.036 m
ρgS 1000  9.81  0.005

Answer: depth of water = 36 mm.

Hydraulics 2 A3-13 David Apsley

Q8.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
F MLT–2
ρ ML–3
μ ML–1T–1
g LT–2
H L
ω T–1
D L
d L

Number of variables, n = 8.
Number of independent dimensions, m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of dimensionless groups: n – m = 5.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (D), kinematic/time-dependent (ω), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).
(There are plenty of alternative choices.)

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (F, μ, g and H).

Π1  FD a ωb ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (MLT2 )(L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
L: 0 = 1 + a – 3c  a = –1 + 3c = –4
F
 Π1  FD 4 ω 2 ρ 1 
ρω 2 D 4

Π 2  μD a ωb ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML1T 1 )(L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
T: 0 = –1 – b  b = –1
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
L: 0 = –1 + a – 3c  a = 1 + 3c = –2
μ
 Π 2  μD 2 ω 1ρ 1 
ρωD 2

Π 3  gD a ωb ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (LT 2 )(L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
M: 0=c  c=0
L: 0 = 1 + a – 3c  a = –1 + 3c = –1
g
 Π 3  gD 1ω 2  2
ω D

Hydraulics 2 A3-14 David Apsley

 H
Π4  (by inspection, since δ is a length)
D

d
Π5  (by inspection, since δ is a length)
D

It is legitimate to replace Π1, …, Π5 by independent combinations of these dimensionless

parameters. To conform to the given relationship we choose:
Π F
Π1  2 1 
Π4Π5 ρω H 2 Dd
2

Π ρωHD
Π2  4 
Π2 μ
Π5 ω2 d
Π 3  
Π3 g

Hence, from Buckingham’s Pi Theorem,

Π1  f (Π2 , Π3 , Π 4 , Π 5 )
i.e.
F ρωHD ω 2 d H d
 f ( , , , )
ρω 2 H 2 Dd μ g D D

(b)
ρωHD
ωH has dimensions LT–1; i.e. has dimensions of a velocity. Hence corresponds to
μ
density  velocity  length
; i.e. a Reynolds number.
viscosity

In most circumstances at both model and full scale the Reynolds number is sufficient for the
flow to be fully turbulent and hence momentum transport by viscous forces is negligible
compared with that by turbulent eddies. Hence, μ does not enter the problem and this
dimensionless group may be ignored.

(c)
 ω2d   ω2 d 
    
 g m  g  p
g is the same in both model and prototype. Hence,
2
 ωm d
   p
ω  dm
 p 
ωm dp
 
ωp dm
But period T  1/ω. Hence,

Hydraulics 2 A3-15 David Apsley

 Tm dm 1
   0.2236
Tp dp 20
Thus,
Tm  0.2236  T p  0.2236  5  1.12 s

Answer: wave period at model scale is 1.12 s.

(d)
 F   F 
 2 2    2 2 
 ρω H Dd  p  ρω H Dd  m
ρ is the same in model and prototype. Hence,
2
F p  ω p  ( H 2 Dd ) p
  
Fm  ω m  ( H 2 Dd ) m
4 3
d  dp   dp 
 m        20 3  8000
d p  d m   dm 
Hence,
Fp  8000Fm  8000  20  160000 N

Answer: rms wave force at full scale is 160 kN.

Hydraulics 2 A3-16 David Apsley

Q9.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
Cmax/Q L–3T
H L
U LT–1
ρ ML–3
ρ sWs2 ML–1T–2
(ρ  ρ s ) g ML–2T–2

Number of variables: n = 6.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (H), kinematic/time-dependent (U), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (Cmax/Q, ρ sWs2

and (ρ  ρ s ) g ).

Π1  (Cmax /Q) H aU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (L3 T)(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=c  c=0
T: 0=1–b  b=1
L: 0 = –3 + a + b –3c  a = 3 – b + 3c = 2
C UH 2
 Π1  (C max /Q) H 2U  max
Q

Π 2  (ρ s Ws2 ) H aU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML1T 2 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
L: 0 = –1 + a + b –3c  a = 1 – b + 3c = 0
 2 1 ρ s Ws2 Ws2
 Π 2  (ρ s Ws )U ρ
2
 α 2
ρU 2 U

Π 3  (ρ  ρ s )gH aU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML2 T 2 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
L: 0 = –2 + a + b –3c  a = 2 – b + 3c = 1
ρ  ρ s gH gH
 Π 3  (ρ  ρ s )gHU 2 ρ 1   (1  α) 2
ρ U 2
U

Hence, dimensional analysis gives

Hydraulics 2 A3-17 David Apsley

 Π1  f (Π 2 , Π 3 )
or
C max UH 2 Ws2 gH
 f (α 2 , (1  α) 2 )
Q U U

(b) Dimensional similarity requires that each Π be the same in model and prototype; in
particular:
(Π 3 ) m  (Π 3 ) p
 gH   gH 
  (1  α) 2    (1  α) 2 
 U m  U p

2
Um 
    (1  α m ) H m
U  (1  α p ) H p
 p 
1/ 2
U m  1  α m 

  l 1/ 2
U p  1  α p 


and
(Π 2 ) m  (Π 2 ) p
 Ws2   W2 
 α 2    α s2 
 U   
 m  U  p
(Ws2 / U 2 ) m α p
 
(Ws2 / U 2 ) p α m
1/ 2
(Ws / U ) m  α p 
  
(Ws / U ) p  α m 

(c) Since p = ρRT and p is constant,

ρ  T 1
Hence,
ρs T 15  273
   0.8159
ρ Ts 80  273

Answer: full-scale density ratio = 0.816.

(d) If αm = αp then
Um 1
 l 
Up 20
Up 10
 Um    0.5 m s 1
20 20

Hydraulics 2 A3-18 David Apsley

 (Ws / U ) m
1
(Ws / U ) p
Um 1
 (Ws ) m  (Ws ) p  3  0.15 m s 1
Up 20

Answer: Um = 0.5 m s–1; (Ws)m = 0.15 m s–1.

(e) If αm = 0.2 then

Um 1  0.2 1
   0.1042
Up 1  0.8159 400
 U m  0.1042  U p  0.1042  10  1.042 m s 1

(Ws / U ) m αp 0.8149
   2.019
(Ws / U ) p αm 0.2
Um
 (Ws ) m  (Ws ) p   2.019  3  1.042  2.019  0.631 m s 1
Up

Answer: Um = 1.04 m s–1; (Ws)m = 0.631 m s–1.

(f)
 C max UH 2   C UH 2 
    max 
   
 Q p  Q m
2
Qp U H 
 (C max ) p  (C max ) m   m  m 
Qm U p  H p 
10 2
2
6  1 
 (C max ) p  (1200  10 )  5  0.1042     0.781  10 6
10  400 

Answer: full-scale Cmax = 781 ppt.

(g) Using a smaller αm allows a greater Um and hence allows one to maintain an
aerodynamically-rough surface.

(h) By using an inert, low-density gas (e.g. helium).

Hydraulics 2 A3-19 David Apsley

Q10.
List variables and their dimensions:
l L
d L
Ws MT–2
EI ML3T–2
τ MLT–2

Number of variables: n = 5.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 2 (L and MT–2 *** NOTE ***).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose m (= 2) independent scaling variables:

geometric (d), kinematic/time-dependent (Ws).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (l, EI and τ).

l
Π1  (by inspection, since δ is a length)
d

Π 2  ( EI )d aWsb
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML3 T 2 )(L) a (MT2 ) b
MT–2: 0 = 1 + b  b = –1
L: 0=3+a  a = –3
EI
 Π 2  ( EI )d 3Ws1 
Ws d 3

Π 3  τd aWsb
M 0 L0 T 0  (MLT2 )(L) a (MT2 ) b
MT–2: 0 = 1 + b  b = –1
L: 0=1+a  a = –1
τ
 Π 3  τd 1Ws1 
Ws d

Thus, dimensional analysis yields

Π1  f ( Π 2 , Π 3 )
or
l EI τ
 f( 3
, )
d Ws d Ws d

(b) For dynamic similarity we require that each of the Πs be the same in the model and the
prototype.

For the prototype: EI = 2109 N m2, Ws = 1000 N m–1, d = 250 m, τ = 104 N.

Hydraulics 2 A3-20 David Apsley

For the model, D = 0.01 m. Hence,
Ws  ρg (πD 2 / 4)  1500  9.81 π  0.012 / 4  1.156 N m 1
I  πD 4 / 64  π  0.014 / 64  4.909  10 10 m 4
EI  3.0  109  4.909  10 10  1.473 N m 2

To find dm we need
 EI   EI 
Π 2    
3  

3 
 Ws d  m  Ws d  p
3
( EI ) m (Ws ) p  d m 
 
( EI ) p (Ws ) m  d p 
1/ 3
dm 
 ( EI ) m (Ws ) p   1.473  1000 
1/ 3

      0.008605
dp 
 ( EI ) p (Ws ) m   2  10  1.156 
9

Hence,
d m  0.008605  d p  0.008605  250 m  2.15 m

 τ   τ 
(c) Π 3      
 s m  s  p
W d W d
τ m (Ws ) m d m 1.156
    0.008605  9.947  10 6
τ p (Ws ) p d p 1000
Hence,
τ m  9.947  10 6  τ p  9.947  10 6  10 4 N  0.0995 N

Hydraulics 2 A3-21 David Apsley

Q11.
(a) List variables and dimensions:
P ML2T–3 (force  velocity: MLT–2LT–1)
Q L3T–1
ρgH ML–1T–2 (density  acceleration  length: ML–3LT–2L)
N T–1
D L
ρ ML–3
μ ML–1T–1 ((force/area) ÷ (velocity/length): MLT–2/L2÷LT–1/L)

Number of variables: n = 7.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of dimensionless groups: n – m = 4

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (D), kinematic/time-dependent (N), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (P, Q, ρgH, μ).

Π1  PD a N b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  ML2 T 3 (L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 1 c  0  c = –1
T: 3b  0  b = –3
L: 2  a  3c  0  a = –5
P
Π1  PD 5 N 3ρ 1 
ρN 3 D 5

Π 2  QD a N b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  L3 T 1 (L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: c0  c=0
T: 1  b  0  b = –1
L: 3  a  3c  0  a = –3
Q
Π 2  QD 3 N 1 
ND 3

Π 3  ρgHD a N b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  ML1T 2 (L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 1 c  0  c = –1
T: 2b  0  b = –2
L:  1  a  3c  0  a = –2
gH
Π 3  ρgHD 2 N 2 ρ 1  2 2
N D

Π 4  μD a N b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  ML1T 1 (L) a (T 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 1 c  0  c = –1

Hydraulics 2 A3-22 David Apsley

T: 1  b  0  b = –1
L:  1  a  3c  0  a = –2
μ
Π 4  μD 2 N 1ρ 1 
ρND 2
We recognise this as the reciprocal of a Reynolds number, so choose instead
1 ρND 2
Π 4  
Π4 μ

Buckingham’s Pi Theorem implies

Π1  f (Π 2 , Π 3 , Π4 )
i.e.
P Q gH ρND 2
 f ( , , )
ρN 3 D 5 ND 3 N 2 D 2 μ

(b) Since we can replace any one dimensionless group by an independent combination of it
with the others, choose
Π1
Π 2 
Π2Π3
P ND 3 N 2 D 2
  
ρN 3 D 5 Q gH
P

ρQgH
power out

power in
 efficiency , η

Then,
Π1  f (Π2 , Π 3 , Π4 )
i.e.
P gH ρND 2
 f ( η, , )
ρN 3 D 5 N 2D2 μ

(c) ρND2/μ is the Reynolds number in this instance (ND has the dimensions of velocity). If
this is sufficiently large then turbulent stresses are overwhelmingly greater than viscous
stresses and so the precise value of viscosity μ is unimportant. Hence the power output
becomes independent of this parameter (provided that it is sufficiently large).

Hydraulics 2 A3-23 David Apsley

(d) Length-scale ratio:
Dm 1

D p 10

Given quantities:
Model Prototype
Hm = 10 m Hp = 160 m
Pm = 1.5 kW
Qm = 0.5 L s–1
N = 300 rpm

The only non-dimensional group with only 1 unknown is Π3.

(Π 3 ) m  (Π 3 ) p
 gH   gH 
  2 2   2 2 
 N D m  N D  p
Thus, rearranging for the speed ratio,
2
D 
2
 Np  H 1
   p   m   16   0.16
 Nm  H m  D p  100
Hence,
Np
 0.4
Nm
 N p  0.4 N m  0.4  300 rpm  120 rpm

Similarly
( Π1 ) p  ( Π1 ) m
 P   P 
  3 5    3 5 
 ρN D  p  ρN D  m
Thus,
3 5
Pp  Np   Dp 
       0.4 3  10 5  6400
Pm  N m   Dm 
Hence,
 Pp  6400Pm  6400  1.5 kW  9600 kW  9.6 MW

Finally,
(Π 2 ) p  (Π 2 ) m
 Q   Q 
  3 
 3 
 ND  p  ND  m
Thus,
3
Qp  Np   Dp 
       0.4  10 3  400
Qm  N m   Dm 

Hydraulics 2 A3-24 David Apsley

Hence,
 Q p  400Qm  400  0.5 L s 1  200 L s 1

Answer: prototype power = 9.6 MW, discharge = 200 L s–1, angular velocity = 120 rpm.

Hydraulics 2 A3-25 David Apsley

Q12.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
P ML2T–3 (e.g. force (MLT–2) × velocity (LT–1)
–1
U LT
L L
ω T–1
ρ ML–3
ν L2T–1

Number of variables: n = 6.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 3.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables:

geometric (L), kinematic/time-dependent (U), dynamic/mass-dependent (ρ).

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (P, ω and ν).

Π1  PLaU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (ML2 T 3 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –3 – b  b = –3
L: 0 = 2 + a + b – 3c  a = –2
P
 Π1  PL2U 3ρ 1 
ρU 3 L2

Π 2  ωLaU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (T 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=0+c  c=0
T: 0 = –1 – b  b = –1
L: 0 = 0 + a + b – 3c  a=1
ωL
 Π 2  ωLU 1 
U

Π 3  νLaU b ρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (L2 T 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c
M: 0=0+c  c=0
T: 0 = –1 – b  b = –1
L: 0 = 2 + a + b – 3c  a = –1
ν
 Π 3  νL1U 1 
UL

Recognition of the Reynolds number suggests that we replace Π3 by Π3  1 / Π 3 . i.e.

UL
Π 3 
ν

Hydraulics 2 A3-26 David Apsley

Hence, dimensional analysis gives
Π1  f (Π 2 , Π3 )
i.e.
P ωL UL
 f( , )
ρU L3 2
U ν

(b) UL/ν is the Reynolds number. If this is sufficiently large then turbulent stresses are
overwhelmingly greater than viscous stresses and so the precise value of kinematic viscosity
ν is unimportant.

(c) Π 3 is to be neglected. Π1 and Π2 must be the same in model (m) and prototype (p). Here,
 ωL   ωL 
Π2     
 U  p  U m
U m ω m Lm 60 1
      0.4
U p ω p Lp 15 10
 U m  0.4  2.0  0.8 m s 1

Answer: 0.8 m s–1.

(d)
 P   P 
Π 3   3 2 
   
3 2 
 ρU L  p  ρU L  m
Since the density is the same in model and prototype:
3 2
Pp  U p   L p  1
       3
 10 2  1562.5
Pm  U m   Lm  0.4
 Pp  1562.5  200  312500 W

Answer: 312 kW.

Hydraulics 2 A3-27 David Apsley

Q13.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
dU/dy (L/T)/L = T–1
y L
τw (MLT–2)/L2 = ML–1T–2
B (1/Θ)(LT–2)(ML2T–2/T/L2) / (ML–3) / (L2T–2Θ–1) = L2T–3
ρ ML–3

Number of variables: n = 5.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T; note that Θ has cancelled out)
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 2.

Choose m (= 3) independent scaling variables; the best here are

y, τw, ρ

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (dU/dy and B).
Π1  (dU / dy) y a τ bwρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (T 1 )(L) a (ML1T 2 ) b (ML3 ) c
T: 0 = –1 –2b  b = –1/2
M: 0=b+c  c = 1/2
L: 0 = a – b – 3c  a=1
1 / 2
dU 1 / 2 1 / 2 dU τ  y dU
Π1  yτ w ρ  y w  
dy dy  ρ  u τ dy

Π 2  By a τ bwρ c
M 0 L0 T 0  (L2 T 3 )(L) a (ML1T 2 ) b (ML3 ) c
T: 0 = –3 –2b  b = –3/2
M: 0=b+c  c = 3/2
L: 0 = 2 + a – b – 3c  a=1
3 / 2
3 / 2 τ  By
Π 2  Byτ w ρ 3/ 2
 By  w  
 ρ  u τ3

To get the required second group choose an alternative dimensionless combination:

 κB y
Π 2 '   κΠ 2  3 y 
uτ LMO
Thus,
Π1  f ( Π 2 ' )
or
y dU y
 f( )
u τ dy LMO

(b) If B = 0 then LMO = ∞, and the RHS of the dimensionless relationship is a constant, C say.
Then

Hydraulics 2 A3-28 David Apsley

 y dU
C
u τ dy
whence
dU u
C τ
dy y
which integrates to give
U  Cu τ ln y  constant
i.e. the shape of the mean velocity profile is logarithmic.

1
(Note: In boundary-layer theory C is usually written as . The final constant depends on
κ
whether the surface is rough or smooth; part of it is usually absorbed into the logarithm to
make the argument of the logarithm non-dimensional.)

Hydraulics 2 A3-29 David Apsley

Q14.
(a) List variables and their dimensions:
qH MT–3
L L
ΔT Θ
V LT–1
ρ ML–3
μ ML–1T–1
k MLT–3Θ–1
cp L2T–2Θ–1

Number of variables: n = 8.
Number of independent dimensions: m = 4 (M, L, T and Θ).
Number of non-dimensional groups: n – m = 4.

Choose m (= 4) independent scaling variables; the best here are

geometric (L), time-dependent (V), mass-dependent (ρ), temperature-dependent (ΔT)

Form non-dimensional groups by non-dimensionalising the other variables (qH, μ, k, and cp).

Π1  q H LaV b ρ c ΔT d
M 0 L0 T 0 Θ 0  (MT3 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c (Θ) d
Θ: 0=d  d=0
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –3 – b  b = –3
L: 0 = a + b – 3c  a = 0
q
Π1  q H V 3ρ 1  H 3
ρV

Π 2  μLaV b ρ c ΔT d
M 0 L0 T 0 Θ 0  (ML1T 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c (Θ) d
Θ: 0=d  d=0
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –1 – b  b = –1
L: 0 = –1 + a + b – 3c  a = –1
μ
Π 2  μL1V 1ρ 1 
ρVL

Π 3  kLaV b ρ c ΔT d
M 0 L0 T 0 Θ 0  (MLT3 Θ 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c (Θ) d
Θ: 0 = –1 + d  d=1
M: 0=1+c  c = –1
T: 0 = –3 – b  b = –3
L: 0 = 1 + a + b – 3c  a = –1
kΔT
Π 3  kL1V 3ρ 1ΔT 
ρLV 3

Hydraulics 2 A3-30 David Apsley

 Π 4  c p LaV b ρ c ΔT d
M 0 L0 T 0 Θ 0  (L2 T 2 Θ 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c (Θ) d
Θ: 0 = –1 + d  d=1
M: 0=c  c=0
T: 0 = –2 – b  b = –2
L: 0 = 2 + a + b – 3c  a= 0
c p ΔT
Π 4  c pV 2 ΔT 
V2

These are not the desired groups. Those can be obtained by

Π qH
Π1  1  . This is the Nusselt number, Nu.
Π 3 kΔT / L

ρVL
Π2  (Π 2 ) 1  . This is the Reynolds number, Re.
μ

Π 2 Π 4 μc p
Π 3   . This is the Prandtl number, Pr.
Π3 k

V2
Π 4  (Π 4 ) 1  . This is the Eckert number, Ec.
c p ΔT

(b) To choose a dimensionless group without qH linked to k replace Π1′ by Π1″, where
qH k qH
Π1  Π1 (Π2 Π3 ) 1  ( )
kΔT / L ρc pVL ρc pVΔT
Then,
qH V 2 ρVL μc p
 f( , , )
ρc pVΔT c p ΔT μ k
Since there is no dependence on the molecular properties μ and k, the last two dimensionless
groups can be dropped. Then
qH V2
 f( )
ρc pVΔT c p ΔT

(c) Require
 V2   V2 
   
 c ΔT   c ΔT 
 p  model  p  prototype
Since cp is the same,
2
ΔTmodel  V 
  model 
ΔT prototype  V prototype 

Hydraulics 2 A3-31 David Apsley

Hence,
2
ΔTmodel 5 1
  
ΔT prototype  10  4
The excess temperature in the model is then
1 1
ΔTmodel  ΔT prototype   200  50 K
4 4

Answer: excess temperature in the laboratory should be 50 K.

(d) Require
 qH   qH 
   
 ρc VΔT   ρc VΔT 
 p  model  p  prototype
Since ρ and cp are the same,
q H ,model  ΔTmodel  Vmodel 
  
q H , prototype  ΔT prototype  V prototype 
1 1
 
4 2
1

8
Hence,
q H , prototype  8q H ,model  8  20  160 W m 2

Answer: heat flux per unit area in the prototype = 160 W m–2.

Hydraulics 2 A3-32 David Apsley

Q15.
The issue in both cases is that by performing these swaps (something done remarkably often
in coursework and exams, hence the need for this example question!) the student certainly
keeps dimensional groups ... but removes their independence. Hence, although they are
dimensionless, they are not a solution to the problem.

(a) In this case, with the swaps proposed, the Pi groups become
fD fD U
Π1  , Π 2  , Π3 
U U W
Since Π 2 is clearly equal to Π1, there are now only 2 independent Pi groups. (Another way of
looking at it is that none of them contain L). Hence, it is no longer a solution to the problem.

(b) In this case, with the swaps proposed, the Pi groups become
fD fD U
Π1  , Π 2  , Π3 
U W W
This is less obvious as the Pi groups are all different, but in this case Π 2 is equal to the
product of Π1 and Π3, so there are again only 2 independent Pi groups. (Again, none of them
contain L).

The moral is that you cannot just swap variables with the same dimensions when doing any
rearrangement of Π groups. (Equivalently, you should not change scales mid-construction,
since you cannot possibly judge the independence of Π groups until you have constructed all
of them.

Following Buckingham’s Pi Theorem to the letter ensures independence of Pi groups

(because it introduces one new variable each time). Once you have a complete independent
set then you can rearrange if desired afterwards, since it will be easier to see if these
combinations are independent.

Hydraulics 2 A3-33 David Apsley