Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted by
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Head of Department
Of
Mechanical Engineering
LITERATURE SURVEY.....................................................................6
2.1OBJECTIVE.................................................................................6
HISTORY.............................................................................................7
Material used:.......................................................................................8
Advantages:..........................................................................................9
Application:..........................................................................................9
REFERENCES.....................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays pollution is a major issue for whole world. Pollution
is manmade and can be seen in own homes. In case Gas powered
lawn mowers due to the emission of gases it is responsible for
pollution. Also the cost of fuel is increasing hence it is not efficient.
So the Solar powered lawn cutters are introduced. Solar powered lawn
mower can be described as the application of solar energy to power an
electric motor which in turn rotates a blade which does the mowing of
a lawn. Solar energy is the renewable energy.
Grass cutter or lawn mowing with a standard motor powered
lawn mower is an inconvenience, and no one takes pleasure in it.
Cutting grass cannot be easily accomplished by elderly, younger, or
disabled people. Motor powered push lawn mowers and riding lawn
mowers create noise pollution due to the loud engine, and local air
pollution due to the combustion in the engine. Also, a motor powered
engine requires periodic maintenance such as changing the engine oil.
Even though electric lawn mowers are environmentally friendly, they
too can be an inconvenience. Along with motor powered lawn
mowers, electric lawn mowers are also hazardous and cannot be
easily used by all. Also, if the electric lawn mower is corded, mowing
could prove to be problematic and dangerous. The self-propelling
electric remote control lawn mower is a lawn mower that has remote
control capability. This prototype is robotic user friendly, cost
efficient, safe to use, efficient to use, and environmentally friendly. It
can save significantly on labor costs.
Block Diagram:
Shaf
Chassis
Wheel and
Motor
Android Mobile
Phone 12V 1.4Ah
Battery
Motor Driver IC
Microcontroller
L293
Atmega16
Bluetooth
HC-05
Objective:
Working:
LITERATURE SURVEY
For the manufacturing of a solar grass cutter we referred various
literature, papers etc. The review of previous method used given
below: In this lawn mower uses an solar based energy source, which
is easier to use, more advantageous comparing to other energy source
especially for gas based source of power .But our lawn cutter is based
on solar because this energy is a renewable energy source and it is
easy to work. So we made solar powered lawnmower.
In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing
environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and
polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is
solar energy. In this solar based lawn mower, the advantage of
powering a lawn mower by solar rather than by gasoline is mainly
ecological. We manufactured this lawn cutter because it is very easy
method and many overcome produced from this type lawn cutter.
The self powered objective is to come up with a mower that is
portable, durable, easy to operate and maintain. It also aims to design
a self powered mower of electrical source; a cordless electric lawn
mower. The heart of the machine is a battery powered dc electric
motor. It is also useful method for our lawn mower. It is similar to our
lawn cutter using display and keypad.
The present technology commonly used for trimming the grass
is by using the manually handle device. In this project we have
automated the machine for trimming the grass. The device consists of
linear blade which is operated with the help of the motor the power
supply for the motor is by using battery. The battery can be charge by
using power supply and solar panel.
HISTORY
The first lawn mower was invented by Edwin Budding in 1830 just
outside Stroud, in Gloucestershire, England. Bedding’s mower was
designed primarily to cut the grass on sports grounds and extensive
gardens, as a superior alternative to the scythe, and was granted a
British patent on August 31, 1830.
Budding’s first machine was 19 inches (480 mm) wide with a frame
made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind.
Cast iron gear wheels transmitted power from the rear roller to the
cutting cylinder, allowing the rear roller to drive the knives on the
cutting cylinder; the ratio was 16:1. Another roller placed between the
cutting cylinder and the main or land roller could be raised or lowered
to alter the height of cut. The grass clippings were hurled forward into
a tray-like box. It was soon realized, however, that an extra handle
was needed in front to help pull th e machine along. Overall, these
machines were remarkably similar to modern mowers.
Material used:
SNo Description Size/qty cost
1 Solar panel 12V/ 10WATT 1200
2 1.4Ah Battery 12V 1.4Ah 500
3 Grass cutter with metallic blades 15inch 800
diameter
4 Bearing stainless steel 2.5inch dia 300
5 Wheel plastic 3inch dia/fore 400
6 ECU One 1200
7 Chassis wooden 12X12inch 300
8 DC Motor 40RPM 12V Two 500
9 DC Motor 4000RPM 12V one 600
Advantages:
1. Easy to hold
2. Light weighted
3. Multi-functional
4. Low cost
5. Free solar energy
Application:
1. Grass cutting
2. Crop cutting
3. Spraying
Calculations
Good science project does not stop with building a motor. It is very important to
measure different electrical and mechanical parameters of your motor and
calculate unknown values using the following helpful formulas.
We will use the International System of Units (SI). This is modern metric
system that is officially accepted in electrical engineering in the USA.
One of the most important laws of physics is the fundamental Ohm’s Law. It
states that current through the conductor is directly proportional to applied
voltage and is expressed as:
I=V/R
This formula could be used in many cases. You may calculate the resistance of
your motor by measuring the consumed current and applied voltage. For any
given resistance (in the motors it is basically the resistance of the coil) this
formula explains that the current can be controlled by applied voltage.
Motors supposed to do some work and two important values define how
powerful the motor is. It is motor speed and torque – the turning force of the
motor. Output mechanical power of the motor could be calculated by using the
following formula:
Pout = τ * ω
It is easy to calculate angular speed if you know rotational speed of the motor in
rpm:
ω = rpm * 2π / 60
If the motor has 100% efficiency all electrical power is converted to mechanical
energy. However such motors do not exist. Even precision made small industrial
motors such as one we use as a generator in generator kit have maximum
efficiency of 50-60%. Motors built from our kits usually have maximum
efficiency of about 15% (see Experiments section on how we estimated this).
Don’t be disappointed with 15% maximum efficiency. All our kits are intended
for education and not designed for real applications. This efficiency is not bad at
all – it is actually much better than most of other self made designs on Internet
can provide. The motors have enough torque and speed to do all kinds of
experiments and calculations.
E = Pout / Pin
therefore
Pout = Pin * E
τ*ω=I*V*E
τ * rpm * 2π / 60 = I * V * E
Measure current, voltage and rpm. Now you can calculate the torque for this
load at this speed assuming that you know efficiency of the motor.
Example: speed is 1000 rpm, voltage is 6 Volts, and current is 220 mA (0.22 A):
Motor torque changes with the speed. At no load you have maximum speed and
zero torque. Load adds mechanical resistance. The motor starts to consume
more current to overcome this resistance and the speed decreases. If you
increase the load at some point motor stops (this is called stall). When it occurs
the torque is at maximum and it is called stall torque. While it is hard to
measure stall torque without special tools you can find this value by plotting
speed-torque graph. You need to take at least two measurements with different
loads to find the stall torque.
How accurate is the torque calculation? While voltage, current and speed could
be accurately measured, efficiency of the motor may not be correct. It depends
on the accuracy of your assembly, sensor position, friction, alignment of the
motor and generator axles etc. If you want to get meaningful numbers you
might use a second generator kit as explained in Torque and Efficiency
Calculation section.
Speed, torque, power and efficiency of the motors are not constant values.
Usually the manufacturer provides the following data in a table like this one
(sample data from one of the motors used in generator kit):
I=V/R
Pin = I * V
Pout = τ * ω
ω = rpm * 2π / 60
E = Pout / Pin
therefore
Pout = Pin * E
τ*ω=I*V*E
τ * rpm * 2π / 60 = I * V * E
Example:
Our estimated 15% efficiency represents maximum efficiency of the motor
which occurs only at a certain speed. Efficiency may be anywhere between zero
and the maximum; in our example below 1000 rpm may not be the optimal
speed so the for the sake of calculations you may use 10% efficiency (E = 0.1).
Example: speed is 1000 rpm, voltage is 6 Volts, and current is 220 mA (0.22 A):
ATmega16 Microcontroller
Introduction
A microcontroller often serves as the “brain” of a mechatronic system. Like a
mini, self-contained computer, it can be programmed to interact with both the
hardware of the system and the user. Even the most basic microcontroller can
perform simple math operations, control digital outputs, and monitor digital
inputs. As the computer industry has evolved, so has the technology associated
with microcontrollers. Newer microcontrollers are much faster, have more
memory, and have a host of input and output features that dwarf the ability of
earlier models. Most modern controllers have analog-to-digital converters, high-
speed timers and counters, interrupt capabilities, outputs that can be pulse-width
modulated, serial communication ports, etc.
The microcontroller and the development board used in this lab were donated
by Atmel for your use. In industry, you can expect to pay anywhere from $50 to
$400 for just a development board and up to $1000 for a professional compiler
and programming interface! SO BE CAREFUL AND RESPECTFUL of the
microcontrollers and development boards! Like any electronic device, they are
delicate and may be easily damaged! BE ESPECIALLY CAREFUL of static
charges! Before you touch the STK500 board (or any other circuit board with
integrated circuits, for that matter), make sure that you have dissipated any
static charge that has accumulated on your body. The best way to do this is by
using an ESD wrist strap that has been connected to a good earth ground and by
placing your circuit board on a grounded ESD mat. If you don’t have these ESD
supplies, touch a well-grounded metal surface before you handle the circuit
board.
The bottom line is: USE COMMON SENSE, and FOLLOW THE
INSTRUCTIONS in the lab assignments. You will build upon your
experience from each lab, and you are therefore encouraged to learn as much as
you can from each experiment and its examples.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in theISM band from 2.4 to
2.485 GHz[4]) from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area
networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994,[5] it was
originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can
connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has
more than 25,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication,
computing, networking, and consumer electronics.[6] The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The
Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the
qualification program, and protects the trademarks.[7] A manufacturer must
make a device meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device.
[8]
A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual
qualifying devices.
Uses
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily
designed for low-power consumption, with a short range based on low-
cost transceiver microchips in each device.[15] Because the devices use a radio
(broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of
sight of each other, however a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.
[6]
Range is power-class-dependent, but effective ranges vary in practice; see the
table on the right.
Officially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3 ft), Class 2, most
commonly found in mobile devices, 10 metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for
industrial use cases,100 metres (300 ft).[3] Bluetooth Marketing qualifies that
Class 1 range is in most cases 20–30 metres (66–98 ft), and Class 2 range 5–10
metres (16–33 ft).[2]
The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage,
production sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions.
Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of
walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than
specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth
applications are battery powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range
whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower
powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of
the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1
transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical
Class 2 device.[16] Mostly however the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity
to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity
and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending
on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open
field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without
exceeding legal emission limits
The Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than 10 metres
(33 ft), but there is no upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers'
implementations can be tuned to provide the range needed for each case.
Bluetooth profiles
DC motor
Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and
permanent magnet stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of
the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities. The + and - signs show
where the DC current is applied to the commutator which supplies current to the
armature coils
The Pennsylvania Railroad's class DD1 locomotive running gear was a semi-
permanently coupled pair of third rail direct current electric locomotive motors
built for the railroad's initial New York-area electrification when steam
locomotives were banned in the city (locomotive cab removed here).
DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed
can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by
changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used
in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current
but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger
DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in
drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.
Electromagnetic motors
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic
field aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the
magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and
magnitude of the current flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature
with one more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that
concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns
around the core, and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths.
The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The commutator
allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils
with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have
electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no
brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped
around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.
The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the
effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in
sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic
fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or
electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force on
the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator
fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater
control over the motor.
Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are
connected provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The
speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the
armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field
circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power
electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into
on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is
often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The
DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and
diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for
many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical grid system to run
machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution. DC
motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as
well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in
applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel
rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with separately excited
fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as
well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced
with large AC motors with variable frequency drives.
Brush
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using
an internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the
stator field. Torque is produced by the principle that any current-carrying
conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a force, known
as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector
represented by the green arrow), and thus the output torque,is a function for
rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a
single phase two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the
current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and
simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low
life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the
carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning
or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring
electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the
rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.
Brushless
Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor
Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and
stationary electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the stator. A
motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than
that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring
power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor controller can
sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar and precisely control
the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize torque,
conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking. Advantages of
brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high
efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor
speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as
"synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be
synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.
Uncommutated
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.
Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very
low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.
A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying
on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to
produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be
used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is
fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient
in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding.
Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings.
Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were
disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount
of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to
assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are
neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines
with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed
singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three
rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer
housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field
magnets.
Wound stators
A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the
armature of a DC machine (motor or generator)
There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor
possible for DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various
blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque
characteristics appropriate for different loading torque profiles/signatures.[1]
Series connection
A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a
common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of
load torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor
yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high
starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as
trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in
applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly
when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.
With no mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-
EMF produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn
faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The
motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.
Shunt connection
A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt
with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed
regulation even as the load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a
series DC motor.[3] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed
applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.
Compound connection
Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow,
and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic
circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias
active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust
circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.
The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The
European notation BS 1852 avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the
decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For
example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ.
Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value
can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the
decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω.
The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that
decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit
diagram.
Theory of operation
The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to
water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it
takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric
current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged
with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow
(electric current).[1]
Ohm's law
Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For
example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt
battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.
Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also
affect the relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg
Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are
specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units
of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106
Ω) are also in common usage.
The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual
resistance values.
The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.
So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor
and a 15 ohm resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of
resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725 ohms.
Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.
The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum,
paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field between its plates.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they
smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize
voltage and power flow.
Theory of operation
Overview
Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on
the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the
capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were
separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.
Capacitor types
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The
type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging
all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.
Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low
values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors.
Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar hot water panel, or
to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and mounted
on a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of
solar cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic
system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a
module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8%
efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt
module. There are a few solar panels available that are exceeding 19%
efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power;
most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically
includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a
battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring. If we can harness the
solar power efficiently, then we may not need to rely on burning fossil fuels for
energy.
Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.
The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer
or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and
moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available,
based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in
1958.
Efficiencies
Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is
around 21.5% in new commercial products[2] typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules[disputed – discuss]
have power density values of up to 175 W/m2
(16.22 W/ft2).[3] Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the
efficiency of a solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving
semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders similar to the ridges on
Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the
semiconductor which means that more photons can be absorbed and
converted into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used
previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering
occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly.
Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be
scattered by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring
down the cost significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more
abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the
increase in current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without
"compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption".[4]
Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum power
point) value of solar panels
Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output
than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas
light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes its
maximum possible output given the available sunlight.[citation needed]
Most solar modules are currently produced from solar cells made of
polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon
accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production. [5]
Thin-film modules
Main articles: Thin film solar cell and Third generation solar cell
Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.
Rigid thin-film modules
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate
of 6-12%.
Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.
The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell
technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery,
inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and
unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the
service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex
parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant
technology.[citation needed]
Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are much
more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken by
bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot
than standard rigid solar panels.
The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in
the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019,
surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.[6]
Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best
suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were
only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes
as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one
specific voltage at which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at
a glance, to make sure the module is compatible with a given system.
Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can
produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V OC can be
measured with a meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its
disconnected cable.
The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test
conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could
measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75
watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of
testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a
typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either
rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.[7][8][9][10]
Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat
and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a
warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated
power output and 25 years at 80%.[11]
Recycling
Production
The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells. [22]
These silicon cells are not efficient enough in their current state and can only
convert solar energy in to useable power at a rate of roughly 10-20 percent. [23]
In order for solar panels to become more effiicient, and therefore more useful
in the future, researchers across the world have been trying to develop new
technology to make solar panels more effective at turning the sun in to energy.
The top ten solar module producers (by GW shipments) in 2014 were: [25]
Price
Real world prices depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy
country such as the United Kingdom, price per installed kW is higher than in
sunnier countries like Spain.
For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the
electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match
the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid
parity' or 'busbar parity'.[28]
Ground mounted
Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground
penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where
excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies
decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.
Roof mounting
Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may
use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the panel system in position and do not require through
penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or
relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof
structure.
Trackers
Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of
the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the
light.[33][34]
Fixed racks
Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed
rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles
above ground.[35]
Standards
CE mark
Solar plane
Solar-pumped laser
Solar vehicle
Soyuz spacecraft
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