SMART SOLAR GRASS CUTTER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree

of

Bachelor of Technology

in

Mechanical Engineering

Submitted by

Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No
Name Roll No

Under the esteemed guidance of

Head of Department

Of

Mechanical Engineering

United College of Engineering & Technology

Contents
INTRODUCTION................................................................................3

LITERATURE SURVEY.....................................................................6

2.1OBJECTIVE.................................................................................6

HISTORY.............................................................................................7

Material used:.......................................................................................8

Advantages:..........................................................................................9

Application:..........................................................................................9

REFERENCES.....................................................................................9
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays pollution is a major issue for whole world. Pollution
is manmade and can be seen in own homes. In case Gas powered
lawn mowers due to the emission of gases it is responsible for
pollution. Also the cost of fuel is increasing hence it is not efficient.
So the Solar powered lawn cutters are introduced. Solar powered lawn
mower can be described as the application of solar energy to power an
electric motor which in turn rotates a blade which does the mowing of
a lawn. Solar energy is the renewable energy.
Grass cutter or lawn mowing with a standard motor powered
lawn mower is an inconvenience, and no one takes pleasure in it.
Cutting grass cannot be easily accomplished by elderly, younger, or
disabled people. Motor powered push lawn mowers and riding lawn
mowers create noise pollution due to the loud engine, and local air
pollution due to the combustion in the engine. Also, a motor powered
engine requires periodic maintenance such as changing the engine oil.
Even though electric lawn mowers are environmentally friendly, they
too can be an inconvenience. Along with motor powered lawn
mowers, electric lawn mowers are also hazardous and cannot be
easily used by all. Also, if the electric lawn mower is corded, mowing
could prove to be problematic and dangerous. The self-propelling
electric remote control lawn mower is a lawn mower that has remote
control capability. This prototype is robotic user friendly, cost
efficient, safe to use, efficient to use, and environmentally friendly. It
can save significantly on labor costs.
Block Diagram:

Solar Panel Grass cutter

Shaf

Chassis
Wheel and
Motor

Battery and ECU

12V 10W Solar

Panel

Android Mobile
Phone 12V 1.4Ah
Battery

Motor Driver IC
Microcontroller
L293
Atmega16

Bluetooth
HC-05
Objective:

To design a solar powered grass cutter.

To make ECU that include motor controller Bluetooth receiver.
Shape should be appropriate to evenly cut the grass at both side.

Working:

Android mobile phone will have software running on it.

Software will have some buttons.
Phone will connected with the ECU via Bluetooth.
Every button will send a different ASCII code.
According to the code grass cutter will move in all directions.
Grass cutter will use high speed DC motor.

LITERATURE SURVEY
For the manufacturing of a solar grass cutter we referred various
literature, papers etc. The review of previous method used given
below: In this lawn mower uses an solar based energy source, which
is easier to use, more advantageous comparing to other energy source
especially for gas based source of power .But our lawn cutter is based
on solar because this energy is a renewable energy source and it is
easy to work. So we made solar powered lawnmower.
 In today's climate of growing energy needs and increasing
environmental concern, alternatives to the use of non-renewable and
polluting fossil fuels have to be investigated. One such alternative is
solar energy. In this solar based lawn mower, the advantage of
powering a lawn mower by solar rather than by gasoline is mainly
ecological. We manufactured this lawn cutter because it is very easy
method and many overcome produced from this type lawn cutter.
The self powered objective is to come up with a mower that is
portable, durable, easy to operate and maintain. It also aims to design
a self powered mower of electrical source; a cordless electric lawn
mower. The heart of the machine is a battery powered dc electric
motor. It is also useful method for our lawn mower. It is similar to our
lawn cutter using display and keypad.
The present technology commonly used for trimming the grass
is by using the manually handle device. In this project we have
automated the machine for trimming the grass. The device consists of
linear blade which is operated with the help of the motor the power
supply for the motor is by using battery. The battery can be charge by
using power supply and solar panel.

HISTORY
The first lawn mower was invented by Edwin Budding in 1830 just
outside Stroud, in Gloucestershire, England. Bedding’s mower was
designed primarily to cut the grass on sports grounds and extensive
gardens, as a superior alternative to the scythe, and was granted a
British patent on August 31, 1830.
Budding’s first machine was 19 inches (480 mm) wide with a frame
made of wrought iron. The mower was pushed from behind.
Cast iron gear wheels transmitted power from the rear roller to the
cutting cylinder, allowing the rear roller to drive the knives on the
cutting cylinder; the ratio was 16:1. Another roller placed between the
cutting cylinder and the main or land roller could be raised or lowered
to alter the height of cut. The grass clippings were hurled forward into
a tray-like box. It was soon realized, however, that an extra handle
was needed in front to help pull th e machine along. Overall, these
machines were remarkably similar to modern mowers.

Fig 2.2An early cylinder reel mower

Two of the earliest Budding machines sold went to Regent's

Park Zoological Gardens in London and the Oxford Colleges. In an
agreement between John Ferrabee and Edwin Budding dated May 18,
1830, Ferrabee paid the costs of enlarging the small blades, obtained
letters of patent and acquired rights to manufacture, sell and license
other manufacturers in the production of lawn mowers. Without
patent, Budding and Ferrabee were shrewd enough to allow other
companies to build copies of their mower under license, the most
successful of these being Ransomes of Ipswich, which began making
mowers as early as 1832.

His machine was the catalyst for the preparation of modern-style

sporting ovals, playing fields (pitches), grass courts, etc. This led to
the codification of modern rules for many sports, including for
football, lawn bowls, lawn tennis and others

From the late nineteenth century through the middle of the

twentieth century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished
using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the
early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be
used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of
tube was the thyratron.

The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of

the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or
synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so
that the generator's commentator reversed its connections at exactly
the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the
synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings
are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a
commentator at the other and only one field frame.
 The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the
DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a
synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be
"mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control
equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards",
converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.

Material used:
SNo Description Size/qty cost
1 Solar panel 12V/ 10WATT 1200
2 1.4Ah Battery 12V 1.4Ah 500
3 Grass cutter with metallic blades 15inch 800
diameter
4 Bearing stainless steel 2.5inch dia 300
5 Wheel plastic 3inch dia/fore 400
6 ECU One 1200
7 Chassis wooden 12X12inch 300
8 DC Motor 40RPM 12V Two 500
9 DC Motor 4000RPM 12V one 600

Advantages:
1. Easy to hold
2. Light weighted
3. Multi-functional
4. Low cost
5. Free solar energy
Application:
1. Grass cutting
2. Crop cutting
3. Spraying

Calculations
Good science project does not stop with building a motor. It is very important to
measure different electrical and mechanical parameters of your motor and
calculate unknown values using the following helpful formulas.

We will use the International System of Units (SI). This is modern metric
system that is officially accepted in electrical engineering in the USA.

One of the most important laws of physics is the fundamental Ohm’s Law. It
states that current through the conductor is directly proportional to applied
voltage and is expressed as:

I=V/R

where I – current, measured in amperes (A);

V – applied voltage, measured in volts (V);
R – resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).

This formula could be used in many cases. You may calculate the resistance of
your motor by measuring the consumed current and applied voltage. For any
given resistance (in the motors it is basically the resistance of the coil) this
formula explains that the current can be controlled by applied voltage.

The consumed electrical power of the motor is defined by the following

formula:
Pin = I * V

where Pin – input power, measured in watts (W);

I – current, measured in amperes (A);
V – applied voltage, measured in volts (V).

Motors supposed to do some work and two important values define how
powerful the motor is. It is motor speed and torque – the turning force of the
motor. Output mechanical power of the motor could be calculated by using the
following formula:

Pout = τ * ω

where Pout – output power, measured in watts (W);

τ – torque, measured in Newton meters (N•m);
ω – angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s).

It is easy to calculate angular speed if you know rotational speed of the motor in
rpm:

ω = rpm * 2π / 60

where ω – angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s);

rpm – rotational speed in revolutions per minute;
π – mathematical constant pi (3.14).
60 – number of seconds in a minute.

If the motor has 100% efficiency all electrical power is converted to mechanical
energy. However such motors do not exist. Even precision made small industrial
motors such as one we use as a generator in generator kit have maximum
efficiency of 50-60%. Motors built from our kits usually have maximum
efficiency of about 15% (see Experiments section on how we estimated this).

Don’t be disappointed with 15% maximum efficiency. All our kits are intended
for education and not designed for real applications. This efficiency is not bad at
all – it is actually much better than most of other self made designs on Internet
can provide. The motors have enough torque and speed to do all kinds of
experiments and calculations.

Measuring the torque of the motor is a challenging task. It requires special

expensive equipment. Therefore we suggest calculating it.

Efficiency of the motor is calculated as mechanical output power divided by

electrical input power:

E = Pout / Pin

therefore

Pout = Pin * E

after substitution we get

τ*ω=I*V*E

τ * rpm * 2π / 60 = I * V * E

and the formula for calculating torque will be

τ = (I * V * E *60) / (rpm * 2π)

Connect the motor to the load. Using the motor from generator kit is the best
way to do it. Why do you need to connect the motor to the load? Well, if there is
no load – there is no torque.

Measure current, voltage and rpm. Now you can calculate the torque for this
load at this speed assuming that you know efficiency of the motor.

Our estimated 15% efficiency represents maximum efficiency of the motor

which occurs only at a certain speed. Efficiency may be anywhere between zero
and the maximum; in our example below 1000 rpm may not be the optimal
speed so the for the sake of calculations you may use 10% efficiency (E = 0.1).

Example: speed is 1000 rpm, voltage is 6 Volts, and current is 220 mA (0.22 A):

τ = (0.22 * 6 * 0.1 * 60) / (1000 * 2 * 3.14) = 0.00126 N•m

As the result is small usually it is expressed in milliNewton meters (mN•m).

There is 1000 mN•m in 1 N•m, so the calculated torque is 1.26 mN•m. It could
be also converted further to still common gram force centimeters (g-cm) by
multiplying the result by 10.2, i.e. the torque is 12.86 g-cm.

In our example input electrical power of the motor is 0.22 A x 6 V = 1.32 W,

output mechanical power is 1000 rpm x 2 x 3.14 x 0.00126 N•m /60 = 0.132 W.

Motor torque changes with the speed. At no load you have maximum speed and
zero torque. Load adds mechanical resistance. The motor starts to consume
more current to overcome this resistance and the speed decreases. If you
increase the load at some point motor stops (this is called stall). When it occurs
the torque is at maximum and it is called stall torque. While it is hard to
measure stall torque without special tools you can find this value by plotting
speed-torque graph. You need to take at least two measurements with different
loads to find the stall torque.

How accurate is the torque calculation? While voltage, current and speed could
be accurately measured, efficiency of the motor may not be correct. It depends
on the accuracy of your assembly, sensor position, friction, alignment of the
motor and generator axles etc. If you want to get meaningful numbers you
might use a second generator kit as explained in Torque and Efficiency
Calculation section.

Speed, torque, power and efficiency of the motors are not constant values.
Usually the manufacturer provides the following data in a table like this one
(sample data from one of the motors used in generator kit):

I=V/R

where I – current, measured in amperes (A);

V – applied voltage, measured in volts (V);
R – resistance, measured in ohms (Ω).

Pin = I * V

where Pin – input power, measured in watts (W);

I – current, measured in amperes (A);
V – applied voltage, measured in volts (V).

Pout = τ * ω

where Pout – output power, measured in watts (W);

τ – torque, measured in Newton meters (N•m);
ω – angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s).
It is easy to calculate angular speed if you know rotational speed of the motor in
rpm:

ω = rpm * 2π / 60

where ω – angular speed, measured in radians per second (rad/s);

rpm – rotational speed in revolutions per minute;
π – mathematical constant pi (3.14).
60 – number of seconds in a minute.

Efficiency of the motor is calculated as mechanical output power divided by

electrical input power:

E = Pout / Pin

therefore

Pout = Pin * E

After substitution we get

τ*ω=I*V*E

τ * rpm * 2π / 60 = I * V * E

and the formula for calculating torque will be

τ = (I * V * E *60) / (rpm * 2π)

Example:
Our estimated 15% efficiency represents maximum efficiency of the motor
which occurs only at a certain speed. Efficiency may be anywhere between zero
and the maximum; in our example below 1000 rpm may not be the optimal
speed so the for the sake of calculations you may use 10% efficiency (E = 0.1).

Example: speed is 1000 rpm, voltage is 6 Volts, and current is 220 mA (0.22 A):

τ = (0.22 * 6 * 0.1 * 60) / (1000 * 2 * 3.14) = 0.00126 N•m

Where, F is force in linear direction. R is radius of the object being

rotated, and θ is the angle, the force F is making with R vector

ATmega16 Microcontroller
Introduction
A microcontroller often serves as the “brain” of a mechatronic system. Like a
mini, self-contained computer, it can be programmed to interact with both the
hardware of the system and the user. Even the most basic microcontroller can
perform simple math operations, control digital outputs, and monitor digital
inputs. As the computer industry has evolved, so has the technology associated
with microcontrollers. Newer microcontrollers are much faster, have more
memory, and have a host of input and output features that dwarf the ability of
earlier models. Most modern controllers have analog-to-digital converters, high-
speed timers and counters, interrupt capabilities, outputs that can be pulse-width
modulated, serial communication ports, etc.
The microcontroller and the development board used in this lab were donated
by Atmel for your use. In industry, you can expect to pay anywhere from $50 to
$400 for just a development board and up to $1000 for a professional compiler
and programming interface! SO BE CAREFUL AND RESPECTFUL of the
microcontrollers and development boards! Like any electronic device, they are
delicate and may be easily damaged! BE ESPECIALLY CAREFUL of static
charges! Before you touch the STK500 board (or any other circuit board with
integrated circuits, for that matter), make sure that you have dissipated any
static charge that has accumulated on your body. The best way to do this is by
using an ESD wrist strap that has been connected to a good earth ground and by
placing your circuit board on a grounded ESD mat. If you don’t have these ESD
supplies, touch a well-grounded metal surface before you handle the circuit
board.
The bottom line is: USE COMMON SENSE, and FOLLOW THE
INSTRUCTIONS in the lab assignments. You will build upon your
experience from each lab, and you are therefore encouraged to learn as much as
you can from each experiment and its examples.

The ATmega16 Microcontroller

The ATmega16 microcontroller used in this lab is a 40-pin wide DIP (Dual In
Line) package chip. This chip was selected because it is robust, and the DIP
package interfaces with prototyping supplies like solderless bread boards and
solder-type perf-boards. This same microcontroller is available in a surface
mount package, about the size of a dime. Surface mount devices are more useful
for circuit boards built for mass production. Figure 1 below shows the ‘pin-out’
diagram of the ATmega16. This diagram is very useful, because it tells you
where power and ground should be connected, which pins tie to which
functional hardware, etc.
Figure 1. ATmega16 Pin-out diagram. Notice that some of the pins have alternate functions (shown
in parentheses).

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short
distances (using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in theISM band from 2.4 to
2.485 GHz[4]) from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area
networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994,[5] it was
originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can
connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.
Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has
more than 25,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication,
computing, networking, and consumer electronics.[6] The IEEE standardized
Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The
Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the
qualification program, and protects the trademarks.[7] A manufacturer must
make a device meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device.
[8]
A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual
qualifying devices.

Name and logo

The name "Bluetooth" is an Anglicised version of the
Scandinavian Blåtand/Blåtann (Old Norse blátǫnn), the epithet of the tenth-
century king Harald Bluetooth who united dissonant Danish tribes into a single
kingdom and, according to legend, introduced Christianity as well. The idea of
this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that
would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers. At the time of this
proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtsson's historical novel The Long
Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth.[9][10] The implication is that
Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, uniting them into one
universal standard.[11][12][13]
The Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes
(Hagall) (ᚼ) and (Bjarkan) (ᛒ), Harald's initials.
Implementation[edit]
Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and
2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz
wide at the top.[14]This is in the globally unlicensed (but not unregulated)
Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency
band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology calledfrequency-hopping spread
spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each
packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a
bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 1600 hops per second, with Adaptive
Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled.[14] Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz
spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.
Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only
modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR,
π/4-DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) and 8DPSK
modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices functioning
with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an
instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate
(EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, each giving 2 and
3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR) modes in
Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a "BR/EDR radio".
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master-slave structure. One master
may communicate with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the
master's clock. Packet exchange is based on the basic clock, defined by the
master, which ticks at 312.5 µs intervals. Two clock ticks make up a slot of
625 µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of
single-slot packets the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots.
The slave, conversely, receives in even slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets
may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long, but in all cases the master's transmission begins in
even slots and the slave's in odd slots.
The above is valid for "classic" BT. Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the
4.0 specification, uses the same spectrum but somewhat differently;
see Bluetooth low energy#Radio interface.

Communication and connection

A master Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices
in a piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though
not all devices reach this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by
agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset
initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as initiator of
the connection—but may subsequently operate as slave).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more
piconets to form a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the
master role in one piconet and the slave role in another.
At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other
device (except for the little-used broadcast mode. [citation needed]) The master chooses
which slave device to address; typically, it switches rapidly from one device to
another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the master that chooses which slave
to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot,
being a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven
slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is difficult. [citation
needed]
The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.
Many USB Bluetooth adapters or "dongles" are available, some of which also
include an IrDA adapter.

Uses
Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily
designed for low-power consumption, with a short range based on low-
cost transceiver microchips in each device.[15] Because the devices use a radio
(broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual line of
sight of each other, however a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.
[6]
Range is power-class-dependent, but effective ranges vary in practice; see the
table on the right.
Officially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3 ft), Class 2, most
commonly found in mobile devices, 10 metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for
industrial use cases,100 metres (300 ft).[3] Bluetooth Marketing qualifies that
Class 1 range is in most cases 20–30 metres (66–98 ft), and Class 2 range 5–10
metres (16–33 ft).[2]
The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage,
production sample variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions.
Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor conditions, where attenuation of
walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far lower than
specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth
applications are battery powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range
whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower
powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of
the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1
transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical
Class 2 device.[16] Mostly however the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity
to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity
and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending
on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow open
field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without
exceeding legal emission limits
The Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than 10 metres
(33 ft), but there is no upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers'
implementations can be tuned to provide the range needed for each case.

Bluetooth profiles

To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain

Bluetooth profiles, which are definitions of possible applications and specify
general behaviours that Bluetooth-enabled devices use to communicate with
other Bluetooth devices. These profiles include settings to parametrize and to
control the communication from start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for
transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes
effective. There are a wide range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many
different types of applications or use cases for devices.

DC motor
Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and
permanent magnet stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of
the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities. The + and - signs show
where the DC current is applied to the commutator which supplies current to the
armature coils
The Pennsylvania Railroad's class DD1 locomotive running gear was a semi-
permanently coupled pair of third rail direct current electric locomotive motors
built for the railroad's initial New York-area electrification when steam
locomotives were banned in the city (locomotive cab removed here).

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct current

electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors have some
internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic, to periodically
change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most types produce
rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces force and motion in a straight
line.

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed
can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by
changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used
in tools, toys, and appliances. The universal motor can operate on direct current
but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger
DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in
drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications.

Electromagnetic motors
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic
field aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the
magnetic field produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and
magnitude of the current flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature
with one more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that
concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns
around the core, and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths.
The ends of the wire winding are connected to a commutator. The commutator
allows each armature coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils
with the external power supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have
electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no
brushes.)

The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped
around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created.

The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the
effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in
sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic
fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or
electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force on
the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator
fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater
control over the motor.

Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are
connected provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The
speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the
armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field
circuit allowed speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power
electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into
on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.

Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is
often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The
DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and
diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for
many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical grid system to run
machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution. DC
motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as
well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in
applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel
rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with separately excited
fields were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as
well as smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced
with large AC motors with variable frequency drives.

If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo.

This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and
electric cars or to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car
or electric powered train line when they slow down. This process is called
regenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives
they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the
energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to
recapture some of this energy.

Brush
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using
an internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the
stator field. Torque is produced by the principle that any current-carrying
conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a force, known
as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector
represented by the green arrow), and thus the output torque,is a function for
rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a
single phase two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the
current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power

supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets
(permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electrical magnets.

Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and
simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low
life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the
carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning
or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring
electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the
rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.

Brushless
Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor

Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and
stationary electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the stator. A
motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than
that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring
power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. The motor controller can
sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors or similar and precisely control
the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the rotor coils to optimize torque,
conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some braking. Advantages of
brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high
efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor
speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as
"synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be
synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the

axis of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to
the magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity
change.

Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very
low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.

 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor

that consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races
mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to
a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits
the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a
shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating
rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel.
The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually
required to get it going.

Permanent magnet stators

Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor

A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying
on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to
produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be
used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is
fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient
in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding.
Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings.
Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were
disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount
of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to
assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.

To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are
neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines
with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed
singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors
resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three
rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer
housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field
magnets.

Wound stators
A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the
armature of a DC machine (motor or generator)

Main article: universal motor

See also: Excitation (magnetic)

There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor
possible for DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various
blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque
characteristics appropriate for different loading torque profiles/signatures.[1]

Series connection

A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a
common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of
load torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor
yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high
starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as
trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in
applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly
when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.
With no mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-
EMF produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn
faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The
motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is called a runaway condition.

Series motors called "universal motors" can be used on alternating current.

Since the armature voltage and the field direction reverse at
(substantially[clarification needed]) the same time, torque continues to be produced in
the same direction. Since the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal
motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than
induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable
characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial
utility are usually of small capacity, not more than about 1 kW output. However,
much larger universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special
low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation
under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection

A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt
with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed
regulation even as the load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a
series DC motor.[3] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed
applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and
tensioners.

Compound connection

A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt

and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series
DC motor.[4] This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good
speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements:
cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors connect the series
field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed
regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and
are typically operated at constant speed.

Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce current flow,
and, at the same time, act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic
circuits resistors are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias
active elements, terminate transmission lines among other uses. High-power
resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as heat may be used
as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads for
generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with
temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust
circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing
devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or chemical activity.

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits

and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete
components can be composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are
also implemented within integrated circuits.

The electrical function of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common

commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of
magnitude. The nominal value of the resistance will fall within a manufacturing
tolerance.

Electronic symbols and notation

Main article: Electronic symbol

Two typical schematic diagram symbols are as follows;

(a) resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and (c) potentiometer

IEC resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The
European notation BS 1852 avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the
decimal separator with the SI prefix symbol for the particular value. For
example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a resistor value of 8.2 kΩ.
Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When the value
can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the
decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω.
The use of a SI prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that
decimal separators tend to 'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit
diagram.

Theory of operation
The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to
water flowing through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it
takes a larger pressure to achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric
current through a large resistance is like pushing water through a pipe clogged
with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to drive the same flow
(electric current).[1]

Ohm's law

Main article: Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by

Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
current (I), where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). For
example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt
battery, then a current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes flows through that resistor.

Practical resistors also have some inductance and capacitance which will also
affect the relation between voltage and current in alternating current circuits.

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg
Simon Ohm. An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are
specified and manufactured over a very large range of values, the derived units
of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1 kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106
Ω) are also in common usage.

Series and parallel resistors

Main article: Series and parallel circuits

The total resistance of resistors connected in series is the sum of their individual
resistance values.

The total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is the reciprocal of the sum
of the reciprocals of the individual resistors.

So, for example, a 10 ohm resistor connected in parallel with a 5 ohm resistor
and a 15 ohm resistor will produce the inverse of 1/10+1/5+1/15 ohms of
resistance, or 1/(.1+.2+.067)=2.725 ohms.

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can

be broken up into smaller parts that are either one or the other. Some complex
networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more
sophisticated circuit analysis. Generally, the Y-Δ transform, or matrix methods
can be used to solve such problems.[2][3][4]

Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal
electrical component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field.
The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two
electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e. insulator). The
conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive
electrolyte, etc. The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's
charge capacity. A dielectric can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum,
paper, mica, oxide layer etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor
does not dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an
electrostatic field between its plates.

When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a

capacitor is attached across a battery), an electric field develops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate and negative
charge −Q to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been attached to a
capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance.

Capacitance is expressed as the ratio of the electric charge Q on each conductor
to the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the
farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance
values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between

conductors and when the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also
has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage. The
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current
while allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they
smooth the output of power supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to
particular frequencies. In electric power transmission systems, they stabilize
voltage and power flow.
Theory of operation
Overview

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10]

The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the
dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass,
air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically
identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric
field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces,[11] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a
capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor
causes a voltage of one volt across the device.[12]

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined

as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on
the conductors attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the
capacitor to store more charge for a given voltage than if the conductors were
separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its

capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental
changes:

Capacitor types
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The
type of internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging
all strongly affect the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.

Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low
values are in principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the
limiting factor) to about 5 kF supercapacitors.

Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used

because of their small size and low cost compared with other types, unless their
relatively poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very
high capacity supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material.
Solar panel

Solar panel refers either to a photovoltaic module, a solar hot water panel, or
to a set of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules electrically connected and mounted
on a supporting structure. A PV module is a packaged, connected assembly of
solar cells. Solar panels can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic
system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test
conditions (STC), and typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a
module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8%
efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt
module. There are a few solar panels available that are exceeding 19%
efficiency. A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power;
most installations contain multiple modules. A photovoltaic system typically
includes a panel or an array of solar modules, an inverter, and sometimes a
battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring. If we can harness the
solar power efficiently, then we may not need to rely on burning fossil fuels for
energy.

Theory and construction

Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon.
The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer
or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical damage and
moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are available,
based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in
1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage

and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires
that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other non-
magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected electrically
to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular terrestrial
usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate
easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial

module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is

focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use
of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-
effective way.

Efficiencies

Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from

a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range
(specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far
higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another
design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct
the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. [citation needed] This has been
projected to be capable of raising efficiency by 50%. Scientists from Spectrolab,
a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multijunction solar cells
with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic
cells.[1] The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could
achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with
theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three
junctions.

Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is
around 21.5% in new commercial products[2] typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules[disputed – discuss]
have power density values of up to 175 W/m2
(16.22 W/ft2).[3] Research by Imperial College, London has shown that the
efficiency of a solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving
semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders similar to the ridges on
Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the
semiconductor which means that more photons can be absorbed and
converted into current. Although these nanocylinders have been used
previously (aluminum was preceded by gold and silver), the light scattering
occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly.
Aluminum was found to have absorbed the ultraviolet part of the spectrum,
while the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be
scattered by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring
down the cost significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more
abundant and less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the
increase in current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without
"compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption".[4]
  Efficiencies of solar panel can be calculated by MPP(Maximum power
point) value of solar panels

 Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power by performing MPPT

process: solar inverter samples the output Power(I-V curve) from the
solar cell and applies the proper resistance (load) to solar cells to obtain
maximum power.

 MPP(Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP

voltage(V mpp) and MPP current(I mpp): it is a capacity of the solar
panel and the higher value can make higher MPP.

Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output
than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas
light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes its
maximum possible output given the available sunlight.[citation needed]

Crystalline silicon modules

Most solar modules are currently produced from solar cells made of
polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon. In 2013, crystalline silicon
accounted for more than 90 percent of worldwide PV production. [5]

Thin-film modules

Main articles: Thin film solar cell and Third generation solar cell

Third generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a
relatively high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.
Rigid thin-film modules

The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical

connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The
substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back
sheet, usually another sheet of glass.

The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate
of 6-12%.

Flexible thin-film modules

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by
depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic

integration can be used.

If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be

used.

The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent

colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a
polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only
commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous
silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).
So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on
compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in
July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North American
Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar cells.

The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell
technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery,
inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and
unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the
service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex
parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant
technology.[citation needed]

Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are much
more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be broken by
bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per square foot
than standard rigid solar panels.

The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in
the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to 2019,
surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira.[6]

Smart solar modules

Main articles: Smart module and Solar micro-inverter

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This

enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and
fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power
optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power
harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such electronics can
also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling across a section
of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the
module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to
zero.

Module performance and aging

Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC):

irradiance of 1,000 W/m², solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature
at 25 °C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open

circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum
power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, Wp, and
module efficiency (%).

Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best
suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar modules were
only used to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the module changes
as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one
specific voltage at which the module operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at
a glance, to make sure the module is compatible with a given system.

Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the module can
produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. V OC can be
measured with a meter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its
disconnected cable.

The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test
conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could
measure approximately 1x2 meters or 2x4 feet, will be rated from as low as 75
watts to as high as 350 watts, depending on their efficiency. At the time of
testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a
typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 watt increments, and either
rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%.[7][8][9][10]

Solar modules must withstand rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat
and cold for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a
warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated
power output and 25 years at 80%.[11]

Recycling

Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain

semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.[12] Some private companies and non-profit organizations
are currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life
modules.[13]

Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules:

 Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are

dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then
crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated - glass, plastics
and metals.[14] It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming
 weight.[15] This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since
morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those flat
glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered
glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass
insulation industry.

 Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies

such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different
semiconductor materials.[16] For cadmium telluride modules, the
recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently
separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to
recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials
contained.[17] Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been
created in recent years by private companies.[18]

Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together

manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module
recycling.[19][20]

Production

In 2010, 15.9 GW of solar PV system installations were completed, with solar

PV pricing survey and market research company PVinsights reporting growth of
117.8% in solar PV installation on a year-on-year basis. With over 100% year-
on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically
increased their shipments of solar modules in 2010. They actively expanded
their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to
PVinsights, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2010 are GW players.
Suntech, First Solar, Sharp, Yingli and Trina Solar are GW producers now, and
most of them doubled their shipments in 2010. [21]

The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells. [22]
These silicon cells are not efficient enough in their current state and can only
convert solar energy in to useable power at a rate of roughly 10-20 percent. [23]
In order for solar panels to become more effiicient, and therefore more useful
in the future, researchers across the world have been trying to develop new
technology to make solar panels more effective at turning the sun in to energy.

Top ten producers

The top ten solar module producers (by GW shipments) in 2014 were: [25]

Producer Shipments (GW)

Yingli 3.2
Trina Solar 2.58
Sharp Solar 2.1
Canadian Solar 1.894
Jinko Solar 1.765
ReneSola 1.728
First Solar 1.6
Hanwha SolarOne 1.28
Kyocera 1.2
JA Solar 1.173

Price

See also: Grid parity

Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying
small quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range
buyers (typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self-
explanatory—and with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is
clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example in
2012 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60,
which was 250 times lower than the cost in 1970 of US$150. [26][27]

Real world prices depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy
country such as the United Kingdom, price per installed kW is higher than in
sunnier countries like Spain.

Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost

of non-microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and
various components) make up about half of the total costs of installations.

For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the
electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match
the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid
parity' or 'busbar parity'.[28]

Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power

directly to an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive
when the output cost matches the price at which the user pays for his
electricity consumption. This situation is sometimes called 'retail grid parity',
'socket parity' or 'dynamic grid parity'. [29] Research carried out by UN-Energy in
2012 suggests areas of sunny countries with high electricity prices, such as
Italy, Spain and Australia, and areas using diesel generators, have reached retail
grid parity.[28]
Mounting systems

Main article: Photovoltaic mounting system

Ground mounted

Ground mounted photovoltaic system are usually large, utility-scale solar

power plants. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are
attached to ground based mounting supports.[30][31]

Ground based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.

 Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

 Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground
penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where
excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies
decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems.

Roof mounting

Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by

racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports.[32]

Roof-based mounting supports include:

 Pole mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may
use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames.
  Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight
to secure the panel system in position and do not require through
penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or
relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof
structure.

 All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting

equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and
should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions

Trackers

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of
the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the
light.[33][34]

Fixed racks

Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The fixed
rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to an
installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on poles
above ground.[35]

Technicians installing photovoltaic modules on a roof-mounted rack

A roof-mounted solar panel system installed on a sloped roof using pole

mounts and rails

Solar modules mounted on a Walmart in Caguas, Puerto Rico

 Solar panels roof-mounted on a house in Yate, South Gloucestershire,
England

Solar panel maintenance

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20 percent range, is reduced

by dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar
panel. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30 percent
in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of
physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for
NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of
nanostructures.[36]

For non-self-cleaning solar arrays, regular cleaning from a professional window

washing company or by individuals can be performed on a regular schedule.
According to A1 The Clear Choice, a California based company that performs
commercial solar panel cleaning services, "Solar panels are similar to the
windows in your car, home or business. They get dirty from rain, dust, pollen,
soot, smog, auto emissions, chimney ashes, bird droppings, leaves and other
environmental debris. This dirt and debris blocks sunlight from being absorbed
into the panels, decreasing their efficiency. The result is less energy for use in
your business or for sale to your utility company."[37]

Standards

Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules:

 IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film

performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety)
  ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary.

 UL 1703 From Underwriters Laboratories

 UL 1741 From Underwriters Laboratories

 UL 2703 From Underwriters Laboratories

 CE mark

 Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110).

Devices with photovoltaic modules

Further information: Solar panels on spacecraft and Solar charger

Electric devices that includes solar modules:

 Solar plane

 Solar-pumped laser

 Solar vehicle

Space stations and various spacecraft employ, or have employed photovoltaic

modules to generate power.

 International Space Station

 Mir space station

 Skylab space laboratory

 Soyuz spacecraft
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