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CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
Circuit analysis the process of determining the voltage across or current through the element. There
are two types of element in circuit, passive element and another is active element. Active element is
capable of producing energy and passive element is not.
Resistor, inductor, capacitor are passive elements. Generator, batteries and Operational amplifier
are typical active elements
An ideal independent source is an active element which deliver the specified current or voltage
that is completely independent of other circuit elements
An ideal dependent source (or controlled source) is an active element in which the source quantity is
controlled by another element’s voltage or current. These controlled sources are indicates as
diamond symbols
OHM’S LAW:
The current through the a conductor between two points is directly proportional to the potential
difference across the two points( i v / r ).here r is proportional constant and also called as
resistance
All resistances are not obey the ohms law. The resistance which will obey the ohms law known as
linear resistance. A non linear resistance doesn’t obey the ohms law
Kirchhoff reformulate the ohm law as follows the current density (J) is directly proportional to
applied electric field (E). here conductivity( ) is the proportional constant ( J E )
Ohms law only valid up to temperature is kept at constant and it is dependent of nature of the
elements
Ohms law is not applicable for active sources (generator.etc) because the voltage and current
relation of the source is non linear
Conductivity is differ from conductance. The reciprocal of resistivity (or specific resistance) is
conductivity and the reciprocal of resistance is conductance. It can also stated as follows,
conductance is the ability of an element to conduct the electric current
At any node or junction, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents
flowing out of that node. Kirchhoff current law based on the conservation of charges.
Kirchhoff laws are applicable to any lumped electric circuit whether it linear, Non linear, variant ,
invariant, active or passive
The directed sum of the electrical potential differences around any closed network is zero. This law
is based on the conservation of energy
In KVL there is an assumption for no fluctuating magnetic field doesn’t involved in loop
CIRCUIT REDUCTIONS
NODAL ANALYSIS
Nodal analysis based on the KCL. The reference node is known as datum node
Mesh analysis based on the KVL. This method is only applicable for the planar circuits only. Planar
circuit means the circuit contains no elements which are cross the other elements
Mesh is the loop which doesn’t contain any other loops with in it
LINEARITY PROPERTY
Linear property of element describing a linear relationship between cause and effect or input and
output. The property is the combination of both homogeneity (scaling) property and addictive
property
The homogeneity property states that if the input is multiplied by constant K, then output also
multiple of constant K
The addictive property states that the response to a sum of inputs is the sum of the responses to
each input added separately
THEVENINS THEOREM
It states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a
voltage source VTH in series with a resistor RTH where VTH is the open circuit voltage at the terminals
and RTH is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off
Adding resistor or load in parallel system causes the increase in current flow as well as power flow,
but we have to understand the following things
The equivalent resistor of the network will be reduced after adding the new resistor or load. If the
new resistor value is lower than equivalent resistor(as before) then maximum current will flow
through the new resistor (due to very low resistance) and it takes the maximum power from source
Short circuit across R3 causes the the least path for current flow, so obviously R1 and R2 resistances
also negligible due to the short circuit. Even if the short circuit occurs at across the R2 then it also
make the short circuit for all parallel branches. Series resistance only taken in account if the short
circuit occurred at parallel branch (ex a diagram)
We take B diagram, here the short circuit occurred at across R3 resistance, so the current will doesn’t
flow through R3 and R2 due to the negligible resistance, but the current will also flow through the R1
because it was protected by R4 resistance
Hopkinson law is also known as ohms law for magnetic circuit. It states that the magneto motive
force( is equal to the product of flux and the reluctance
F m
INDUCTANCE:
The total flux produced by element is directly proportional to the flow of current ( Li ), here L is
the proportional constant
di
Voltage across the inductor is v L
dt
1
L
Current flow through the inductor i vdt
di
Instantaneous power of the inductor is p Li and the average power of the inductor is zero
dt
1 2
Energy stored in inductor is Li
2
CAPACITANCE:
The value of charge is directly proportional to applied voltage ( q Cv ) and the C is proportional
constant
Capacitance doesn’t depend on voltage or charge (from above equation). It only depends on the
physical dimensions
The leakage resistance is very high for the capacitor(around 100M ohm). It is due to the property of
dielectric medium. So in equivalent circuit the leakage resistance is placed parallel to capacitance
The voltage division rule only applicable for pure series circuits only(single loop). The current must
be same for validity of voltage division. Try avoid the this rule for kvl circuits which had a more loops
R1
v1 v
R1 R2
The current division rule is only applicable if there is only parallel elements(pure parallel ckt). In
simply words the current must be split in each branch. If any series element is found then avoid this
rule
R2
i1 i
R1 R2
TIME CONSTANT:
Time constant of the circuit is time required for the response to decay (while discharging)to a factor
of 1/e or 36.8% of its initial value or time required to reach the 63.2% of its original value(while
charging)
The two wattmeter method is used for measure the 3phase power whether load is balanced or
unbalanced. the idea of two wattmeter method is derived from measure the 3 phase power(4 wire
system) by using 3 wattmeter method. While connecting three wattmeter on each phase the voltage
must be connected in between of any two phase or with neutral. So any one of the wattmeter will
indicate the zero value(if the pressure coil is connected in the line voltage). So it is not necessary to
place it. We can remove the one wattmeter and 2 wattmeter is enough for measure the 3 phase
power
By blondal theorem to measure the power in N conductors there is N wattmeters required (each
current coil is connected in N lines and the one end of all pressure coil is connected to the common
point. This common point is not part of N conductor)if the common point is to be any one from N
conductors then N-1 wattmeter sufficiently. So two wattmeter method applicable for 3 ph 3 wire
system (if the common point is any one of the line) and 3ph 4wire system (we neglect the neutral
wire and common point should be placed in any one of the line)
3 phase power measurement by 3 wattmeter method
The total reactive power can be calculated by QT 3(P2 P1 ) , from above formula we can also
calculate the power factor by using following relation
3(P2 P1 ) Q
tan 1 because tan 1 T
(P2 P1 ) PT
From the result of two wattmeter we can conclude the following things
The z parameters of two port networks can be calculated by current and voltage (one port
must be open circuited) at one port and voltage and current of the another port. In simply
the process like a superposition theorem
Z11 is the open circuit input impedance Z12 is the open circuit transfer impedance from port
1 to port 2
Z11 and Z22 are called as driving point impedance. Z12 and Z21 are called transfer impedance
If Z11 = Z22 then two port network is said to be symmetrical network
When two port network is linear and doesn’t have any dependent source then transfer
impedance are equal (Z12 = Z21) and it said to be a reciprocal network
Generally Z parameters can findout easily if the network is T and findingout the Y
parameters easily if the network is PI
RULE FOR NETWORK TOPOLOGY:
(don’t memorize this formula, try to develop from any of the circuit model)
b l n 1
Here b is the no of branch, l is the no of independent loop and n is the no of nodes
BRIDGE CIRCUIT BASICS;
Bridge circuit is used to find out the unknown resistance or inductance or capacitance with
the help of known parameters. It contains galvanometer (for DC bridge, voltmeter or
ammeter for AC), resistance bridge, supply source
Zx
V2 Vs
Z3 Z x
Z2 Zx
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z x
While solving above equation we may get
Z 2 Z 3 Z1Z x (multiplication of diagonal element is easy trick for remember this formula)
POWER TRIANGLE
This triangle denotes the relation between apparent power, real power and reactive power.
This triangle can be drawn in two shapes which are based on the reactive power
V2
We all know the power formula for capacitor Pc . If we further simplify this equation
Xc
we get the following equation Pc CV 2
If we divide the required reactive power by capacitor power we get the dimensionless
numerical value. But we need the capacitance value so transferred C to the other side of the
equation)
While choosing the capacitor value it purely depends on the peak voltage. Always chosen
the capacitor voltage greater than circuit operating peak voltage
Example:
Find the value of capacitor to improve the load power factor to 0.95 from 0.8 while
connected in 120(rms) volt 60Hz power line and the load absorbs 4Kw real power?
Solution:
First the real power is the intermediate term for both reactive power calculation(don’t
forget this)
First find out the reactive power absorbed by the load at 0.8pf
4000/0.8 = 5KVA
(Most of us made a mistake by subtracting the real power form apparent power for find out
the reactive power. But it is wrong because these are vector quantity. So arithmetic
subtraction is invalid here)
40002+x2=50002
X= 3KVAR (this is the reactive power absorbed by the load at 0.8pf)
Now we have find out the new reactive power absorbed by the load at 0.95pf. be aware
here we only take a real power for the operation. Because it only constant in power factor
improvement. If we take apparent power for calculation we get the wrong result
4000/0.95= 4210.5KVA
The new reactive power is √4210.52 – 40002= 1314.6KVAR
Now find the difference of reactive power is 3000 – 1314.6 = 1685.6KVAR
Now apply the formula
1685.6/2*pi*1202 =310.5microF
Calculations are based on RMS values only. But chosen of capacitance depends the peak
voltage
SERIES RESONANCE
Resonance is the one of the frequency response of the RLC circuit. It may series or parallel
circuit. When XL=Xc the net reactance will be zero( be aware not L=R). the total current flow
only depends on the resistance only in series resonance. Because Z = R in resonance.so the
power factor is unity. Impedance and voltage is minimum at series resonance
At resonance condition XL=XC, solving this equation we may get the resonance frequency
1
formula f 0
2 LC
At resonance condition the current in series RLC circuit will be maximum. So maximum
power delivered at resonant frequency.
Two frequencies which are near to the resonant frequency is known as cut off frequencies
or half power frequencies or 3dB points. Upper cut off frequency is slightly higher than
resonant frequency. Lower cut off frequency is the slightly lesser than resonant frequency.
The cut off frequencies are marked at where the current is 1/√2 times of peak value.(that’s
why it is called half power frequency. Because i/√2*v/√2 = p/2)
Q factor defined in many ways for the resonance circuit. It is defined as the ratio of the
voltage across the inductor or capacitor to the applied voltage
Solving by above definition we may get the following Q = V C/V
Q = iXc/iR = ωL/R (incase of inductor)
Q = 1/ωCR (incase of capacitor)
Q = (1/R)√LC (common formula)
max .energy stored
Q factor also defined as Q 2 this also gives same formula
energy, dissipated / cycle
Bandwidth defined as the area where the current limit is in between 1/√2 to maximum. In
simple way it is the area where the power is greater than or equal to half power of the
circuit. Mathematically band width is calculated as the difference of half power frequencies
f0
Q or selectivity = here f 2 f1 is band width
f 2 f1
Q factor also defined in the term of band width (Q = resonant frequency/ band width). This
is also known as selectivity. Selectivity is the ability of the circuit for respond to a certain
frequency
From above we may also get the voltage across the inductor or capacitor. It should be Q
times of supply voltage.(Vc or VL greater than supply voltage)
Resonant frequency can be also denoted in terms of cut off frequencies ( 0 12 )
We can derive the various formulas by comparing all Q factor formula. Try to find the band
width formula interms of R,L,C
PARALLEL RESONANCE
In parallel resonance circuit(also known as tuned circuit or rejector circuit or anti resonant
circuit) XL=XC but here current is minimum and the voltage is maximum or impedance is
maximum or current is minimum(because capacitor and inductor are connected in parallel).
The power factor is unity
The resonant frequency is calculated by the following formula which is also same for series
1
resonance f 0
2 LC