 Nuclides and their classification : In the

case of nucleus, different types of nuclei

are termed nuclides.
 A nuclide is characterized by its mass
number (A) and by its atomic number
(Z).
 The mass number of nuclide is the sum
of the number of its protons(Z) &
neutron(A). A=Z+N.
 Nuclides are classified : according to
their mass number, and atomic number.
 Isobars : Same atomic mass number
 Isotopes : Same number of proton

 Isotones : Same number of neutron

 isomers : Same mass number, same
atomic number , same number of
neutrons.
 Ground State : The lowest possible
arrangement of nucleons in the nucleus
is known as the ground state.
 Excited State : The higher shells are
commonly referred to as energy levels as
excited states.
 Radionuclides and Stability : Even in
their ground state, nuclides are unstable.
These unstable nuclides are called
radionuclides.
 These try to become stable by emitting
electromegnatic radiation or charged
particles called radioactive decay.
 Two kind of forces , strong
force(attractive) and electromagnetic
force(repulsive) determines the stability
of nuclide.
 There are approximately 259 stable
nuclides found in nature.
 Radioactive series or Chain : A
Radionuclide tries to attain stability
through radioactive.
 The stability may be achieved either by
direct (means single step) decay to a
stable nuclide or by decaying to several
radionuclide in multiple steps and finally
to a stable nuclide i directly decays to
131 54

a stable nuclide Xe .
131 54

 on the other hand Ra first decay Rn

226 88 22 86

next to Po and finally Pb a stable

218 84 210 82

nuclide.
 Radioactive Processes and Conservation Laws
 Three process Alpha decay , Beta decay and
gamma decay .
 Three Conservation laws are :
 The law of conservation of energy: it states that
the total energy(mass energy+ kinetic energy +
energy in any other form) remains unchanged
during a radioactive process or no clear
transformation.
 The law of conservation of mass number: it
states that the sum of mass number remains
unchanged in nuclear process.
 The law of conservation of electric charge: it
states that the total charge during a
radioactive process or nuclear transformation
remains unchanged.
 Alpha Decay (α ):
 In alpha decay radionuclide emits a heavy
charged particle called a alpha particle.
 An alpha particle is four times heavier than
a proton or neutron and carries an electric
charge that that is twice that of a proton .
 In fact an alpha particle is stable nuclide
with atomic mass number A = 4 and atomic
number Z = 2 . This happens to be the
nucleus of a helium atom.
 .
 Example of alpha decay of radium 226
to radon 222.
 Two salient facts concerning alpha
decay to remember are that it occurs
mostly with radionuclide whose atomic
mass number A is greater than 150 and
the kinetic energy of the emitted alpha
particle is fixed and discrete for a given
decay
 In the above example of 226Ra22 alpha
decay , the kinetic energy of alpha
particle emitted is 4.780 MeV
 BETA DECAY
Beta particles are negatively charged
electrons emitted by the nucleus.
 The mass of an electron is a tiny
fraction of an atomic mass unit, mass of
a nucleus that undergoes beta decay
is changed by only a tiny amount.
 The mass number is unchanged. The
nucleus contains no electrons.
Rather, b decay occurs.

 when a neutron is changed into a
proton within the nucleus. An unseen
neutrino, , accompanies
each b decay.
 The number of protons, and thus the
atomic number, is increased by one.
 For example :
 the isotope 14C is unstable and emits a
β particle, becoming the stable
isotope 14N:
 In a stable nucleus, the neutron does not
decay.
 A free neutron, or one bound in a
nucleus that has an excess of neutrons,
can decay by emitting a b particle.
 Sharing the energy with the b particle is
a neutrino.
 The neutrino has little or no mass and is
uncharged, but, like the photon, it
carries momentum and energy.
 The source of the energy released
in b decay is explained by the fact that
the mass of the parent isotope is larger
than the sum of the masses of the decay
products.
 Mass is converted into energy just as
Einstein predicted.
 Electron capture: A proton inside the
nucleus is converted into a neutron by
capturing an electron from once of the
atomic shell. The probability of a capture
from the k shell is generally much higher
than that from the L or M shell.
 γ Decay: Gamma rays are a type
of electromagnetic radiation that results
from a redistribution of electric charge
within a nucleus. A gamma ray is a high
energy photon.
 The only thing which distinguishes a g ray
from the visible photons emitted by a
light bulb is its wavelength; the g ray's
wavelength is much shorter.
 For complex nuclei there are many
different possible ways in which the
neutrons and protons can be arranged
within the nucleus.
 Gamma rays can be emitted when a
nucleus undergoes a transition from one
such configuration to another.
 For example, this can occur when the
shape of the nucleus undergoes a
change.
 Neither the mass number nor the atomic
number is changed when a nucleus
emits a g ray in the reaction.
 152Dy* ----> 152Dy + γ
 High energy photon emission: in this
process, the excess energy of an isomer
is released in the form of high energy
photon known as a y-ray.
 Internal conversion: sometimes a nuclide
in an excited state, instead of emitting a
y-ray, transfer its excess energy directly
to an orbital electron.
 The ratio of the number of electron to
the number y-ray emitted by a collection
of excited nuclei is called coefficient of
internal conversion(ic) for the excited
state.
 Ic= total number of electron emitted
 total number of y-ray emitted